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Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the [[Shankaracharya Temple]], a shrine dedicated to [[Shiva]] in [[Srinagar]],<ref>"He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in {{cite book |last1=Bamzai |first1=Prithivi Nath Kaul |title=Kashmir and Central Asia |date=1980 |publisher=Light & Life Publishers |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COgeAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=112}} | Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the [[Shankaracharya Temple]], a shrine dedicated to [[Shiva]] in [[Srinagar]],<ref>"He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in {{cite book |last1=Bamzai |first1=Prithivi Nath Kaul |title=Kashmir and Central Asia |date=1980 |publisher=Light & Life Publishers |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COgeAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=112}} | ||
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== Religious impact on the Hunas == | |||
[[File:Alchon devotee, Butkara I (construction phase 4), 5th century CE.jpg|thumb|Alchon devotee, [[Butkara Stupa|Butkara I]] (construction phase 4), 5th century CE.<ref name="Vaissiere2007">{{cite journal |title=A Note on the Schøyen Copper Scroll: Bactrian or Indian? |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year=2007 |last=de la Vaissiere |first=Etienne |volume=21 |pages=127–130 |jstor=24049366 |url=https://ja.scribd.com/document/346304237/A-Note-on-the-Schoyen-copper-scroll-Bact-pdf |format=PDF |access-date=8 July 2018}}</ref>]] | |||
The four Alchon kings [[Khingila]], [[Toramana]], Javukha, and [[Mehama]] are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in the [[Talagan copper scroll]] inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control of [[Taxila]] (around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India.<ref name="Vaissiere2007" /> Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa in [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Errington |first1=Elizabeth |title=Charles Masson and the Buddhist Sites of Afghanistan: Explorations, Excavations, Collections 1832–1835 |date=2017 |publisher=British Museum |pages=34 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.3355036 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3355036}}</ref> | |||
Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the [[Butkara Stupa]] (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase7?language=en |title=The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 7. ALKHAN: KING KHINGILA AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF HUNNIC POWER IN NORTHWEST INDIA |last1=Alram |first1=Michael |last2=Filigenzi |first2=Anna |last3=Kinberger |first3=Michaela |last4=Nell |first4=Daniel |last5=Pfisterer |first5=Matthias |last6=Vondrovec |first6=Klaus |newspaper=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |publisher=Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |access-date=16 July 2017 |archive-date=16 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716204739/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase7?language=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
=== Persecution of Buddhists === | |||
Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by [[Buddhist]] sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in [[Gandhara]] in northern (modern day) [[Pakistan]].<ref name="Rene">{{cite book |author=René Grousset |title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou|url-access=registration |year=1970 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick |isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/71 71]}}</ref> During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed.<ref name=kurt>{{cite book |last1=Behrendt |first1=Kurt A. |title=Handbuch der Orientalistik |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhistarchitec0000behr |date=2004 |publisher=BRILL |location=Leiden |isbn=9789004135956}}</ref> In particular, the writings of Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]] from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of [[Buddhism]] and the expulsion of monks.<ref name="Neelis" />{{rp|162}} Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular [[Greco-Buddhist art]], becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in {{circa|630}} CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.<ref name="HeirmanBumbacher2007">{{cite book |author1=Ann Heirman |author2=Stephan Peter Bumbacher |title=The Spread of Buddhism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NuOvCQAAQBAJ |date=11 May 2007 |publisher=BRILL |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-474-2006-4 |page=60}}</ref> | |||
Although the Guptas were traditionally a [[Hindu]] dynasty,{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=521}} around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writer [[Paramartha]], [[Mihirakula]]'s supposed nemesis [[Narasimhagupta Baladitya]] was brought up under the influence of the [[Mahayanist]] philosopher [[Vasubandhu]].{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=521}} He built a [[sangharama]] at [[Nalanda]] and a {{convert|300|feet|abbr=on}} high [[vihara]] with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the [[Bodhi tree]]". According to the ''[[Manjushrimulakalpa]]'' (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation ([[Dhyāna in Buddhism|Dhyana]]).{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=521}} Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith".<ref name="sankalia">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.24898 |title=The University of Nālandā |publisher=B. G. Paul & co. |location=Madras |oclc=988183829 |author=Sankalia, Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal | author-link=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia |year=1934}}</ref>{{rp|45}}<ref name="sdutt">{{cite book |author=Sukumar Dutt |title=Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture |year=1988 |orig-year=First published in 1962 |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxRHYFd0fB4C |isbn=81-208-0498-8}}</ref>{{rp|330}} | |||
The 12th century [[Kashmir]]i historian [[Kalhana]] also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith: | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| align = right | |||
|direction=horizontal | |||
| total_width =400 | |||
| title=Solar symbolism | |||
| image1 = Toramana sun symbol.jpg | |||
| caption1 = Solar symbol on the coinage of [[Toramana]]. | |||
| image2 = Alchon Huns ruler Khingila circa 440-490 CE with solar symbol.jpg | |||
| caption2 = [[Khingila]] with solar symbol. | |||
| image3 = Alchon Huns Uncertain king Mid-late 5th century.jpg | |||
| caption3 = Alchon king with small male figure wearing solar [[Halo (religious iconography)|nimbus]]. | |||
}} | |||
{{blockquote|In him, the northern region brought forth, as it were, another god of death, bent in rivalry to surpass... [[Yama]] (the god of death residing in the southern regions). People knew of his approach by noticing the vultures, crows and other birds flying ahead eager to feed on those who were being slain within his army's reach. The royal [[Vetala]] (demon) was day and night surrounded by thousands of murdered human beings, even in his pleasure houses. This terrible enemy of mankind had no pity for children, no compassion for women, no respect for the aged| 12th century [[Kashmir]]i historian [[Kalhana]]{{sfn|Eraly|2011|p=48}}}} | |||
=== Sun cult, Vaishnavism and Shaivism === | |||
[[File:Khingila Lakshmi.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Coinage of [[Khingila]] with Hindu goddess [[Lakshmi]].]] | |||
The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of [[steppe nomads]]. This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship of [[Surya]] in India.<ref name="Melton2014">{{cite book |author=J. Gordon Melton |title=Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History: 5,000 Years of Religious History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ |volume=1 |date=15 January 2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara |isbn=978-1-61069-026-3 |page=455}}</ref> | |||
The Hindu [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] goddess [[Lakshmi]], goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess of [[Buddhism]], also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especially [[Khingila]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Göbl |first1=Robert |title=Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien |date=1967 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |page=90, Em. 91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lpNHxfbKIEC&pg=PA90 |language=de}}</ref><ref>Alram ''Alchon und Nēzak: Zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Mittelasien''</ref> and [[Toramana]]. | |||
Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of [[Shiva]],<ref name="Sagar1992">{{cite book |author=Krishna Chandra Sagar |title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC |year=1992 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7211-028-4 |page=270}}</ref><ref name="Joshi1987">{{cite book |author=Lal Mani Joshi |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC |year=1987 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 |page=320}}</ref> although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.{{sfn|Eraly|2011|p=48}} | |||
Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the [[Shankaracharya Temple]], a shrine dedicated to [[Shiva]] in [[Srinagar]],<ref>"He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in {{cite book |last1=Bamzai |first1=Prithivi Nath Kaul |title=Kashmir and Central Asia |date=1980 |publisher=Light & Life Publishers |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COgeAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=112}} | |||
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== Second Hunnic War == | |||
=== Mihirkula the Huna === | |||
The Second Hunnic War began when [[Mihirakula]], the son of [[Toramana]], established his position in West [[Punjab]] shortly after taking over as leader of his father shortly after 515. | |||
Based on numismatic evidence, it appears that [[Mihirakula]] led a group of Alkhan chiefs and was not as powerful as his father. [[Song Yun]] met the "King of the Huns" in 520, as we have seen above, on the banks of the [[Jhelum River]]. The [[Northern Wei]] envoy depicted the king (chiqin) as having a violent and harsh disposition and having perpetrated massacres. The meeting was unpleasant.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=92}} | |||
[[Mihirakula]] tightened his hold in [[India]] by going the same path his father had taken during the latter's initial campaign. This is inferred from the one known inscription of [[Mihirakula]], which was discovered "built into the wall in the porch of a temple of the Sun in the fortress of [[Gwalior]]," between the [[Chambal River|Chambal]] and [[Betwa]] rivers. The Sun Temple at Surāj Kund, where the inscription was discovered, is no longer standing; it might have been the heir to the first Sun ([[Surya]]) temple established by Mātrceta.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=92}} | |||
One of the people who was rumoured to live there because of King [[Mihirakula]] (prasadena) was Mātrceta. These individuals are identified as the heirs who will benefit from the foundation's success. Consequently, the recently established Sun Temple might have served as a [[Hun]] temple, with a garrison inside the fort. A monarch named [[Mihirakula]], which means "Family of Mihira" and is of [[Mithra|Mitra]], is a direct example of the Alkhan's [[Iran]]ian ties.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=92}} | |||
According to [[Hans T. Bakker]] It's possible that some of the garrison's members were of Iranian descent, and a temple that combined the sun gods of India's Surya (Bhanu) and Iran's Mithra catered to their religious needs.The Roman legionary stations contain Mithraea.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=92}} | |||
It is clear that [[Mihirakula]] ruled over a wide swath of territory that connected his stronghold of Gwalior Hill in eastern [[Malwa]] to his home base of [[Sialkot]] in northern [[Punjab]]. This corridor shared borders with the Aulikara kingdom of [[Yashodharman]] to the southwest and the [[Maukhari]]s' territory to the northeast, where they had previously taken over portions of the [[Ganga]]-[[Yamuna]] Plain.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=92}} | |||
=== Hunnic reverses === | |||
[[File:Mihirakula portrait.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.79|[[Mihirakula]] on one of his coins. He was finally defeated in 528 by King [[Yasodharman]].]] | |||
The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king [[Mihirakula]], son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the [[Jhelum]] by Chinese monk [[Song Yun]]. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in [[Gwalior]], [[Central India]] as "Lord of the Earth" in the [[Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula]].{{sfn|Bakker|2020|pp=484-534}} According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital [[Pataliputra]], which was sacked and left in ruins.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=[https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft/page/170/mode/1up]232}}<ref name="Sinha1977" />{{rp|p=64}} | |||
{{blockquote|There was a king called Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mihirakula), who established his authority in this town ([[Sagala]]) and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception.|[[Xuanzang]] "The Record of the Western Regions", 7th century CE<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hsüan-tsang |last2=Beal |first2=Samuel |title=Si-yu-ki, Buddhist records of the Western world; |date=1884 |publisher=London : Trübner |page=[https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsuoft/page/167 167] |url=https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsuoft}}</ref>}} | |||
The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in the [[Rajatarangini]]:<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |title=From the Kushans to the Western Turks |journal=King of the Seven Climes |year=2021 |page=207 |url=https://www.academia.edu/32671225 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
{{blockquote|Mihirakula, a man of violent acts and resembling [[Kāla]] (Death) ruled in the land which was overrun by hordes of [[Mlecchas]]... the people knew his approach by noticing the vultures, crows, and other [birds], which were flying ahead to feed on those who were being slain within his army's [reach]|The Rajatarangini<ref name="academia.edu" />}} | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| align = left | |||
|direction=vertical | |||
| total_width =200 | |||
| image2 = Sondani.jpg | |||
| caption2 = Pillar of [[Yashodharman]] at [[Sondani]] near [[Mandsaur]], with the [[Sondani inscription]] claiming victory over [[Mihirakula]] of the Alchons in 528 CE. | |||
}} | |||
Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by [[Yasodharman]], the [[Aulikaras|Aulikara]] king of [[Malwa]], in the [[Battle of Sondani]] in [[Central India]], which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The [[Sondani inscription]] in [[Sondani]], near [[Mandsaur]], records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,<ref name="PM">{{cite news |url=http://www.punjabmonitor.com/2013/04/sondhni-pillars-where-punjabis-met-with.html |title=Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago |work=Punjab Monitor |location=Amritsar |publisher=Bhai Nand Lal Foundation |date=27 April 2013 |access-date=8 July 2018}}</ref><ref group="Note" name="SONDHNI PILLARS: WHERE PUNJABIS MET WITH THEIR WATERLOO 1500 YEARS AGO - Punjab Monitor">"The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from {{cite news |url=http://www.punjabmonitor.com/2013/04/sondhni-pillars-where-punjabis-met-with.html |title=Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago |work=Punjab Monitor |location=Amritsar |publisher=Bhai Nand Lal Foundation |date=27 April 2013 |access-date=8 July 2018}}</ref> and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".{{sfn|Bakker|2020|pp=484-534}} In a part of the Sondani inscription [[Yasodharman]] thus praises himself for having defeated king [[Mihirakula]]:<ref name="pro.geo.univie.ac.at" /> | |||
[[File:Mihirakula of the Alchon Huns.jpg|thumb|[[Mihirakula]] used the Indian [[Gupta script]] on his coinage. Obv: Bust of king, with legend in [[Gupta script]] ([[File:Gupta allahabad j.svg|14px]])[[File:Gupta allahabad y.svg|14px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad tu.jpg|16px]]</sub><sup>[[File:Gupta allahabad mi.jpg|14px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka hi.jpg|18px]]</sup>[[File:Gupta allahabad r.svg|12px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad ku.jpg|16px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad l.svg|14px]],<ref>The "h" ([[File:Gupta ashoka h.svg|12px]]) is an early variant of the Gupta script.</ref> ''(Ja)yatu Mihirakula'' ("Let there be victory to Mihirakula").<ref>The "h" ([[File:Gupta_ashoka_h.svg|12x12px]]) is an early variant of the Gupta script. Rev: Dotted border around Fire altar flanked by attendants, a design adopted from [[Sasanian coinage]].</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Verma |first1=Thakur Prasad |title=The Imperial Maukharis: History of Imperial Maukharis of Kanauj and Harshavardhana |date=2018 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-64324-881-3 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09FqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT264 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=D. C. |title=Studies in Indian Coins |date=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120829732 |page=376 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA376 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tandon |first1=Pankaj |pages=24–34 |title=Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society, No. 216, Summer |date=2013 |publisher=Oriental Numismatic Society |url=http://coinindia.com/galleries-alchon-early.html}} also [http://coinindia.com/galleries-toramana.html Coinindia Alchon Coins (for an exact description of this coin type)]</ref>]] | |||
{{blockquote|He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king [[Mihirakula]], whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance|[[Sondani inscription|Sondani pillar inscription]]<ref name="PM" /><ref name="Fleet1888">{{cite book |author=John Faithfull Fleet |editor=John Faithfull Fleet |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum: Inscriptions of the early Gupta kings and their successors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HON9OAAACAAJ |volume=3 |year=1888 |oclc=69001098 |publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Print |location=Calcutta |pages=147–148|archive-url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395/2015.108395.Corpus-Inscriptionum-Indicarum-Vol3-inscriptions-Of-The-Early-Gupta-Kings_djvu.txt|archive-date=2015-07-01}}</ref>}} | |||
The [[Gupta Empire]] emperor [[Narasimhagupta]] is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]].{{sfn|Jain|1972|p=249}}{{sfn|Eraly|2011|p=48}} In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of [[Magadha]] named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler [[Narasimhagupta Baladitya]]) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".{{sfn|Eraly|2011|p=48}} Mihirakula is then said to have returned to [[Kashmir]] to retake the throne.{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=245}}<ref name="Neelis" />{{rp|168}} This ended the Second Hunnic War in {{circa}} 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|pp=484-534}} | |||
==== Victories of the Maukharis ==== | |||
According to the [[Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena]], the [[Maukharis]] also fought against the Hunas in the areas of the [[Gangetic Doab]] and [[Magadha]].<ref name="MG145">{{cite journal |last1=GHOSE |first1=MADHUVANTI |title=The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |date=2003 |volume=17 |pages=145–146 |jstor=24049312 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312 |issn=0890-4464}}</ref> The Aphsad inscription of [[Aditya-sena|Ādityasena]] mentions the military successes of kings of the [[Later Gupta dynasty]] against the Maukharis, and explains that the Maukharis were past victors of the Hunas:<ref name="MG145" /> | |||
{{blockquote|[[File:Aphsad Stone of Adityasena (photograph).jpg|thumb|upright=0.68|left|The [[Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena]]]]"The son of that king ([[Kumara-gupta|Kumaragupta]]) was the illustrious [[Damodara-gupta|Dâmôdaragupta]], by whom (his) enemies were slain, just like the demons by (the god) [[Damodar (name of Krishna)|Dâmôdara]]. Breaking up the proudly stepping array of mighty elephants, belonging to the Maukhari, which had thrown aloft in battle the troops of the Hûnas (in order to trample them to death), he became unconscious (and expired in the fight)."|Line 8 of the [[Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Madan |first1=A. P. |title=The History of the Rāṣṭrakūṭas |date=1990 |publisher=Harman Publishing House |isbn=978-81-85151-38-0 |page=208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kr1AAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>}} | |||
The Maukharis led by their king [[Ishanavarman]], rather than any of the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]], were therefore pivotal in repelling the Hunas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willis |first1=Michael |title=Later Gupta History: Inscriptions, Coins and Historical Ideology |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=2005 |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=140 and 149 |jstor=25188529 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188529 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref> | |||
=== Battle of Sondani === | |||
This resulted in the loss of [[Alchon Huns|Alchon]] possessions in the Punjab and [[north India]] by 542. The [[Sondani inscription]] in [[Sondani]], near [[Mandsaur]], records the submission by the [[Hunas]], and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,<ref name="PM"/><ref group="Note" name="SONDHNI PILLARS: WHERE PUNJABIS MET WITH THEIR WATERLOO 1500 YEARS AGO - Punjab Monitor" /> and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".<ref name="Bakker">{{cite conference |title=Monuments of Hope, Gloom, and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars: 50 years that changed India (484 – 534) |author=[[Hans T. Bakker]] |date=26 November 2016 |location=Amsterdam |conference=24th Gonda Lecture |url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/events/2016/11/monuments-of-hope-gloom-and-glory |doi=10.5281/zenodo.377032 |access-date=8 July 2018 |archive-date=8 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708221146/https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/events/2016/11/monuments-of-hope-gloom-and-glory |url-status=dead }}</ref> In a part of the Sondani inscription [[Yasodharman]] thus praises himself for having defeated king [[Mihirakula]]:<ref name="pro.geo.univie.ac.at" /> | |||
{{quote|He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king [[Mihirakula]], whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance|[[Sondani inscription|Sondani pillar inscription]]<ref name="PM" /><ref name="Fleet1888" />}} | |||
The [[Gupta Empire]] emperor [[Narasimhagupta]] is also credited in helping repulse [[Mihirakula]], after the latter had conquered most of [[India]], according to the reports of [[China|Chinese]] monk [[Xuanzang]].{{sfn|Jain|1972|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA249&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]249}}{{sfn|Eraly|2011|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&redir_esc=y]48}} | |||
In a fanciful account, [[Xuanzang]], who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of [[Magadha]] named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler [[Narasimhagupta Baladitya]]) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".{{sfn|Eraly|2011|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&redir_esc=y]48}} Mihirakula is then said to have returned to [[Kashmir]] to retake the throne.{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=245}}<ref name="Neelis">{{cite book |author=Jason Neelis |title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC |date=19 November 2010 |publisher=BRILL |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-18159-5}}</ref>{{rp|168}} [[File:Sondani victory pillar of Yashodharman.jpg|thumb|Victory pillar of Yashodharman at Sondani, [[Mandsaur]].]] | |||
Moreover, according to some scholars' suggestions, a confederacy of [[Yashodharman]] and [[Narasimhagupta|Narasimhagupta Baladitya]] defeated and overthrew the Hunas in [[Malwa]] and eastern [[India]].{{sfn|Sinha|1974|p=[https://books.google.mu/books/about/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar.html?id=2WlDAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y]89}} | |||
== List of conflicts == | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! style="background-color:blue;" rowspan="1" |<span style="color: white">Conflict</span> | |||
! style="background-color:blue;" rowspan="1" width=170px| <span style="color: white">Combatant 1</span> | |||
! style="background-color:blue;" rowspan="1" width=170px| <span style="color: white">Combatant 2</span> | |||
! style="background-color:blue;" rowspan="1" width=340px| <span style="color: white">Result</span> | |||
|- | |||
| The First Huna Invasion<br />(356–399 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Kidarites]] ([[Kushans]]) | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
| '''Gupta victory'''{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=280}} | |||
* The [[Hephthalites]] were successful in occupying [[Bactria]] and expelling the Kidarite (Kidara Kushans) from there. | |||
* The [[Hepthalites]] invaded [[Gandhara]]. | |||
* Then [[Chandragupta II]] led a successful expedition against the [[Hepthalites]] (Hunas). | |||
|- | |||
| Chandragupta II's Huna Expedition<br />(356–399 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Gandhara]] and [[Bactria]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Kidarites]] ([[Kushans]]) | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
| '''Gupta victory'''{{sfn|Sinha|1974|p=280}}{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=280}}{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|pp=240, 264}} | |||
* Successful expedition by the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] emperor against the [[Hephthalites]] ([[Hunas]]) across the seven mouths of the [[river Indus|Indus River]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Kidara's conquest of Gandhara<br />(356 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Gandhara]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Kidarites]] ([[Kushans]]) | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
| '''Gupta-Kidarite victory'''{{sfn|Sinha|1974|p=50}} | |||
* With the help from the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] emperor, [[Kidara I|Kidara]] eventually conquered [[Gandhara]] from the [[Hephthalites]]. | |||
|- | |||
| [[Chandragupta II's Campaign of Balkh]]<br />(367 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Balkh]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]'''<br /> | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Sakas]] | |||
* [[Kidarites]] ([[Kushans]]) | |||
* [[Sasanians]] (Parasikas) | |||
| '''Gupta victory'''{{efn|"Buddha Prakash has proposed to equate the account of the north-western conquest of Raghu with the conquest of [[Bactrians]] ([[Valhikas]]) described in the [[Iron pillar of Delhi|Mehrauli pillar inscription]]. He concludes, {{quote|"Hence it follows that [[Chandragupta II]] led an expedition in [[Bactriana]] in order to remove the menace of the [[Sakas]], [[Kushans|Kushāņas]] and Pārasīkas root and branch."}} The [[Iron pillar of Delhi|Mehrauli pillar inscription]] simply says that Chandra conquered the [[Vahlikas|Vālhikas]]. Who were they? We have seen before that the [[Kushans|Kushāņas]] had moved out of [[Bactria]] c. A.D. 350 under the ever increasing pressure of the. [[Chionites]] and were in the [[Kabul]] valley about this time, and the [[Chionites]] or the [[Hunas|Hūņas]] had occupied [[Bactria]]. Assuming that [[Kalidasa|Kālidāsa's]] account of Raghu's campaign of conquest has a real historical background and that [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta Vikramaditya]] adopted a land route for conquering the Pārasīkas, he must have come close to the south-eastern fringe of the [[Sassanian empire]], where according to [[Kalidasa|Kālidāsa]] he defeated the Parasikas. [[Kalidasa|Kālidāsa's]] mention of the bearded heads of the [[Persians|Persian]] warriors suggests their identification with the [[Sassanians]] who bore beards. After this victory [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta]] proceeded further northwards. Passing by [[Kapisa|Kapiśā]] where his soldiers enjoyed the famous wine of this region, he pressed towards the river [[Oxus]], on the banks of which were the newly established settlements of the [[Hunas|Hūņas]]. Having subdued them with his might [[Chandragupta II]] seems to have brought his victorious march to a halt. He returned home from [[Bactria]] proper, crowned with glory and perhaps laden with riches."{{sfnp|Agrawal|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&dq=oxus+valley+campaign+Gupta&pg=PA165&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=oxus%20valley%20campaign%20Gupta&f=false]165}}}} | |||
* Chandragupta II's campaign of [[Balkh]] resulted in [[Chandragupta II]] conquering [[Balkh]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Battle of the Oxus<br />(399 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Oxus river|Oxus valley]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
| '''Gupta victory'''{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|pp=240, 264}} | |||
* [[Chandragupta II]] with his [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] cavalry defeated the [[Hunas|Hephthalites]] and planted the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] flag on the banks of the [[Oxus]]. | |||
|- | |||
| The Second Huna Invasion<br />(c. 450s–460s or c. 453–459 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> Northwest frontiers and [[Northwest India]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Sasanians]] | |||
* [[Kidarites]] ([[Kushans]]) | |||
| '''Gupta victory'''{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=277}} | |||
* [[Skandagupta]] repulsed the invading hordes of [[Kushans]], [[Hunas|Hephthalites]] and [[Sassanids]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Battle of the Indus river<br />(c. 458) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Indus]] river | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
| '''Gupta victory'''{{sfn|Fisher|Yarshater|1968|p=214}}<ref>{{harvnb|Jaques|2007|p=471}}</ref> | |||
* [[Skandagupta]] checked the [[Hunas|Hephthalites']] progress. | |||
|- | |||
| [[First Hunnic War]]<br />(502–515 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Malwa]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Second Aulikara dynasty]] | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Gupta victory''' | |||
* The [[Huna people|Huna]] king was vanquished by an Indian ruler of the [[Second Aulikara dynasty|Aulikara dynasty]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Battle of Eran<br />(502 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Eran]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Hunnic Victory''' | |||
* [[Toramana]] defeated and killed Matrvishnu who was the local governor and installed his brother Dhanyavishnu in [[Eran]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Sack of Kausambhi<br />(497–500 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Kosambi|Kausambhi]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Hunnic Victory'''{{sfn|Bakker|2020|pp=484-534}}<ref name="Agnihotri2010">{{cite book |editor-first=V.K. |editor-last=Agnihotri |title=Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=PA81 |edition=26 |year=2010 |publisher=Allied Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-8424-568-4 |page=81}}</ref><ref name="Sinha1977"/>{{rp|70}}{{sfn|Gupta|1989|p=175}} | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] sacked [[Kosambi|Kausambhi]] before they moved to occupy [[Malwa]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Huna conquest of Malwa<br />(510 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Malwa]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]'''<br /> | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Hunnic victory''' | |||
* The [[Huna people|Huna]] king occupied and conquered [[Malwa]] from the [[Gupta Empire]]. | |||
|- | |||
| Battle of Eran<br />(510 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Eran]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Hunnic Victory''' | |||
* Emperor [[Bhanugupta]] fought a fierce battle against [[Toramana]] in which his general Goparaja was killed. | |||
|- | |||
| Battle of Daśapura<br />(515 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Malwa]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Aulikaras|Second Aulikara dynasty]] | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Gupta Victory''' | |||
* The [[Aulikara|Second Aulikara dynasty]] king Prakaśadharman of Daśapura reports victory over the [[Toramana]]. | |||
|- | |||
| [[Second Hunnic War]]<br />(520–528 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Malwa]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Second Aulikara dynasty]] | |||
* [[Maukhari dynasty]] | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Gupta victory''' | |||
* The [[Huna people|Huna]] king [[Mihirakula]] was defeated by [[Yashodharman]]. | |||
|- | |||
| [[Battle of Sondani]]<br />(528 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Betwa river]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Aulikaras|Second Aulikara dynasty]] | |||
* [[Maukharis|Maukhari dynasty]] | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* [[Alchon Huns]] | |||
| '''Gupta victory''' | |||
* A confederacy of [[India]]n rulers led by [[Yashodharman]] and possibly even supported by the Gupta emperor [[Narasimhagupta]], decisively defeated the Hunnic armies at [[Sondani|Battle of Sondani]] in 528 CE | |||
|- | |||
| Northwest campaign of [[Ishanavarman|Iśanavarman]] <br />(532 CE) | |||
<u>Location:</u> [[Northwest India|North-western India]] | |||
| '''[[Gupta Empire]]''' | |||
* [[Maukharis|Maukhari dynasty]] | |||
| '''[[Hephthalites]]''' | |||
* Sulikas | |||
| '''Gupta Victory'''{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=34}} | |||
* [[Maukhari]] dynasty king [[Ishanavarman|Iśanavarman]] routed the Sulikas, who may have been the Hunnic adversaries or their allies. | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
== Aftermath == | |||
=== Collapse of Huna power === | |||
[[File:The defeat of the Ephalites, or White Huns A.D. 528.jpg|thumb|The defeat of the [[Alchon Huns|Huna emperor]] [[Mihirakula]] by King [[Yashodharman]] at [[Sondani]] in 528 CE (early 20th century illustration).]] | |||
The [[Alchon huns]], following their loss to [[Yashodharman|Yaśodharman]] at [[Sondani]], withdrew to the mountainous country, the fortified town of Sakala ([[Sialkot]]), the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] foothills in northern [[Pakistan]] between the [[Jhelum]] river, [[Chenab]] river, and [[Ravi River]], and the region from which [[Toramana]] had launched his conquests.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=99}} | |||
=== Rise of Shaivism === | |||
All of the royal families of these successor states including the [[Alchon Hun|Alchon]] [[Mihirakula]] had embraced [[Shaivism|Saivism]], which had equally profound effects. [[Vaisnavism]] had been rendered obsolete by the fall of the Empire, particularly in its former lands. A theological innovation that specifically aided in this growth was Saivism's ability to provide access to both humdrum rewards and superformance power, in addition to this political component. This was accomplished by human agent lineages personifying god. This provided the [[Shaiva|Śaiva]] officials with a unique advantage over their [[Vaishnava|Vaisnava]] counterparts. This is a unique factor, while Vaisnavism's diminished political standing following the collapse of the [[Gupta Empire]]. [[Shaivism|Saivism]] particularly gained traction in the regions of former [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] territories. Although [[Vaishnavism|Vaisnavism]] flourished in the regions of [[Kashmir]] and [[Southern India]].{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=99}} | |||
=== Gupta-Aulikara War === | |||
[[File:Sri Yashodharman.jpg|thumb|upright=1.18|The name [[File:Gupta allahabad shrii.jpg|14px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad y.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad sho.jpg|16px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad dh.svg|10px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad rmm.jpg|14px]] ''Śrī Yaśodharmma'' ("Lord Yashodharman") in [[Gupta script]] in Line 4 of the [[Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana]].<ref name="EG">{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors |date=1960 |pages=150–158 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254/page/n387}}</ref>]] | |||
Vajra, who succeeded Baladitya II, did not surpass his predecessor's accomplishments. Despite his construction of an additional monastery at [[Nalanda]] and his depiction as a devout [[Buddhist]] by [[China|Chinese]] sources, he proved incapable of resisting the formidable [[Yashodharman|Yaśodharman]] of [[Malwa]]. However, the rapid expansion of [[Malavas|Malava]] power was soon curtailed, likely through the influence of emerging feudatory royal houses rather than direct [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] intervention.{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=354}} | |||
Evidence from the [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh]] stone inscription suggests that either Isvaravarman or his successor, presumably Isanavarman, successfully repelled a threat originating from 'the city of [[Dhara (city)|Dhar]]'. This conflict, occurring in the second quarter of the sixth century, likely corresponds to the invasion led by [[Yasodharman]]. The [[Maukhari]] kings played a significant role in opposing the [[Malavas|Malava]] adventurer, receiving support from these feudatories.{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=354}} | |||
Through alliances with such feudatories, Kumāragupta III, the son of Narasimhagupta II, and Vishnugupta Chandraditya, the son and successor of Kumāragupta III, were able to retain control of the imperial throne until the middle of the sixth century AD. These alliances were crucial for the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasty's]] survival amidst political instability and external threats.{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=354}} | |||
{{Location map+ | |||
|India | |||
|float = right | |||
|width = 220 | |||
|caption = The 532 AD [[Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana]] mentions victorious campaigns against northern kings (probably referring to the victory against the [[Alchon Huns]] at [[Sondani]]), and against "mighty kings of the east", including a campaign across the [[Vindhya range]]. | |||
|nodiv = 1 | |||
|mini = 1 | |||
|relief=yes | |||
|places = | |||
{{location map~ |India |lat=25|N |long=81|E |label=Campaign through the [[Vindhya range]]|position=right |label_size=70|mark=Arrow-060(000).svg|marksize=25 }} | |||
{{location map~ |India |lat=24.07|N |long=75.08|E |label=[[Sondani inscription|Sondani]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=Red Star.gif|marksize=20}} | |||
}} | |||
The [[Gupta Empire]] faced significant challenges during [[Yashodharman]]'s conquests, as he expanded his victorious campaigns across [[North India]]. Despite initial successes, [[Yashodharman|Yasodharman's]] ability to consolidate his conquests was limited, resulting in a short-lived reign reminiscent of a meteoric rise and fall. The circumstances surrounding his downfall remain unclear, but it is likely that the disintegration of the [[Gupta Empire]], triggered by his victories, contributed to his demise.<ref name="A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF INDIA,VOL.3,PART1 : DASGUPTA, K.K.,ED. Internet Archive">{{Cite book |last=DASGUPTA |first=K. K. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12720 |title=A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF INDIA,VOL.3,PART1 |date=1960 |publisher=PEOPLES OF PUBLISHING HOUSE |page=96}}</ref> | |||
The emergence of powers like the [[Maukharis]] and [[Later Gupta dynasty|Later Guptas]] during this period suggests a shifting political landscape influenced by [[Yashodharman]]'s actions. It is possible that the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] Emperor orchestrated [[Yashodharman]]'s defeat by rallying these forces against him. Alternatively, [[Yashodharman]] may have succumbed to the chaos he instigated to dismantle the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref name="A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF INDIA,VOL.3,PART1 : DASGUPTA, K.K.,ED. Internet Archive" /> | |||
=== Disintegration of the Gupta Empire === | |||
The [[Gupta Empire]], a beacon of stability and prosperity in ancient [[India]], faced a tumultuous period following the demise of [[Budhagupta]], its illustrious ruler. This era was characterized by internal discord, exacerbated by external threats, which precipitated the empire's gradual decline. Succession disputes emerged as a primary catalyst for the empire's instability, leading to fragmentation and partition. The absence of a clear line of succession plunged the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta realm]] into uncertainty, opening the door to rival claimants vying for power.<ref>{{Cite book |editor=R. C. Majumdar |url=http://archive.org/details/classicalage03bhar |title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 03, The Classical Age |date=1970 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |others=Public Resource |page=33-34}}</ref> | |||
Among these contenders were Narasimhagupta, [[Budhagupta]]'s brother, and his successors. Narasimhagupta, known by the honorific title Baladitya, assumed the throne amidst a backdrop of political turmoil and uncertainty. However, his ascendancy was not without challenge, as other claimants, such as Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta, also sought to assert their authority. Vainyagupta's rule, centered in [[Bengal]], and Bhanugupta's reign, commemorated in an inscription at [[Eran]], added further complexity to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] political landscape. The inscription detailing [[Bhanugupta]]'s exploits suggests [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] efforts to resist external threats, particularly the incursions of [[Huna people|Huna]] chief [[Toramana]].<ref name="History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 03, The Classical Age : R. C. Majumdar, General Editor Internet Archive">{{Cite book |editor=R. C. Majumdar |url=http://archive.org/details/classicalage03bhar |title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 03, The Classical Age |date=1970 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |others=Public Resource |page=34}}</ref> | |||
Narasimhagupta's reign witnessed both triumph and tragedy. His notable victory over [[Huna people|Huna]] chief Mihirakula demonstrated [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] military prowess, yet internal discord continued to erode the empire's stability. As rival factions vied for supremacy, the [[Gupta Empire]] entered a period of decline marked by territorial loss and political fragmentation. These tumultuous events marked a pivotal chapter in [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] history, signaling the empire's eventual demise and the end of an era of unparalleled prosperity and cultural flourishing in ancient [[India]].<ref name="History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 03, The Classical Age : R. C. Majumdar, General Editor Internet Archive" /> | |||
== Legacy == | |||
=== Hunnic impact on India === | |||
It can be seen that the most noticeable shift has been the development of independent, regional states in [[Northern India]] following the fall of the [[Gupta Empire]]. Not only the rise of the [[Aulikara]] kingdom of Daśapura and the [[Maukhari]] kingdom of [[Kanyakubja]] occurred after disintegration of [[Gupta Empire]], but it is also possible to include the [[Maitrakas]] of [[Valabhi]], the [[Vardhanas]] of Sthaneśvara, and the [[Kalachuris]] of [[Mahismati]]. This new constellation was constantly changing since their independence had to be repeatedly reaffirmed; the fall of the Daśapura Kingdom is one example of this.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=98}} | |||
The power of the [[Huna people|Huna]] in [[northwest India]] endured as long as it received support from its formidable ally across the [[Hindu Kush]]. However, when the [[Hephthalites]] faced intense pressure from the resurgent [[Sasanian Empire]] led by [[Khosrow I]] in the 530s, and the natural dynamics of the [[Huns|Hunnic Peoples]] on both sides of the [[Hindu Kush]] were disrupted, the [[India]]n [[Hunas]], notably the [[Alchon Huns|Alkhan]] led by [[Mihirakula]], lost their capacity to recover from defeats. This underscores the interconnectedness of the history of the [[Hunas]] in [[India]] with the political landscape to the north of the [[Hindu Kush]].{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=98}} | |||
In contrast to its [[Iran]]ian counterpart, the [[Gupta Empire]] did not experience a revival. Over the fifty years under consideration, the most notable change was the emergence of autonomous regional states in [[Northern India]] following the dissolution of the [[Gupta Empire]]. Examples include the [[Aulikara]] kingdom of Daśapura and the [[Maukhari]] kingdom of [[Kanyakubja]], among others. This period witnessed a constant state of flux as the independence of these states had to be reaffirmed repeatedly. The disappearance of the Daśapura Kingdom serves as a poignant example of this instability.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=98}} | |||
As a consequence of this regional division, major political and commercial centers of the fallen empire experienced decline. Cities such as Kauśambı, [[Ujjain]], Vidiśa, and [[Mathura]] lost their prominence, eclipsed by new urban centers like Daśapura, [[Kanyakubja]], Sthaneśvara, [[Valabhi]], and Śripura. This shift in urban centrality reflects the evolving political and economic landscape of [[Northern India]] during this period.{{sfn|Bakker|2020|p=98}} | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
| Line 381: | Line 667: | ||
==Reference== | ==Reference== | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
== Bibliography == | |||
* {{cite book |first=Ashvini |last=Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC |date=1989 |location=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Allen|first=John |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties |publisher=Bombay|date=1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Bakker | first=Hans T. |title=The World of the Skandapurāṇa |publisher=Brill|year=2014 | isbn=978-90-04-27714-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6p2XCgAAQBAJ}} | |||
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* {{cite book |author=Robert Göbl |title=Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1967 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lpNHxfbKIEC}} | |||
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* {{cite book |author=Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai |title=Kashmir and Central Asia |publisher=Light & Life Publishers |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxRHYFd0fB4C}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Thakur Prasad Verma |title=The Imperial Maukharis: History of Imperial Maukharis of Kanauj and Harshavardhana |publisher=Notion Press |year=2018 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09FqDwAAQBAJ}} | |||
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* {{cite book |author=Tandon, Pankaj |title=Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society, No. 216, Summer |publisher=Oriental Numismatic Society. |url=https://coinindia.com/galleries-alchon-early.html}} | |||
* {{cite book |first=Kailash Chand |last=Jain |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date= 1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C}} | |||
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* {{cite book |author=Nandargikar, Gopal Raghunath |title=Raghuvamsa Of Kalidasa. With The Commentary Of Mallinatha |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. |year=1982 |url=https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Raghuvamsa-Kalidasa-Commentary-Mallinatha-Nandargikar-Gopal/30959799154/bd}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |date=1978 |title=Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions |location=Delhi |publisher=Concept Publishing |url=https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft/ }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |title=A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWVZWjNAcAgC |year=1989 |publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-7022-251-4}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Daniel T. Potts |title=Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-933079-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8c3QAgAAQBAJ}} | |||
* {{cite book |first1=William Bayne |last1=Fisher|first2=Ehsan|last2=Yarshater |title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3, Issue 1|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-521-20092-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Michael Maas |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-316-06085-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284}} | |||
[[Category:Gupta Empire]] | |||
[[Category:Battles involving India]] | |||
[[Category:History of Madhya Pradesh]] | |||
[[Category:Khurai]] | |||
[[Category:History of Malwa]] | |||
[[Category:5th century in India]] | |||
[[Category: Vaishnavism]] | |||
[[Category:Wars involving the Gupta Empire]] | |||