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# | {{Short description|Geographical plain in South Asia}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}} | |||
{{Infobox settlement | |||
|name = Indo-Gangetic Plain | |||
|settlement_type = Geographical region | |||
|image_skyline = | |||
|image_caption = | |||
|image_map = Indo-Gangetic Plain.png | |||
|map_caption = Map of the Indo-Gangetic Plain | |||
|subdivision_type = Country | |||
|subdivision_name = India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal | |||
|area_total_km2 = 700000 | |||
}} | |||
The '''Indo-Gangetic Plain''', also known as the '''Northern Plain''' or '''North Indian River Plain''', is a fertile [[plain]] spanning {{cvt|700000|km2}} across the northern and north-eastern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It encompasses [[North India|northern]] and [[East India|eastern India]], eastern [[Pakistan]], southern [[Nepal]], and almost all of [[Bangladesh]]. It is named after the two major river systems that drain the region–[[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ganges]]. | |||
Its stretches from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the northern edge of the [[Deccan plateau]] in the south, and extends from [[North East India]] in the east to the [[Iran|Iranian]] border in the west. The region is home to many major cities and nearly one-seventh of the world's population. As the region was formed by the deposits of the three major rivers–Indus, Ganges and [[Brahmaputra]], the plains consists of the world's largest expanse of uninterrupted [[alluvial soil|alluvium]]. Due to its rich water resources, it is one of the world's most densely populated and intensely farmed areas. | |||
== History == | |||
[[File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png|thumb|Extent of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] on the western part of the plains.]] | |||
The region was home to the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] in 3000 BCE, which was one of the earliest human settlements in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |title=Indus Valley Civilization |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/ |website=World History Encyclopedia |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240517174742/https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Vedic period]] (c. 1500 – 600 BCE), the region was referred to as "[[Aryavarta]]" (Land of the [[Aryan]]s). According to ''[[Manu Smriti|Manusmṛti]]'' (2.22), 'Aryavarta' is "the tract between the [[Himalayas|Himalaya]] and the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] ranges, from the Eastern Sea ([[Bay of Bengal]]) to the Western Sea ([[Arabian Sea]])".<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/70 70]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref><ref>[[Michael Cook (historian)|Michael Cook]] (2014), ''Ancient Religions, Modern Politics: The Islamic Case in Comparative Perspective'', Princeton University Press, p. 68: "Aryavarta ... is defined by Manu as extending from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas of Central India in the south and from the sea in the west to the sea in the east."</ref> The region was part of what was historically referred to as [[Hindustan]], a term used to refer to the whole of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Kapur2019">{{cite book |last1=Kapur |first1=Anu |title=Mapping Place Names of India |date=2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-429-61421-7}}</ref> The term "Hindustani" is also commonly used to refer to the people, [[Hindustani classical music|music]], and culture of the region.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|title = India|publisher = CIA – The World Factbook|access-date = 14 December 2007|archive-date = 18 March 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.indianmelody.com/hindustani.htm|title = Hindustani Classical Music|publisher = Indian Melody|access-date = 14 December 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071211061711/http://www.indianmelody.com/hindustani.htm|archive-date = 11 December 2007}}</ref> | |||
The fertile terrain facilitated the rise and expansion of various empires such as the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryas]], [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]], [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]], all of whom had their [[demographic]] and [[politics|political]] centers in the Indo-Gangetic plain. The Maurya Empire existed from 4th to 2nd century BCE and unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D.|title=East–West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016|issn=1076-156X|archive-date=20 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|url-status=live}}</ref> The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now [[Afghanistan]] into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent in the middle of the 1st century CE.<ref name="TCHAC">{{cite book |last1=Loewe |first1=Michael |last2=Shaughnessy |first2=Edward L. |author-link1=Michael Loewe |author-link2=Edward L. Shaughnessy |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC |year=1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 |access-date=1 November 2013 |pages=87–88}}</ref> [[Maritime trade]] along the [[Silk Road]] flourished during the period.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|author2=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa|url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/151 151]–}}</ref> The Gupta period existed from the 4th to 7th century CE and is noted for its arts, architecture and science.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century |encyclopedia=[[Britannica]] |access-date=16 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |archive-date=30 March 2010 }}</ref> | |||
In the 12th century CE, much of the region was ruled by the [[Rajputs]].{{sfn|Jadunath Sarkar|1960|p=32}} In 1191 CE, the Rajput king [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] unified several Rajput states and defeated the invading army of [[Mu'izz al-Din|Shihabuddin Ghori]] in the [[First Battle of Tarain]].{{sfn|Jadunath Sarkar|1960|pp=32,34}} However, Shihabuddin defeated the Rajputs in the [[Second Battle of Tarain]], which led to the rise of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the region in the 13th century CE.{{sfn|Satish Chandra|2006|pp=25-26}}{{sfn|Jadunath Sarkar|1960|pp=38}} In 1526 CE, [[Babur]] swept across the [[Khyber Pass]] and established the [[Mughal Empire]], which ruled for almost the next three centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) |website=University of Calgary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170951/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> | |||
The [[Maratha Empire]] founded by [[Chatrapati Shivaji]], briefly captured the region in the early 18th century CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pearson |first=M.N. |date=February 1976 |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=221–235 |doi=10.2307/2053980 |jstor=2053980|s2cid=162482005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Delhi, the Capital of India|author=Capper, J.|date=1918|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1282-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28|page=28|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|author=Sen, S.N.|date=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82|page=1941|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> The [[Sikh Empire]] was established by [[Ranjit Singh]] around the same time in the north western part of the region.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Gulcharan |date=July 1981 |title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War |journal=USI Journal |volume=111 |issue=465 |pages=184–192}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Grewal |first=J.S. |author-link=J. S. Grewal |year=1990 |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=The New Cambridge History of India |volume=II.3 |pages=101, 103–104 |isbn=978-0-521-26884-4}}</ref> The Europeans arrived in the end of the 15th century CE in [[peninsular India]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Glenn Ames|editor=Ivana Elbl|title=Portugal and its Empire, 1250–1800 (Collected Essays in Memory of Glenn J. Ames).: Portuguese Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hld-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|year=2012|publisher=Trent University Press|pages=12–15 with footnotes, context: 11–32}}</ref> The [[English East India company]]'s in the [[Battle of Plassey]] (1757) and [[Battle of Buxar]] (1767) consolidated the company's power in the lower Gangetic plain. With the defeat of the Marathas, the entire region came under the control of [[British Raj]] and remained same until the [[Indian Independence Act, 1947|Indian Independence]] in 1947.<ref>{{cite book |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' |editor-first=Claude |editor-last=Markovits |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA271 |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Anthem Press |pages=271– |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> | |||
== Geology == | |||
[[File:Physical_Map_of_India.jpg|thumb|Physical map of India, showing the different regions.]] | |||
The plains were named after the two major river systems that drain the region–[[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ganges]]. The region was formed as a result of continuous deposition of [[silt]] by the major river systems of Indus, Ganges and [[Brahmaputra]] in the depression that existed between the [[Himalayas]] in the north and [[Deccan plateau]] in the south. However, there has been divergent theories as to the formation of the depression. As per [[Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia|Darashaw Wadia]], the depression was a furrow that originally existed since the formation of the plateau in the south and the mountains in the north. [[Edward Suess]] had suggested that the depression was a large [[syncline]] that was formed when the southward advance of the Himalayas was blocked by the Indian landmass.<ref name="UGC">{{cite web|url=https://ugcmoocs.inflibnet.ac.in/assets/uploads/1/146/5059/et/6%20INDO-GANGETIC%20PLAIN200304050503030404.pdf|title=Indo Gangetic Plain|work=[[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> | |||
[[Sidney Gerald Burrard|Sydney Burrard]] opined that the region was a deep [[rift valley|rift]] that existed in the [[earth's crust]], which was subsequently filled with alluvium. He also pointed out the existence of other rift valleys in the Himalayan and Deccan plateau region. However, geologists such as [[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|Ferdinand Hayden]] and [[Richard Dixon Oldham|Richard Oldham]] have rejected this stating that there is no evidence of existence of a rift valley and that the existence of such a large rift valley is not possible. According to the recent research, sediment deposited at the bed of the per-historic [[Tethys Sea]] folded towards the northern end due to the northward drift of the [[Indian plate]] and a trough was formed later due to the emergence of the Himalayas in the north. Beneath the silt deposition, the region rests on hard crystalline rocks which connect the Himalayan region with the peninsula. As the region was formed by the deposits of major rivers, the plains consists of the world's largest expanse of uninterrupted [[alluvial soil|alluvium]].<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
== Geography == | |||
[[File:Khadir-and-bangar.jpg|thumb|In a ''[[doab]]'', ''khadar'' (green) lies next to a river, while ''bangar'' (olive) has greater elevation and lies further.]] | |||
The fertile [[plain]]s span {{cvt|700000|km2}} across the northern and north-eastern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It encompasses [[North India|northern]] and [[East India|eastern India]], eastern [[Pakistan]], southern [[Nepal]], and almost all of [[Bangladesh]]. Its stretches from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Vindhyas]] and [[Satpura]] and the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in the south in the south, and extends from [[North East India]] in the east to the [[Iran|Iranian]] border in the west. The region is home to many major cities and nearly one-seventh of the world's population.<ref name="UGC"/><ref name="Brit">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indo-Gangetic-Plain|title=Indo Gangetic Plain|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226134743/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indo-Gangetic-Plain|url-status=live}}</ref> In India, it mainly encompasses the states and union territories of [[Rajasthan]] in the west, [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Chandigarh]], and [[Delhi]] in the north west, [[Uttar Pradesh]] in the north, [[Bihar]] and [[West Bengal]] in the east, and [[Assam]] in the north east.<ref name="UGC"/><ref>{{cite report|url=https://icarrcer.icar.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/IGP.pdf|title=Production and Technological Gaps in Middle Indo-Gangetic Plains|date=August 2016|publisher=[[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]]|access-date=1 June 2024|page=7|archive-date=27 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240927185410/https://icarrcer.icar.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/IGP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two [[drainage basin]]s by the [[Delhi Ridge]], which is a northern extension of the [[Aravalli Hills]]. The western part is drains by the Indus, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga–Brahmaputra river systems.<ref>{{cite book| title=Records of the Geological Survey of India, Volumes 5-7 | author=Geological Survey of India | year=1872 | publisher=Government of India, 1872 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mn8RAAAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra | author=Lindsay Brown, Amelia Thomas | year=2008 | publisher=Lonely Planet, 2008 | isbn=978-1-74104-690-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zz0_zXPb68kC}}</ref> The plains encompassed four distinct geographical regions:<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
* [[Bhabar]]: It is a narrow region about {{cvt|7-15|km}} wide, located immediately below the foothills of the Himalayas. The stretch is highly porous and is largely made up of stones and rocks carried by the rivers. Most streams disappear underground in the region.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
* [[Terai]]: It is the second strip that lies next to the Bhabar region. The region is largely made up of new [[silt]] deposited by the streams and rivers which reappear. It receives heavy rains for most of the year and consists of thick wet evergreen vegetation.<ref name="UGC"/><ref>Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C. (2001). {{WWF ecoregion|name=Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands|id=im0701}}</ref> | |||
* [[Khadir and Bangar|Bangar]]: The third strip consists of older alluvium deposited by the rivers and forms the major fertile region of the flood plains. It also consists of [[laterite]] deposits.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
* [[Khadir and Bangar|Khadir]]: The last region encompasses low lying areas south of the Bangar belt. It is largely composed of new silt carried by the rivers while flowing through the upper part of the plains.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
== Hydrography and climate == | |||
{{see|Major rivers of India}} | |||
The region is drained by three major river systems and has a high [[ground water table]]. Due to its rich water resources and fertile alluvial soil, it is one of the world's most densely populated and intensely farmed areas.<ref name="UGC"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mogno |first1=Caterina |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Knote |first3=Christoph |last4=Yao |first4=Fei |last5=Wallington |first5=Timothy J. |title=Seasonal distribution and drivers of surface fine particulate matter and organic aerosol over the Indo-Gangetic Plain |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |date=20 July 2021 |volume=21 |issue=14 |pages=10881–10909 |doi=10.5194/acp-21-10881-2021 |bibcode=2021ACP....2110881M |s2cid=237688850 |url=https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/files/88195/acp-21-10881-2021.pdf |access-date=20 June 2023 |issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ojha |first1=Narendra |last2=Sharma |first2=Amit |last3=Kumar |first3=Manish |last4=Girach |first4=Imran |last5=Ansari |first5=Tabish U. |last6=Sharma |first6=Som K. |last7=Singh |first7=Narendra |last8=Pozzer |first8=Andrea |last9=Gunthe |first9=Sachin S. |title=On the widespread enhancement in fine particulate matter across the Indo-Gangetic Plain towards winter |journal=Scientific Reports |date=3 April 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=5862 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-62710-8 |pmid=32246046 |pmc=7125076 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.5862O |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> The eastern part of the plain receives heavy rainfall during the [[monsoon]] after the summer, which commonly results in floods and inundations. The rainfall decreases from the east towards the west with the western region encompassing drier areas such as the [[Thar desert]].<ref name="Brit"/><ref>{{cite book|editor=Ramaswamy R Iyer|title=Water and the Laws in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdGGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA542|date=11 April 2009|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-81-321-0424-7|pages=542–}}</ref> | |||
== Sub-divisions == | |||
The region can be sub-divided into various geographical units such as the [[Sindh|Sindh Plains]], and the [[Indus River Delta|Indus Delta]] in Pakistan; [[Rajasthan]] Plain, and [[Punjab Plains|Punjab-Haryana Plain]] in India and Pakistan, Ganga Plain in India and Bangladesh, [[Brahmaputra Valley]] in India, Terai region in Nepal, and the [[Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]] in India and Bangladesh. | |||
=== Sindh Plains === | |||
[[File:Indus_River_Delta.jpg|thumb|[[Indus River Delta]]]] | |||
[[File:Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg|thumb|[[Thar Desert]]]] | |||
The [[Sindh]] Plains forms the western part of the plains and encompasses the Sindh region of Pakistan to the west of the [[Thar desert]] with the [[Punjab Plains]] in the north and the [[Indus River Delta]] in the south.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haig |first1=Malcolm Robert |title=The Indus Delta Country: A Memoir, Chiefly on Its Ancient Geography and History |date=1894 |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. |location=London |page=1 |url=https://archive.org/details/indusdeltacount00haiggoog |access-date=29 January 2022}}</ref> The region receives about {{cvt|13|in}} of rain annually, mostly from June to September.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hazard & Risk Atlases|url=https://pdma.gos.pk/hazard-risk-atlases/#:~:text=The%20climate%20of%20Sindh%20is,rainfall%20of%20128.80%20mm/yr.|access-date=4 September 2024|work=PMDH|archive-date=4 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240904113538/https://pdma.gos.pk/hazard-risk-atlases/#:~:text=The%20climate%20of%20Sindh%20is,rainfall%20of%20128.80%20mm/yr.|url-status=live}}</ref> The economy is largely based on [[agriculture]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Staff reporter|title=Sindh must exploit potential for fruit production|url=http://nation.com.pk/business/09-Mar-2014/sindh-must-exploit-potential-for-fruit-production|access-date=29 May 2015|agency=The Nation|publisher=The Nation, 2014|date=9 March 2014|archive-date=2 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002215717/http://nation.com.pk/business/09-Mar-2014/sindh-must-exploit-potential-for-fruit-production|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/1934949|title=Dates in Sindh|journal=Proceedings of the International Dates Seminar|last2=Saud|first2=Adila A.|publisher=SALU Press|last1=Markhand|first1=Ghulam Sarwar|access-date=29 May 2015|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301053313/https://www.academia.edu/1934949|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Indus Delta === | |||
The [[Indus River Delta]] encompasses the region where the [[Indus River]] flows into the [[Arabian Sea]]. Most of the delta lies in the southern [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan with a small portion in the [[Kutch District|Kutch]] region of India. The delta covers an area of about {{cvt|41,440|km2}}, and is approximately {{cvt|210|km}} across where it meets the sea.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indus Delta, Pakistan |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/indus_delta.cfm |access-date=1 June 2022|work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter= Devastation of the Indus River Delta |author= Altaf A. Memon |title= World Water & Environmental Resources Congress 2005 |publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers]] |date= 14–19 May 2005 |location= [[Anchorage, Alaska]]}}</ref> The climate is [[arid]], the region receives only {{cvt|25|and|50|cm}} of rainfall.<ref>{{cite web |title= Indus River Delta |url= http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/indus_river_delta.cfm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120123192924/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/indus_river_delta.cfm |archive-date=23 January 2012|access-date=1 June 2022|work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]]}}</ref> Since the 1940s, the delta has received less water as a result of large-scale irrigation works capturing large amounts of the Indus water before it reaches the delta.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thethirdpole.net/2020/05/05/ignored-by-pakistan-the-indus-delta-is-being-lost-to-the-sea/ |title=Ignored by Pakistan, the Indus delta is being lost to the sea |date=5 May 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506234123/https://www.thethirdpole.net/2020/05/05/ignored-by-pakistan-the-indus-delta-is-being-lost-to-the-sea/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The region is home to the largest arid [[mangrove forest]]s in the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=The biology of mangroves and seagrasses|author=Peter J. Hogarth|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sIiXJG50G_UC&dq=largest+arid+zone+mangroves+in+the+world&pg=PA222 222]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2007}}</ref> The population of the active part of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003 with [[fishing]] being the major industry.<ref>{{cite news|title=Indus Delta, Pakistan: economic costs of reduction in freshwater flow|url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy05indus.pdf|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]|date=May 2003|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116084702/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy05indus.pdf|archive-date=16 November 2011}}</ref> | |||
=== Rajasthan Plain === | |||
The Rajasthan Plains form the western extreme of the plains in India and is mostly composed of [[Thar desert]],{{efn|name=Thar|The [[Thar desert]] is sometimes classified as a separate geographical entity from the Indo-Gangetic plains due to its distinct topography compared to rest of the plains.}} which occupies an area of {{cvt|200000|km2}} stretching acrss {{cvt|650|km}}. About three-fourth of the plains lie in India and rest in Pakistan. In India, two-thirds of the region is part of western [[Rajasthan]], extending to the west of [[Aravalli Hills]] and rest form parts of [[Haryana]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Gujarat]]. The region has an average elevation of {{cvt|325|m}} which reduces from east to west, reaching about {{cvt|150|m}} towards the [[Indus delta]] and the [[Rann of Kutch]]. The western part of the region is covered by shifting [[sand dunes]] (dharian) and the eastern part of the region (Rajasthan Bagar) is rocky. The region is largely arid with seasonal streams uch as [[Luni River|Luni]] supporting limited agriculture.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
=== Punjab and Haryana Plain === | |||
The [[Punjab Plains|Punjab-Haryana Plain]] lies to the east and north east of the Rajasthan Plain. It extends for a length of {{cvt|640|km}} in a north west to south east orientation till the [[Aravalli Hills]] and is about {{cvt|300|km}} wide stretching from [[Haryana]] in India into Pakistan's [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab Province]]. The elevation varies from {{cvt|275|m}} in the north to {{cvt|176|m}} in the south west. The left quarter of the region is drained mainly by the tributaries of [[Indus River|Indus]]–[[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]] and the [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]] waters a small portion on the eastern border. The in-between land which encompasses the city of [[Delhi]], largely consists of no major streams except the seasonal [[Ghaggar River]]. The region has a humid sub tropical climate with dry winters and receives the major part of rainfall during the [[south west monsoon]] between July to September.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
=== Ganga Plain === | |||
[[File:Indo-Gangetic Plain.jpg|thumb|Ganga Plains encompassing the eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain over northern and eastern India.]] | |||
The Ganga Plain forms the largest sub-unit of the plains and encompasses an area of {{cvt|375000|km2}} across the states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], and [[West Bengal]]. The [[Ganges]] along with its tributaries such as the [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Ghaghara River|Ghagara]], [[Gandak River|Gandak]], [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Kosi River|Kosi]], and [[Sone River|Sone]] drain the region. The various rivers and streams originating from both the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Deccan Plateau]] contribute to fertile soil in the region. The region gently slopes towards the south east and consists of three regions: Upper, Middle and Lower Ganga Plains. The Upper Ganga Plain stretches {{cvt|149000|km2}} from the [[Sivalik Hills|Shivalik]] range in the north and the Deccan Plateau in the south with the Yamuna River forming the rough western boundary. The region extends {{cvt|550|km}} in the north-south direction and is about {{cvt|380|km}} wide with an average elevation of {{cvt|100-300|m}}.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
The Middle Ganga Plain stretches to the east of the Upper Ganga plain and forms part of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It covers an area of {{cvt|1.44|km2}}, stretching {{cvt|330|km}} in north-south direction and {{cvt|600|km}} in the east-west direction. The elevation varies from {{cvt|100|m}} in the western boundary to {{cvt|30|m}} towards the south east. This plain is largely drained by Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi rivers. The Lower Ganga Plain includes parts of Bihar, West Bengal and most of [[Bangladesh]]. It stretches for {{cvt|81000|km2}} along a {{cvt|580|km}} stretch from the foot hills of the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Bay of Bengal]] in the south, and extends between the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in the west and Bangladesh's eastern boundary with India. The average elevation is {{cvt|50|m}} along the western boundary.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
=== Brahmaputra Valley === | |||
[[File:Ganges_Delta_ESA22274217.jpeg|thumb|[[Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]]]] | |||
The [[Brahmaputra Valley]] largely covers the Indian state of [[Assam]] and is an eastern extension of the plains. It stretches from the [[Eastern Himalayas]] in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in the north, to the [[Garo Hills|Garo]]-[[Khasi Hills|Khasi]]-[[Jaintia Hills|Jaintia]] and [[Mikir Hills]] in the south. Its has the [[Patkai]] and [[Naga Hills]] to the east and the boundary of the Lower Ganga Plain to the west. The region covers an estimated {{cvt|56000|km2}} and is watered by [[Brahmaputra]] and its tributaries. The elevation varies from {{cvt|130|m}} in the east to {{cvt|30|m}} in the west.<ref name="UGC"/> | |||
=== Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta === | |||
The [[Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]] is the [[river delta]] formed by the [[Ganges]] and [[Brahmaputra]] rivers when they enter the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Spread over the [[Bengal region]], consisting of Bangladesh and the Indian state of [[West Bengal]], it is the world's largest river delta and is one of the most fertile regions of the plains.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Seth Mydans |title=Life in Bangladesh Delta: On the Edge of Disaster |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/21/world/life-in-bangladesh-delta-on-the-edge-of-disaster.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=21 June 1987 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104181307/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/21/world/life-in-bangladesh-delta-on-the-edge-of-disaster.html |archive-date=4 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-is-the-largest-delta-in-the-world.html|title=Where Is The Largest Delta In The World?|website=WorldAtlas|date=25 April 2017|access-date=8 November 2024|archive-date=13 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613173115/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-is-the-largest-delta-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The delta stretches from about {{cvt|260|km}} from the [[Hooghly River]] east to the [[Meghna River]] in the west.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-delta|title=Ganges delta|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=19 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619181910/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-delta|url-status=live}}</ref> It encompasses an area of more than {{cvt|100000|km2}} with two-thirds of it in Bangladesh. It is also one of the most densely populated regions in the world with more than 130 million inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.delta-alliance.org/deltas/ganges-brahmaputra-delta|title=Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta|work=Delta alliance|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=27 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227185241/http://www.delta-alliance.org/deltas/ganges-brahmaputra-delta|url-status=live}}</ref> The area is prone to heavy [[tropical cyclone]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=53274 |title=History and Society/Disasters/Cyclone Deaths |website=Guinness World Records |access-date=12 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119041251/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=53274 |archive-date=19 November 2005}}</ref> Agriculture and fishing form important part of the economy in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bowden |first=Rob |title=The Ganges |date=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGvMz4bMACAC |series=A River Journey |location=Chicago |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |isbn=978-0-739-86070-0 |page=44}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | |||
* Ecoregions | |||
** [[Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests]] | |||
** [[Northwestern thorn scrub forest]] | |||
** [[Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands]] | |||
** [[Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests]] | |||
* [[Eastern Coastal Plains]] | |||
* [[Western Coastal Plains]] | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
== References == | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
== Bibliography == | |||
* {{cite book|author=Jadunath Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoRDAAAAYAAJ|title=Military History of India|date=1960|publisher=Orient Longmans|isbn=9780861251551|language=en}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Satish Chandra |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PG26 |year=2006 |orig-year=First published 1997 |edition=3rd |publisher=Har-Anand |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5}} | |||
{{Geography of India}} | |||
{{GeoSouthAsia}} | |||
{{coord|27|N|80|E|region:IN|display=title}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
[[Category:Plains of India]] | |||
[[Category:Plains of Pakistan]] | |||
[[Category:Plains of Nepal]] | |||
[[Category:Plains of Bangladesh]] | |||
[[Category:Plains of Asia]] | |||