Sengunthar: Difference between revisions

Sengunthar
Sengunthar
	Virabahu and 8 other Navaveerargal under Lord Kartikeya on the wall of Chidambaram temple
Kuladevta (male)	Kartikeya
Kuladevi (female)	Kamakshi Amman, Angalamman Parameswari
Religions	Hinduism
Languages	Tamil
Populated states	Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry, Sri Lanka
Feudal title	Mudaliar, Cholagangan, Brahmmarayan, Vijayarayan
Notable members	List of Sengunthars
Related groups	Kaikalas of Andhra

← Older edit

VisualWikitext

Latest revision as of 22:12, 24 March 2026

Sengunthar (tt), also known as the Kaikolar and Senguntha Mudaliar, is a caste commonly found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and the country of Sri Lanka. In Andhra Pradesh, they are known as Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu, who consider the early Chola emperor Karikala Chola as their hero.^[4] They were warriors of Cholas and traditionally textile merchants or silk weavers by occupation.^[5] Ottakoothar, a 12th-century court poet and rajaguru of Cholas under the reigns of Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II, and Rajaraja Chola II is also a part of this caste. They were a part of the Ayyavolu 500 merchant guild during the Chola period which played a significant role in the Chola invasion of Srivijaya empire.^[5] In the olden days in India, Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.^[6] In the early thirteenth century, after the fall of Chola Empire, a large number of Kaikolars migrated to Kongu Nadu from Tondaimandalam and started doing weaving and textile businesses as their full time profession due to their oath to only serve Chola emperors. In the present day, most of the textile businesses in Tamil Nadu are owned by Senguntha Mudaliars. The majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a patrilineal lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The name Kaikkolar comes from the words kai (hand) and kol (a shuttle used in looms). The appended -ar means people.^[7] Kaikkolar can also mean men with stronger arms.^[8]^[9]

Sengunthar means red spear people, which is a reference to Lord Murugan, who is also known as the red god. According to legends, there were nine commanders called Navaveerargal in Murugan's army, and Sengunthars descended from them.^[7]

In ancient times they were also known as Kaarugar (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), Senguntha padaiyar (soldiers), Senaithalaivar (army commander) and Kaikolar (weaver).^[10]

Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.^[11] The 12th century Chola emperor's court poet and minister Ottakoothar's Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as Mudaliars during the Imperial Chola period.^[12]

Mudali means first, suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.^[13]^[14] They also used the title Nayanar after their names.^[15]

History[edit | edit source]

Origin[edit | edit source]

In mythology, Shiva was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, Parvati, was frightened, and retired to her chamber and dropped nine beads from her anklets while doing so. Shiva converted the beads into nine females, who each birthed one hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely Virabahu,^[16] Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar, with the god of war Kartikeya at their head, marched in command of a large force and destroyed the demons. The Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Shiva that they must adopt a profession which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature. They were trained in weaving. Chithira Valli, the daughter of Virabahu, one of the nine heroes, married King Musukuntha Chola. The descendants of the nine heroes and King Musukuntha are claimed to be the first generation of Sengunthars.^[7]^[17]

Chola period[edit | edit source]

The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthars occurs in Adhi Diwakaram, a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, refers to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.^[18]

Cholan Poorva Pattayam, a copper-plate inscription, reveals information about Karikala Chola, the conquest of the Kongu region, and the settling of the colonies with various occupational castes like Sengunthars. During this period, Sengunthars received the title of Samaya Senapati, meaning commander or head.^[19]

Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the Chola dynasty, the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the Ayyavole 500 trading group during the Chola period. There are also references in the 12th century suggesting they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet Ottakoothar glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.^[20]

They were militarized during the Imperial Chola period, when some of them held the title Brahmadaraya or Brahmmarayan, which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola Gangan' from the evidence "Kaikolaril Kali Avinasi Yaana Ellam Valla Chola Gangan", which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.^[21]

Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as Samanta Senapathigal^[22] or Senaithalaivar.^[23]^[22]

In the early thirteenth century a large number of Kaikolars migrated to Kongu Nadu from Tondaimandalam^[24] after the fall of the Chola Empire.

Vijayanagara period[edit | edit source]

After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.^[25]^[26]^[27] During the reign of Sadasiva Raya in the Vijayanagara Empire, the priests of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.^[28]^[29]

In 14th century, Kottaiyannan Mudaliar, a chieftain who was ruling Namakkal and surrounding regions fought against Muslim invaders when they invaded south India. Chandramathi Mudaliar was a 17th-century Tamil chieftain and ruler of south Kongu Nadu (Erode region) who fought many battles against the Madurai Nayak.

Sengunthars attained positions of responsibility at the two major Vaishnavite temples of Srirangam and Tirupati. In Tirupati, they were in charge of distributing the consecrated food offerings to the worshippers. Many Sengunthar families were rich enough to contribute both land and gold to temples.

In the 16th century, some of the Sengunthar migrated to Kerala from Tamil Nadu.^[24]

Multiple clans of Sengunthars were appointed as poets for 24 provinces of Kongu Mandalam for their proficiency in the Tamil language. These poets were granted rights over land, tax, and ritual privilege during festive occasions for their service.^[30]

Traditions and festivals[edit | edit source]

Among Sengunthars, abstaining from alcohol and sex is valued. Meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent.^[31] Sengunthars practice both vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.^[32]

Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own Kula Deivam (deity). Sengunthars share Murugan as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as Angalamman or Ambayamman.^[1]

The Sura Samharam festival is a traditional ritual where Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of Karthikeya and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.^[33]

Tamil Nadu[edit | edit source]

Sengunthars have rights to hold festivals at Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple at Palani, the third of the six abodes of Lord Murugan because they are descendants of the nine original heroes who helped Lord Murugan at the battle of Sura Samharam. During the festival, according to a traditional ritual, Sengunthars dress as the nine lieutenants of Murugan and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran in the temple.

Andhra Pradesh[edit | edit source]

In Andhra Pradesh, Sengunthars are also known as Kaikalas or Karikala Bhakthulu. They consider the early Chola emperor Karikala Chola as their hero. Karikala Chola is said to have conquered the Andhra region around the 3rd century CE and converted forest lands in the state into agricultural lands. There is a bronze statue of Karikala Chola and a Satram in his name at Srisailam. The Kaikalas form a part of the Thathayagunta Gangamma Jatara, the annual folk festival held at Tirupati.

Sri Lanka[edit | edit source]

In the flag hoisting ceremony at the Nallur Kandaswamy temple, the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in the old Jaffna Kingdom have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry it at the Sura Samharam festival. During the flag ceremony, the houses of Sengunthars are decorated with curtains which have pictures of the rooster, the vehicle of Lord Murugan.^[34]^[35]

Subgroups[edit | edit source]

There are subgroups of the caste based on their traditions.

Siru Thaali Kaikolar[edit | edit source]

Siru Thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami Katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom that is now defunct.^[36] Women of this subclass wear small size of the Mangala Sutra. Due to this, the Mangala Sutra is also called a Thali, from the name of the subclass.^[37] They are mainly found in the Erode, Salem and Namakkal districts.^[38]

Perun Thaali Kaikolar or Kongu Kaikolar[edit | edit source]

Perun Thaali Kaikolars are also known as Kongu Kaikolars and Vellai Seelai Kaikkolars. Women of this section wear a big size of the Mangala Sutra or Thali. Widows belonging to this sub-class wear white saris. They are mainly found in Coimbatore and the Bhavani River Belt in Erode.

Rattukaara Kaikolar[edit | edit source]

Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar, are traditional carpet makers. They are mainly found in the western region of Tamil Nadu in the Chola Nadu.^[37]

Thalaikooda Mudaliyar[edit | edit source]

Thalaikooda Mudaliyar are originally from Koorainaadu in the Tanjore district of Chola Nadu.^[39] Today, they can be found in Pondicherry.^[40]

Maduraiyar[edit | edit source]

Maiduraiyars are from Pandya Nadu. They wear the Meenakshi Sundareswarar thali.

Current status[edit | edit source]

Sengundhars are a relatively high ranking caste who are close in the status to the Vellalars.^[41] They are currently listed as a Backward Class (BC) in both Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, where they are provided certain reservations in education and public employment.^[42]^[43]

The Government of Kerala has not listed the Sengunthar community in the state's Backward Class list. According to the Kerala government's official stance, Sengunthars are not considered socially or economically backward. However, the Kaikolan community is mentioned in the Other Backward Castes list for both state and central-level reservations in Kerala.^[44]^[45]

Literary references[edit | edit source]

Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu^[46] is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.^[47]^{[full citation needed]} The collection contains:
Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram
Eetti Ezhubathu, the main literary work about Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of Rajaraja Chola II. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.^[48]
Ezhupezhubathu, a sequel to Eetti Ezhubathu written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.
Kalipporubathu, a collection of ten stanzas compiled by Kulothunga Chola III. These stanzas were written after Ezhupezhubathu to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III
Thirukkai Vazhakkam, which describes the good deeds of Sengunthars and their Saivite religious principles. It was written by Puhalendi.
Sengunthar Silaakkiyar Malai was written by Kanchi Virabadhra Desigar. It describes the legends and eminent personalities of the Sengunthar community.

Notes[edit | edit source]

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 Mines 1984, pp. 62–64
↑ Mines, Mattison (1994). Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India. University of California Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780520084797.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
↑ "National Commission for Backward Classes". www.ncbc.nic.in. Retrieved 26 June 2023.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Mines 1984, p. 11.
↑ David, Kenneth (1977). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. ISBN 9027979596.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 Mines 1984, pp. 54–55
↑ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 491. ISBN 978-8-12241-198-0.
↑ V, Sudarsen; Reddy, G. Prakash; M, Suryanarayana (1987). Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 97. ISBN 9788170184355.
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
↑ David, Kenneth (1977). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. ISBN 9027979596.
↑ Kan̲n̲iyappan̲, Civa (1996). Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum [Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet] (in தமிழ்). Mullai Nilaiyam. p. 51. சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது
↑ Barnett, Marguerite Ross (2015). The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India. Princeton University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-40086-718-9.
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
↑ Vink, Markus (2005). Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Brill. p. 218. ISBN 9789004272620.
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 231. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
↑ Ghose, Rajeshwari (1996). The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 78–82. ISBN 9788120813915.
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
↑ Vijaya Ramaswamy (1982). "Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History. The Indian Economic & Social History Review". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 19 (1): 47–62. doi:10.1177/001946468201900103.
↑ Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003). The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN 9781139440745.
↑ S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary (2000). Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift. Harman Pub. House. p. 114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ ^22.0 ^22.1 Manickam, V. (2001). Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400. Makkal Veliyeedu.
↑ Asher, Catherine (2006). India Before Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521809047.
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Routledge. pp. 172–174. ISBN 9781351558259.
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press.^{[page needed]}
↑ Mines 1984
↑ de Neve, Geert (2005). The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy. Berghahn Books. ISBN 9788187358183.^{[page needed]}
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press.^{[page needed]}
↑ Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar^{[full citation needed]}
↑ Vijaya Ramaswamy, ed. (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Taylor & Francis. pp. 28–33. ISBN 9781351558259.
↑ Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". American Ethnologist. 9 (3): 467–484. doi:10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020. JSTOR 643998.
↑ Mines 1984, pp. 15
↑ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1982). "Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 19: 47–62. doi:10.1177/001946468201900103. S2CID 145467633.
↑ Dr. Kumar Vadivel. "Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple". The Island (Sri Lanka). Nallur, Sri Lanka: Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
↑ "Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins". TamilNet. Nallur, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 10 August 2005.
↑ Mines 1984, pp. 172
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 Mines 1984, pp. 24–25
↑ Mines 1984, pp. 169
↑ Mines 1984, pp. 27
↑ Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". American Ethnologist. 9 (3): 477. doi:10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020. JSTOR 643998.
↑ Mines 1984, pp. 13
↑ "List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu". Government of Tamil Nadu.
↑ "Central list of backward classes". Government of India.
↑ "State list of Other Backward Classes in Kerala". Government of Kerala.
↑ "Central list of Other Backward Classes in Kerala". Government of Kerala.
↑ Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
↑ The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics. Vikas Publishing House. 1982.
↑ Spuler, Bertold (1975). Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004041905. Retrieved 4 December 2011.

References[edit | edit source]

Mines, Mattison (1984). The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521267144.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|Hindu caste of weavers}}
+{{Short description|Hindu caste of Kaikolar warriors and textile merchants}}
+{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
 {{infobox caste
 | caste_name             = Sengunthar
-| image            =
+| image            = Veerabahu navaveerargal painting.jpg
-| caption          =
+| caption          = [[Virabahu]] and 8 other Navaveerargal under Lord [[Kartikeya]] on the wall of [[Chidambaram temple]]
-|kula_daivat = [[Murugan]]<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mines|first=Mattison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7YwDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkoolars+consider+murugan+their+caste+god&pg=PA113|title=Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India |date=1994|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520084797 |pages=113 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |page=47|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>
+|kula_daivat = [[Kartikeya]]<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mines|first=Mattison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7YwDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkoolars+consider+murugan+their+caste+god&pg=PA113|title=Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India |date=1994|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520084797 |pages=113 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ramaswamy 1985 47">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |page=47|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>
-| religions              = [[Hinduism]] [[Saivam]] Veera Saivam
+| religions              = [[Hinduism]]
-| languages              = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu Language|Telugu]]
+| languages              = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
-| populated_states       = [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Pondicherry]], [[Kerala]], [[Sri Lanka]]
+| populated_states       = [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]], [[Sri Lanka]]
-|family_names=[[Mudaliar]], Nayanar|related=[[Kaikala|Kaikalas of Andhra]]|notable_members=[[List of Sengunthars]]}}
+|related=[[Kaikala|Kaikalas of Andhra]]|notable_members=[[List of Sengunthars]]|kula_devi=[[Kamakshi Amman Temple|Kamakshi Amman]],<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985 47">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |page=47|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref> [[Angala Devi|Angalamman Parameswari]]|feudal_title=[[Mudaliar]], Cholagangan, Brahmmarayan, Vijayarayan}}
+'''Sengunthar''' ({{IPA|tt|sɛŋkʊnʈɻ|}}), also known as the '''Kaikolar''' and '''Senguntha [[Mudaliar]],''' is a caste commonly found in the Indian states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] and the country of [[Sri Lanka]]. In [[Andhra Pradesh]], they are known as [[Kaikalas|Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu]], who consider the early Chola emperor [[Karikala|Karikala Chola]] as their hero.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Commission for Backward Classes |url=http://www.ncbc.nic.in/user_panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvYBtdZSrP4uO+ploAhiJHMALWmHIwbzS8Il37YLL3Fb0FHfWDHzP7c |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=www.ncbc.nic.in}}</ref> They were [[warrior]]s of [[Chola]]s and traditionally [[textile]] [[merchant]]s or [[silk]] [[Weaving|weavers]] by occupation.{{sfn|Mines|1984|p=11}} [[Ottakoothar]], a 12th-century court poet and rajaguru of [[Cholas]] under the reigns of [[Vikrama Chola]], [[Kulothunga II|Kulothunga Chola II]], and [[Rajaraja II|Rajaraja Chola II]] is also a part of this caste. They were a part of the [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavolu 500 merchant guild]] during the Chola period which played a significant role in the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|Chola invasion of Srivijaya empire]].{{sfn|Mines|1984|p=11}} In the olden days in India, Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title [[Mudaliar]] for their bravery.<ref>{{cite book |last=David |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology) |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977) |year=1977 |isbn=9027979596 |pages=188}}</ref> In the early thirteenth century, after the fall of [[Chola Empire]], a large number of Kaikolars migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]] and started doing weaving and textile businesses as their full time profession due to their oath to only serve Chola emperors. In the present day, most of the textile businesses in Tamil Nadu are owned by Senguntha Mudaliars. The majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a [[patrilineal]] lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.
-'''Sengunthar''' ({{IPA-tt|sɛŋkʊnʈɻ|}}), also known as the '''Kaikolar''' and '''Senguntha [[Mudaliar]]''' is a caste commonly found in the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] and also in some other parts of South India and the neighboring country [[Sri Lanka]]. In [[Andhra Pradesh]], they are called as [[Kaikalas|Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu]], who consider [[Karikala|Karikala Chola]] as their hero.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Commission for Backward Classes |url=http://www.ncbc.nic.in/user_panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvYBtdZSrP4uO+ploAhiJHMALWmHIwbzS8Il37YLL3Fb0FHfWDHzP7c |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=www.ncbc.nic.in}}</ref> They were traditional [[Weaving|weavers]] by occupation and [[warrior]]s by ancient heritage.{{sfn|Mines|1984|p=11}} They were part of the [[Chola military|Chola army]] as Kaikola regiment and were dominant during the rule of medieval [[Chola dynasty]].<ref name=":0">Martial races of undivided India by Vidya Prakash Tyagi 2009 Page 278 https://www.google.com/books?id=vRwS6FmS2g0C</ref> In the olden days in India, the Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title [[Mudaliar]] for their bravery.<ref>{{cite book |last=David |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology) |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977) |year=1977 |isbn=9027979596 |pages=188}}</ref> Majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a [[patrilineal]] lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.
 ==Etymology==
-The ancient occupational name of ''Kaikkolar'' comes from the words ''kai'' (hand) and ''kol'' (a shuttle used in looms). The appended ''-ar'' means ''people''.<ref name="Mines2">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=54–55}}</ref> ''Kaikkolar'' also means men with stronger arms.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |publisher=New Age International |year=1999 |isbn=978-8-12241-198-0 |page=491}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0pTXAAAAMAAJ|title=Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana|first1=Sudarsen|last1=V|first2=G. Prakash|last2=Reddy|first3=Suryanarayana|last3=M|year=1987 |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|page=97|isbn=9788170184355 }}</ref>
+The name ''Kaikkolar'' comes from the words ''kai'' (hand) and ''kol'' (a shuttle used in looms). The appended ''-ar'' means ''people''.<ref name="Mines2">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=54–55}}</ref> ''Kaikkolar'' can also mean men with stronger arms.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |publisher=New Age International |year=1999 |isbn=978-8-12241-198-0 |page=491}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0pTXAAAAMAAJ|title=Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana|first1=Sudarsen|last1=V|first2=G. Prakash|last2=Reddy|first3=Suryanarayana|last3=M|year=1987 |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|page=97|isbn=9788170184355 }}</ref>
-''Sengunthar'' means ''red spear people'', which has the community’s connection to the Lord [[Murugan]], who is known as a red god. Legend has it that there were nine commanders called ''Navaveerargal'' in Murugan’s army and Sengunthar descended from them.<ref name="Mines2"/>
+''Sengunthar'' means ''red spear people'', which is a reference to Lord [[Murugan]], who is also known as the red god. According to legends, there were nine commanders called ''Navaveerargal'' in Murugan's army, and Sengunthars descended from them.<ref name="Mines2"/>
-In ancient times they were also called as ''Kaarugar'' (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), ''Senguntha padaiyar'' (soldiers), ''Senaithalaivar'' (army commander) and ''Kaikolar'' (Weaver).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=+diwakaram |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>
+In ancient times they were also known as ''Kaarugar'' (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), ''Senguntha padaiyar'' (soldiers), ''Senaithalaivar'' (army commander) and ''Kaikolar'' (weaver).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=+diwakaram |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>
-Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology)|first=Kenneth|last=David|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977)|year=1977|pages=188|isbn=9027979596}}</ref> The twelfth century Chola emperor's court poet and minister [[Ottakoothar]]’s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as Mudaliars during the [[Later Chola]] period.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML8yAAAAMAAJ&q=அவர்+வழியில்+தோன்றினமையால்+செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு+முதலியார்|title=Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum|trans-title=Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet|first=Civa|last= Kan̲n̲iyappan̲|publisher= Mullai Nilaiyam|year=1996|pages=51|language=ta|quote=சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது}}</ref>
+Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology)|first=Kenneth|last=David|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977)|year=1977|pages=188|isbn=9027979596}}</ref> The 12th century Chola emperor's court poet and minister [[Ottakoothar]]'s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as [[Mudaliar]]s during the [[Later Chola|Imperial Chola]] period.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML8yAAAAMAAJ&q=அவர்+வழியில்+தோன்றினமையால்+செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு+முதலியார்|title=Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum|trans-title=Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet|first=Civa|last= Kan̲n̲iyappan̲|publisher= Mullai Nilaiyam|year=1996|pages=51|language=ta|quote=சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது}}</ref>
-''Mudali'' means ''first'', suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFF9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236|title=The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India|last=Barnett|first=Marguerite Ross|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-40086-718-9|page=236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=229}}</ref> They had also used the title ''Nayanar'' after their names.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaW8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |first=Markus |last=Vink |publisher=Brill |year=2005 |isbn=9789004272620|page=218}}</ref>
+''Mudali'' means ''first'', suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFF9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236|title=The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India|last=Barnett|first=Marguerite Ross|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-40086-718-9|page=236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=229}}</ref> They also used the title ''Nayanar'' after their names.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaW8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |first=Markus |last=Vink |publisher=Brill |year=2005 |isbn=9789004272620|page=218}}</ref>
 ==History==
 ===Origin===
-[[Shiva]] was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, [[Parvati]], was frightened, and retired to her chamber and in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely [[Veerabaahu|Virabahu]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=231}}</ref> Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar with [[Subrahmanya]] at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature and weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it. Chithira valli, daughter of Virabahu, one of the above commanders was married to King Musukuntha Cholan . The descendants of Navaveerargal and Musukunthan were claimed as first generation of Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines2"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORwNmkDswqwC&q=Mucukuntan |first=Rajeshwari |last=Ghose|title=The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation|pages=78–82 |year=1996 |isbn=9788120813915 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref>
+In mythology, [[Shiva]] was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, [[Parvati]], was frightened, and retired to her chamber and dropped nine beads from her anklets while doing so. Shiva converted the beads into nine females, who each birthed one hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely [[Veerabaahu|Virabahu]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=231}}</ref> Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar, with the god of war [[Subrahmanya|Kartikeya]] at their head, marched in command of a large force and destroyed the demons. The Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Shiva that they must adopt a profession which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature. They were trained in weaving. Chithira Valli, the daughter of Virabahu, one of the nine heroes, married King Musukuntha Chola. The descendants of the nine heroes and King Musukuntha are claimed to be the first generation of Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines2"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORwNmkDswqwC&q=Mucukuntan |first=Rajeshwari |last=Ghose|title=The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation|pages=78–82 |year=1996 |isbn=9788120813915 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref>
 ===Chola period===
-The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthar occurs in ''Adhi Diwakaram'', a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, is thought to refer to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=15 |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |year=1985|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4 }}</ref>
+The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthars occurs in ''Adhi Diwakaram'', a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, refers to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=15 |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |year=1985|isbn=978-0-19-561705-4}}</ref>
-Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the [[Chola dynasty]], the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole 500 trading group]] during the Chola period and there are also references in the 12th century that suggest they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet [[Ottakoothar]] glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.<ref name="sinopoli">{{cite book |title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650 |first=Carla M. |last=Sinopoli |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781139440745 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA188 |page=188}}</ref>
+''Cholan Poorva Pattayam'', a copper-plate inscription, reveals information about [[Karikala Chola]], the conquest of the [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu]] region, and the settling of the colonies with various occupational castes like Sengunthars. During this period, Sengunthars received the title of Samaya Senapati, meaning commander or head.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001946468201900103|title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History. The Indian Economic & Social History Review.|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |year=1982|volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=47–62|doi=10.1177/001946468201900103|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
-They were militarized during the medieval [[Chola]] period, when some of them held the title ''Brahmadaraya'' or ''Brahmamarayan'', which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola gangan' from the evidence "kaikolaril kali avinasi yaana ellam valla chola gangan" ,which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift|author=S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary|publisher=Harman Pub. House |year=2000|page=114}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2019}}
+Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the [[Chola dynasty]], the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole 500 trading group]] during the Chola period. There are also references in the 12th century suggesting they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet Ottakoothar glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.<ref name="sinopoli">{{cite book |title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650 |first=Carla M. |last=Sinopoli |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781139440745 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA188 |page=188}}</ref>
-Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as ''Samanta Senapathigal''<ref name="manickam"/>{{Page needed|date=April 2014}} or ''Senaithalaivar''.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA83 |title=India Before Europe |first= Catherine |last=Asher |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521809047}}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2018}}<ref name="manickam">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTRuAAAAMAAJ&q=terinja+kaikkolar |title=Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400 |first=V. |last=Manickam |publisher=Makkal Veliyeedu |year=2001}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}
+They were militarized during the [[Imperial Cholas|Imperial Chola]] period, when some of them held the title ''Brahmadaraya'' or ''Brahmmarayan'', which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola Gangan' from the evidence "''Kaikolaril Kali Avinasi Yaana Ellam Valla Chola Gangan''", which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift|author=S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary|publisher=Harman Pub. House |year=2000|page=114}}</ref>
-According to Vijaya Ramaswamy, in early thirteenth century large number of Kaikolars were migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]].<ref name="Ramaswamy 66">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkolar|title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |pages=172–174|isbn=9781351558259 }}</ref>
+Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as ''Samanta Senapathigal''<ref name="manickam" /> or ''Senaithalaivar''.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA83 |title=India Before Europe |first= Catherine |last=Asher |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521809047}}</ref><ref name="manickam">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTRuAAAAMAAJ&q=terinja+kaikkolar |title=Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400 |first=V. |last=Manickam |publisher=Makkal Veliyeedu |year=2001}}</ref>
+In the early thirteenth century a large number of Kaikolars migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]]<ref name="Ramaswamy 66">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkolar|title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |pages=172–174|isbn=9781351558259 }}</ref> after the fall of the [[Chola Empire]].
 ===Vijayanagara period===
-After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985" /><ref name="Mines3">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984}}</ref><ref name="de Neve 2005">{{cite book |title=The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy |first=Geert |last=de Neve |publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2005 |isbn=9788187358183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC}}{{page needed|date=November 2013}}</ref>
+After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985">{{cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Mines3">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984}}</ref><ref name="de Neve 2005">{{cite book |title=The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy |first=Geert |last=de Neve |publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2005 |isbn=9788187358183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC}}{{page needed|date=November 2013}}</ref> During the reign of [[Sadasiva Raya]] in the  [[Vijayanagara Empire]], the priests of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.<ref name="Ramaswamy 198522">{{cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Kumar22">Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}</ref>
-According to Deepak Kumar, the Sengunthar weavers very often figure in the capacity of kudi, i.e. tenant-cultivators and also holders of kaniyachi, that is hereditary possession over the land.<ref name="Kumar">Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}</ref> During the period of [[Sadasiva Raya]] of Vijayanagara empire, the sthanathar of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985">{{cite book |title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Kumar" />
-According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, in 1418 in Tiruvannamalai temple, Sengunthars were given the right to blow the conch, ride palanquins and elephants and wave the temple fly whisk.<ref>{{cite book |title=Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies |editor-first=Ruth |editor-last=Barnes |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |page=27 |isbn=978-1-13443-040-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3mCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |first=Himanshu Prabha |last=Ray |chapter=Far-flung fabrics - Indian textiles in ancient maritime trade}}</ref> In 16th century some of the Kaikolars were migrated to Kerala region from Tamil region.<ref name="Ramaswamy 66"/>
+In 14th century, Kottaiyannan Mudaliar, a chieftain who was ruling [[Namakkal district|Namakkal]] and surrounding regions fought against Muslim invaders when they invaded south India. [[Chandramathi Mudaliar]] was a 17th-century [[Tamils|Tamil]] chieftain and ruler of south [[Kongu Nadu]] (Erode region) who fought many battles against the [[Madurai Nayak]].
+Sengunthars attained positions of responsibility at the two major [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] temples of [[Srirangam]] and [[Tirupati]]. In Tirupati, they were in charge of distributing the consecrated food offerings to the worshippers. Many Sengunthar families were rich enough to contribute both land and gold to temples.
+In the 16th century, some of the Sengunthar migrated to Kerala from Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Ramaswamy 66" />
+Multiple clans of Sengunthars were appointed as poets for 24 provinces of [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu Mandalam]] for their proficiency in the Tamil language. These poets were granted rights over land, tax, and ritual privilege during festive occasions for their service.<ref>{{cite book |title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India |editor= Vijaya Ramaswamy |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2017 |pages=28–33 |isbn=9781351558259 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&dq=sengunthar+bank&pg=PA30 }}</ref>
 ==Traditions and festivals==
-Among Sengunthar Both alcoholic and sexual abstinence are valued, as is control of the passions. But when they are concerned with the sacred locus of the interior, meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent. Senaithalaivar thus follow both a priestly model and a Tamil tradition.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=467–484 |doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> The ''Kaikola Teesikar'' or ''Desigar'' who were non-Brahmin priest at temples of [[Murugan]]. Sengunthar community practices both the vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.<ref name="Mines 5">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=15}}</ref>
+Among Sengunthars, abstaining from alcohol and sex is valued. Meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=467–484 |doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> Sengunthars practice both vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.<ref name="Mines 5">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=15}}</ref>
 Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own ''Kula Deivam'' (deity). Sengunthars share [[Murugan]] as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as [[Ankalamma|Angalamman]] or Ambayamman.<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62–64}}</ref>
-The ''Sura Samharam'' festival is a traditional ritual where the Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of [[Karthikeya]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/001946468201900103 |title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=19 |pages=47–62 |year=1982 |last1=Ramaswamy |first1=Vijaya |s2cid=145467633 }}</ref>
+The ''Sura Samharam'' festival is a traditional ritual where Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of [[Karthikeya]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/001946468201900103 |title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=19 |pages=47–62 |year=1982 |last1=Ramaswamy |first1=Vijaya |s2cid=145467633 }}</ref>
-[[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|right|'''Kandaswamy Kovil, Nallur, Sri Lanka''']]
+===Tamil Nadu===
-In the flag hoisting ceremony at [[Sri Lanka]] [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]], the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in old [[Jaffna Kingdom]] have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry the flag as the ceremony of ''Sura Samharam'' battle. The houses of Sengunthars are beautifully decorated curtains with the picture of rooster, the legendary vehicle of Lord Muruga hang in their houses, in the day of the flag ceremony.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=32283|title=Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple|language=en|access-date=12 August 2011 |work=[[The Island (Sri Lanka)]]|author=Dr. Kumar Vadivel |location = Nallur, Sri Lanka|publisher=Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=15598|title=Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins|language=en|access-date=10 August 2005 |work=[[TamilNet]]|location = Nallur, Sri Lanka}}</ref>
+Sengunthars have rights to hold festivals at [[Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple]] at [[Palani]], the third of the six abodes of Lord Murugan because they are descendants of the nine original heroes who helped Lord Murugan at the battle of [[Sura Samhaaram|Sura Samharam]]. During the festival, according to a traditional ritual, Sengunthars dress as the nine lieutenants of [[Murugan]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran in the temple.
+[[File:Palani Hill Temple.JPG|thumb|300x300px|Shri Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple in Dindigul, Tamil Nadu]]
-===Tamil nadu===
+=== Andhra Pradesh ===
-Historically there were four {{transl|ta|thisai nadus}}, which in turn was divided into 17 {{transl|ta|kilai nadus}}, exclusive of {{transl|ta|thisai nadus}}, totally making 72 {{transl|ta|nadus}} in the Sengunthar. The thisai {{transl|ta|nadus}} were Sivapuram (Walajabad) to the east, Thonthipuram to the south, Virinjipuram to the west, Chozhasingapuram (Sholinghur) to the north.
+In Andhra Pradesh, Sengunthars are also known as [[Kaikalas|Kaikalas or Karikala Bhakthulu]]. They consider the early Chola emperor [[Karikala Chola]] as their hero. Karikala Chola is said to have conquered the Andhra region around the 3rd century CE and converted forest lands in the state into agricultural lands. There is a bronze statue of Karikala Chola and a [[Satram]] in his name at [[Srisailam]]. The Kaikalas form a part of the ''Thathayagunta Gangamma Jatara'', the annual folk festival held at [[Tirupati (city)|Tirupati]].
-<ref name="Mines 12">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=73–98}}
-</ref>
-The head of 72 nadu was [[Kancheepuram|Kancheepuram nadu]] which was called as Mahanadu by the Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines 13">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=171}}
+=== Sri Lanka ===
-</ref> The head officer of Mahanadu were called as Aandavar and Aandavar is highest authority leader for Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines 14">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=167}}
+In the flag hoisting ceremony at the [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]], the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in the old [[Jaffna Kingdom]] have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry it at the Sura Samharam festival. During the flag ceremony, the houses of Sengunthars are decorated with curtains which have pictures of the rooster, the vehicle of Lord Murugan.<ref>{{cite news |author=Dr. Kumar Vadivel |title=Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple |language=en |work=[[The Island (Sri Lanka)]] |publisher=Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka |location=Nallur, Sri Lanka |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=32283 |access-date=12 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins |language=en |work=[[TamilNet]] |location=Nallur, Sri Lanka |url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=15598 |access-date=10 August 2005}}</ref>
-</ref>
-The head officer of the each nadu council were called as Naattaanmaikarar or Periyadhanakarar or Pattakarar.<ref name="Mines 13"/>
+[[File:Nallur_Kandasamy_front_entrance.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Kandaswamy Kovil in Nallur, Sri Lanka]]
 ==Subgroups==
-There are some divisions among a section of the caste based on their traditions.
+There are subgroups of the caste based on their traditions.
 ===Siru Thaali Kaikolar===
-Siru thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom now defunct.<ref name="Mines 8">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=172}}</ref> Women of this section worn small size of the Thali or [[Mangala sutra]], due to which they are called so. This section allow widows to wear colored [[sari]]s as other women.<ref name="Mines 7">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=24–25}}</ref> They are mainly found in the Eeruurunaadu<ref name="Mines 9">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=169}}</ref>( [[Erode district|Erode]], [[Salem district|Salem]] and [[Namakkal]] districts ).
+Siru Thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami Katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom that is now defunct.<ref name="Mines 8">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=172}}</ref> Women of this subclass wear small size of the [[Mangala sutra|Mangala Sutra]]. Due to this, the Mangala Sutra is also called a Thali, from the name of the subclass.<ref name="Mines 7">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=24–25}}</ref> They are mainly found in the [[Erode district|Erode]], [[Salem district|Salem]] and [[Namakkal]] districts.<ref name="Mines 9">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=169}}</ref>
 ===Perun Thaali Kaikolar or Kongu Kaikolar===
-Perun thaali Kaikolar (பெருதாலிகட்டி கைகோளர் முதலியார்கள்), also known as Kongu Kaikolar and 'Vellai seelai kaikkolar'. Women of this section wore big size of the Thali. Widows belonging this section wore white or [[sari]]s like other Kongu castes hence the name 'Vellai seelai Kaikolar'. They are mainly found vastly in [[Coimbatore]] District and the '''Bhavani River Belt''' of [[Erode]] district. Being the aboriginal weavers of the [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu]] region unlike later immigrants, they are properly called 'Kongu Kaikkolvar'
+Perun Thaali Kaikolars are also known as Kongu Kaikolars and Vellai Seelai Kaikkolars. Women of this section wear a big size of the Mangala Sutra or Thali.  Widows belonging to this sub-class wear white [[sari]]s. They are mainly found in [[Coimbatore]] and the Bhavani River Belt in [[Erode]].
 ===Rattukaara Kaikolar===
-Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar because they weave with warps composed
+Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar, are traditional [[carpet]] makers. They are mainly found in the western region of Tamil Nadu in the [[Chola Nadu]].<ref name="Mines 7"/>
-of double threads and they are traditional [[carpet]] makers. Other reason is said to be their sacrifice of first born's heads for weaving a skirt for their caste poet [[Ottakoothar]]. They are mainly found in West region of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Mines 7"/>
 ===Thalaikooda Mudaliyar===
-They are called Thalaikooda Mudaliyar( meaning "head refusers"), because it is said that in 12th century they refused to sacrifice the heads of their first sons to the caste poet, [[Ottakoothar]] to compose poem so they were outcast in that time. Talaikooda Mudaliar are originally from Koorainaadu, in [[Tanjore]] district of [[Chola Nadu|Chola country]].<ref name="Mines 10">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=27}}</ref> Now they are found in [[Pondicherry]]<ref name="Martinson">{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=477|doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref> region. Also called 'Thattaya Nattar' from their sub-region of the [[Kongu Nadu|Kongu]] region.
+Thalaikooda Mudaliyar are originally from Koorainaadu in the [[Tanjore]] district of Chola Nadu.<ref name="Mines 10">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=27}}</ref> Today, they can be found in [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]].<ref name="Martinson">{{cite journal |title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |date=August 1982 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=477|doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020 |jstor=643998 }}</ref>
 === Maduraiyar ===
-Kaikolars of the [[Pandya Nadu|Pandya]] country who wear the [[Meenakshi Temple, Madurai|Meenakshi Sundareswarar]] [[Thaali|thali]] like other Pandya country native castes.
+Maiduraiyars are from [[Pandya Nadu]]. They wear the [[Meenakshi Temple, Madurai|Meenakshi Sundareswarar]] [[Thaali|thali]].
-Kaikolar originally of the [[Pandya Nadu|Pandya country]] who wear the thali (marriage badge) of Meenakshi Sundareshwarar like other Pandya country native castes.
-== Kulagurus ==
-The Kongu section has [[Adisaivam|Adi Saiva]] kulagurus in common with other Kongu castes while the last three sub castes have the Irayamangalam Math, the descendant of [[Paranjothi]] Nayanar as their guru,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sustainer |date=2009-09-04 |title=கொங்க குலகுருக்கள்: கொங்கு குலகுருக்கள் - 48. இறையமங்கலம் கைக்கோலர் மடம் |url=http://kongukulagurus.blogspot.com/2012/05/48.html |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=கொங்க குலகுருக்கள்}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
-a general of the Pallavas. His seat is at Irayamangalam by the Kaveri in the Namakkal District.
+== Current status ==
+Sengundhars are a relatively high ranking caste who are close in the status to the [[Vellalar]]s.<ref name="Mines22">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=13}}</ref> They are currently listed as a [[Backward Class]] (BC) in both [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], where they are provided certain reservations in education and public employment.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm|title= List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu|publisher= Government of Tamil Nadu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/kerala.html|title=Central list of backward classes|publisher= Government of India}}</ref>
-==Current Status==
+The Government of [[Kerala]] has not listed the Sengunthar community in the state's Backward Class list. According to the Kerala government's official stance, Sengunthars are not considered socially or economically backward. However, the Kaikolan community is mentioned in the Other Backward Castes list for both state and central-level reservations in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bcdd.kerala.gov.in/en/communities/state-obc-list/ |title=State list of Other Backward Classes in Kerala |publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://bcdd.kerala.gov.in/en/communities/central-obc-list/ |title=Central list of Other Backward Classes in Kerala |publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref>
-Sengunthars are classified and listed as a [[Backward Class]] by the governments of both Tamil Nadu and India.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm|title= List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu|publisher= Government of Tamil Nadu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/kerala.html|title=Central list of backward classes|publisher= Government of India}}</ref>
 ==Literary references==
 *''Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SenguntharPrabanthaThiratu |title=Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hj0eAAAAIAAJ&q=sengunta|title=The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics|date=1982|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|language=en}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2018}} The collection contains:
 *''Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh'' by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram
-*''Eetti Ezhubathu'', the major literary work about the Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of [[Rajaraja Chola II]]. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA188 |title=Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil |year= 1975|access-date=4 December 2011|isbn=978-9004041905 |last1=Spuler |first1=Bertold }}</ref>
+*''Eetti Ezhubathu'', the main literary work about Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of [[Rajaraja Chola II]]. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA188 |title=Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil |year= 1975|access-date=4 December 2011|isbn=978-9004041905 |last1=Spuler |first1=Bertold |publisher=BRILL }}</ref>
 *''Ezhupezhubathu'', a sequel to ''Eetti Ezhubathu'' written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.
 *''Kalipporubathu'', a collection of ten stanzas compiled by [[Kulothunga Chola III]]. These stanzas were written after ''Ezhupezhubathu'' to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III
 *''Thirukkai Vazhakkam'', which describes the good deeds of Sengunthars and their Saivite religious principles. It was written by Puhalendi.
 *''Sengunthar Silaakkiyar Malai'' was written by Kanchi Virabadhra Desigar. It describes the legends and eminent personalities of the Sengunthar community.
-==Notable people==
-{{Further|List of Sengunthars}}
 ==See also==
+{{Portal|Tamils|India|Hinduism}}
 *[[Adaviyar]]
 *[[Padmashali]]
@@ Line 113: / Line 111: @@
 *[[Salagama]]
 *[[Pattusali]]
+*[[List of Sengunthars]]
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 131: / Line 130: @@
 [[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
 [[Category:Weaving communities of South Asia]]
+[[Category:Social groups of Andhra Pradesh]]
+[[Category:South Indian communities]]