Shiva: Difference between revisions

{{short description|One of the principal deities of Hinduism}}

{{about|the Hindu god|the Jewish period of mourning|Shiva (Judaism)|other uses|Shiva (disambiguation)}}

{{redirect|Neelkanth|The bird|Indian roller}}

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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}

| caption =Shiva holding [[trishula]] and [[damaru]]  

| script_name = [[Devanagari]]

| script = {{lang|sa|शिव}}

| day = [[Monday]] and also [[Thrayodashi]]

| mantra = * [[Om Namah Shivaya]]

* [[Mahamrityunjaya Mantra]]

| affiliation = [[Trimurti]], [[Ishvara]], [[Parabrahman]] and [[Paramatman]] ([[Shaivism]])

Master of Poison and Medicine, the Great Yogi, God of [[Kāla|Time]], the Cosmic Dancer

[[Para Brahman]], the Supreme Being (Shaivism)<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA445|year=2008 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.|isbn=978-1593394912 |pages=445–448}}</ref>

| weapon = [[Trishula]], [[Pashupatastra]], [[Parashu]], [[Pinaka (Hinduism)|Pinaka bow]]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}

| symbols = [[Lingam]],{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}} [[Crescent]] Moon, [[Damaru]] (Drum), [[Vasuki]]

| spouse = [[Parvati]]/[[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]]{{refn|group=note|Sati, the first wife of Shiva, was reborn as Parvati after she immolated herself. According to [[Shaivism]], Parvati has various appearances like [[Durga]] and [[Kali]] with the supreme aspect of [[Adi Shakti]] which are also associated with Shiva. All these goddesses are the same [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atma (Self)]] in different bodies.{{sfn|Kinsley|1998|p=35}}}}

| children = [[Kartikeya]] (son)<br>[[Ganesha]] (son){{sfn|Cush|Robinson|York|2008|p=78}}{{sfn|Williams|1981|p=62}}<br>[[Ashokasundari]] (daughter)

* Cremation grounds ([[Shmashana Adhipati]])

| mount = [[Nandi (bull)]]{{sfn|Javid|2008|pp=20–21}}

| festivals = [[Maha Shivaratri]], [[Shravana]], [[Kartik Purnima]], [[Bhairava Ashtami]]{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=137, 186}}

| other_names = Shankara, Bholenath, Maheśvara, Mahadeva, [[Rudra]], [[Mahakala]], [[Sadashiva]], [[Batara Guru|Batara Siwa]], [[Nataraja]], Sarvesh

'''Shiva ''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ɪ|v|ə}}; {{lang-sa|शिव|lit=The Auspicious One|Śiva}} {{IPA-sa|ɕɪʋɐ|}}<!-- Do not remove, WP:INDICSCRIPT doesn't apply to WikiProject Hinduism -->), also known as '''Mahadeva''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|'|h|ɑː|_|'|d|ei|v|ə}}; {{Lang-sa|महादेव:|links=no|lit=The Great God|Mahādevaḥ}} [[Help:IPA/Sanskrit|[mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ]]]),{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} or '''Hara''',{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/shiva-in-mythology-let-s-reimagine-the-lord-magazine-231225|title=Shiva In Mythology: Let's Reimagine The Lord}}</ref> He is the [[God in Hinduism|Supreme Being]] in [[Shaivism]], one of the major traditions within [[Hinduism]].{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=17, 153|Sivaraman|1973|2p=131}}

Shiva is known as "The Destroyer" within the [[Trimurti]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] trinity which also includes [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]].{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}}{{sfn|Gonda|1969}} In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} In the goddess-oriented [[Shaktism|Shakta]] tradition, the Supreme Goddess ([[Devi]]) is regarded as the energy and creative power (Shakti) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva.{{sfn|Kinsley|1988|pp=50, 103–104}}{{sfn|Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}

Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient [[Yogi]] who lives an [[Asceticism#Hinduism|ascetic life]] on [[Mount Kailash]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}} as well as a householder with his wife [[Parvati]] and his three children, [[Ganesha]], [[Kartikeya]] and [[Ashokasundari]]. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first [[Yogi]]), regarded as the patron god of [[yoga]], [[Meditation#Hinduism|meditation]] and the arts.<ref>''Shiva Samhita'', e.g. {{harvnb|Mallinson|2007}}; {{harvnb|Varenne|1976|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Marchand|2007}} for Jnana Yoga.</ref>

The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent [[Vasuki]] around his neck, the adorning [[crescent]] moon, the [[holy river]] [[Ganga]] flowing from his matted hair, the [[third eye]] on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the [[trishula]] or trident as his weapon, and the [[damaru]] drum. He is usually worshipped in the [[aniconic]] form of [[lingam]].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}

Shiva has pre-Vedic roots,{{sfnm|Sadasivan|2000|1p=148|Sircar|1998|2pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}} and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the [[Rigvedic deity|Rigvedic]] [[wind god|storm god]] [[Rudra]] who may also have non-Vedic origins,{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=152}} into a single major deity.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=148–149|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii|Granoff|2003|3pp=95–114|Nath|2001|4p=31}} Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in [[Hinduism in India|India]], [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]] (especially in [[Java]] and [[Bali]]).{{sfnm|Keay|2000|1p=xxvii|Flood|1996|2p=17}}

The [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit]] word ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śaiva}}'' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=927}} It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}} (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}... " see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=149}}</ref>

{{See also|History of Shaivism|l1=}}

{{See also|Hinduism#Roots of Hinduism|l1=Roots of Hinduism}}

 

The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the [[Indian subcontinent]], such as India, [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]],{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1p=17|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii}} and [[Southeast Asia]], such as [[Bali, Indonesia]].{{sfn|Boon|1977|pp=143, 205}} Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots,{{sfnm|Sadasivan|2000|1p=148|Sircar|1998|2pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}} having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols."{{sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=148}} The figure of Shiva as we know him today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of [[Sanskritization]] and the emergence of the [[Hindu synthesis]] in post-Vedic times.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=148–149|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii|Granoff|2003|3pp=95–114}} How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see {{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=147}}</ref> According to Vijay Nath:

==== Pre-historic art ====

[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|The [[Pashupati seal]] discovered during excavation of the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley]] archaeological site of [[Mohenjo-Daro]] and showing a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure as [[Pashupati|Paśupati]] (Lord of the Animals" c. 2350–2000 BCE]]

The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. [[McEvilley]], for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McEvilley|first=Thomas|date=1981-03-01|title=An Archaeology of Yoga| journal=Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics| volume=1| page =51| doi= 10.1086/RESv1n1ms20166655|s2cid=192221643|issn=0277-1322 }}</ref> Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate.<ref>Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521795661}}, pp. 240–250</ref> Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L.|date=2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0759116429|pages=140–144|author-link=Gregory Possehl}}</ref>

 

=== Vedic elements ===

According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the [[Zeravshan River]] (present-day [[Uzbekistan]]) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which according to Beckwith borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink [[Soma (drink)|Soma]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}}

In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīya'']], some epithets of Rudra, such as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.{{refn|group=note|For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sasipañjara}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tivaṣīmati}} see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=45}}.}} Agni is said to be a bull,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |access-date=2010-06-06}}</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]]. The horns of [[Agni]], who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=89}}.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture, both [[Agni]] and the form of Shiva known as [[Bhairava]] have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and [[Saṃsāra|liberator of Selfs]] from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Svetasvatara-Upanishad-~-Chap-3-The-Highest-Reality-1.aspx | title=Svetasvatara Upanishad - Chap 3 the Highest Reality }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/edit-page/speaking-tree-the-trika-tradition-of-kashmir-shaivism/articleshow/4822600.cms | title=Speaking Tree: The Trika Tradition of Kashmir Shaivism | website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' presents pluralism, [[pantheism]], or [[henotheism]], rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.{{sfnm|Hume|1921|1pp=399, 403|Hiriyanna|2000|2pp=32–36|3a1=Kunst|3y=1968|Srinivasan|1997|4loc=pp. 96–97 and Chapter 9}}

Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of [[Yogi]]s, and the teacher of [[Yoga]] to sages.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/22 22]}} As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme [[guru]] who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (''atman'') with the ultimate reality (''brahman'')."{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/23 23] }} Shiva is also an archetype for ''samhara'' ({{lang-sa|संहार}}) or ''dissolution'' which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of ''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', which is why Shiva is associated with [[Yoga]].<ref name="inv07">{{cite book|first1=Krishnan|last1=Ramaswamy|first2=Antonio|last2=de Nicolas|first3=Aditi|last3=Banerjee|title=Invading the Sacred|page=59|isbn=978-8129111821|publisher=Rupa Publication|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samhara|title=Samhara, Saṃhāra: 18 definitions|date=3 August 2014}}</ref>

* '''Third eye''': Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]], with which he burned Desire ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[Kamadeva|Kāma]]}}) to ashes,<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=151}}.</ref> called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: ''त्र्यम्बकम् ''), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=37–39}}.</ref> In classical Sanskrit, the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'', Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=38–39}}.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ambā}}'' or ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=483}}.</ref><ref>For Vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.</ref> These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref> Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikā}} variant, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=17, 37}}.</ref>

* '''Blue throat''': The epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nīlakaṇtha}} (Sanskrit {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = "blue", ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|kaṇtha}}'' = "throat").<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in {{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=31}}.</ref> Since Shiva drank the [[Halahala]] poison churned up from the [[Samudra manthan|Samudra Manthana]] to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}} This attribute indicates that one can become Shiva by swallowing the worldly poisons in terms of abuses and insults with equanimity while blessing those who give them.<ref name="Neelkanth">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dadabhagwan.org/about/trimandir/lord-shiva/|title=Lord Shiva &#124; Shiv &#124; God Shiva &#124; Shiva God &#124; Mahadev &#124; Lord Shiv &#124; Neelkanth|website=www.dadabhagwan.org}}</ref>

| image1 = Masque de Bhairava (musée dart asiatique de Berlin) (2707467043).jpg

| width1 = 150

| footer = Shiva is represented in his many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226532301|pages=25–26}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]] icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]].

The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'', which means "to cry, howl".<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981|p=5}}.</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means "wild, of ''rudra'' nature", and translates the name ''[[Rudra]]'' as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981}}, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}} Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama|Shiva sahasranama]]'', where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}} Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} "time" and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahākāla}} "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=476|Kramrisch|1981|2p=474}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}} [[Bhairava]] "terrible" or "frightful"{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=727|loc=left column}} is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śaṇkara}}, "beneficent"{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}} or "conferring happiness"{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=481}} reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great [[Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] (c. 788–820),{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=92}} who is also known as Shankaracharya.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śambhu}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|शम्भु}} swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}}{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}}

[[File:2 image collage of Shiva as yogi and householder.jpg|thumb|Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with goddess [[Parvati]].|276x276px]]

[[Bhikshatana]] ([[Sanskrit]] भिक्षाटन; ''Bhikṣāṭana'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "wandering about for alms, mendicancy" <ref>{{cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |title=Sanskrit-English Dictionary |publisher=Universität zu Köln |year=2008 |origyear=1899 |page=756}}</ref>). Bhikshatana is depicted as a nude four-armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants. The nudity and begging bowl are associated with the [[Kapalika|kapali]] tradition. This form of Shiva is associated with his penance for committing brahmicide, and with his encounters with the sages and their wives in the Deodar forest.

[[Ardhanarishvara]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: अर्धनारीश्वर; ''Ardhanārīśvara'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "the lord who is half woman"<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>). Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. [[Ardhanarishvara]] represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how [[Shakti]], the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Ardhanārīśvara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara |access-date=26 January 2011}}</ref>

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcabrahman]]}}.<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=182–189}}.</ref> As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=185}}.</ref> These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcamukha]]}}'' and ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcavaktra]]}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=578}}, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=187}}.</ref> The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch, "

The ''Linga Purana'' states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The ''Linga Purana'' and [[Ishvara Gita|Siva Gita]] texts builds on this foundation.{{Sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|pp=171–185}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Anantharaman|last=K.V|title=Siva Gita A Critical Study|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/295754|chapter=Chapter X – Omnipotence of Siva Linga|hdl=10603/295754}}</ref> Linga, states [[Alain Daniélou]], means sign.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222">{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=The Myths and Gods of India |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani|url-access=registration|series=Princeton Bollingen Series|year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0892813544|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/222 222]–224}}</ref> It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of [[Brahman]], which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/>

[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] states one of the three significations, the primary one, of ''Lingam'' as "[[Purusha|the imperishable Purusha]]", [[Brahman|the absolute reality]], where says the ''linga'' as "sign", a mark that provides the existence of [[Brahman]], thus the original meaning as "sign".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}} Furthermore, it says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", '''liuga''' ({{lang-sa|लिऊग}} {{IAST3|liūga}}) meaning Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic and, specifically the sign of gender.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}}

Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view ''linga'' as merely a phallic symbol,<ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|isbn=0195202503|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0199360079|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=The Hindus: An Alternative History|publisher=Viking Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0143116691|location=United States}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rohit Dasgupta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHytBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107|title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis|date= 2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0759123144|editor1=Michael Kimmel|page=107|editor2=Christine Milrod|editor3=Amanda Kennedy}}</ref> although this interpretation is criticized by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction}}</ref> [[Sivananda Saraswati]],<ref name="Sivananda 1996">{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|chapter-url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80}}</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]],{{sfn|p=26|Kramrisch|1994a}} [[Swami Agehananda Bharati]],<ref name="abha70">{{cite book|title=The Tantric Tradition|author=Swami Agehananda Bharati|year=1970|isbn=0877282536|publisher=Red Wheel/Weiser|page=294}}</ref> [[S. N. Balagangadhara]],<ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143">{{cite journal|last1=Balagangadhara |first1=S. N. |last2=Claerhout |first2=Sarah |date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820023251/http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|archive-date=20 August 2009|access-date=18 January 2009}}</ref> and others.<ref name="acahin">{{cite book|isbn=978-9385485015|author=Rajiv Malhotra|title=Academic Hinduphobia: A critique of Wendy Doniger's erotic school of Indology|year=2016|publisher=Voice of India}}</ref><ref name="inreinter">{{cite book|title=Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America|publisher=Rupa & Co.|date=2007|isbn=978-8129111821|chapter=The Hindu Goddess Reinterpreted}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/|author=Amy M. Braverman|year=2004|publisher=University of Chicago|title=The interpretation of gods}}</ref><ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143"/> According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], the ''linga'' in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1981|isbn=978-8120802643|page=543 footnote 4}}</ref> According to [[Sivananda Saraswati]], westerners who are curiously passionate and have impure understanding or intelligence, incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/> Later on, [[Sivananda Saraswati]] mentions that, this is not only a serious mistake, but also a grave blunder.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/>

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book  | last = Harding  | first = Elizabeth U.  | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar  | chapter = God, the Father  | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass  | year = 1998  | pages = 156–157  | isbn = 978-8120814509}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book  | last = Vivekananda  | first = Swami  | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda  | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions  | chapter-url = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm  | volume = 4}}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress" />

Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its Puranas. For example, in the ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last= Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=avatara+Hanuman&pg=PT333 | isbn=978-0195309218}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&q=Hanuman+Rudra&pg=PA10 | isbn=978-8120811225 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' claim sage [[Durvasa]] to be a portion of Shiva.<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter IX}}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter X}}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 – English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120829232539/http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | archive-date= 29 August 2012}}</ref> Some medieval era writers have called the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|translator-first=Sengaku |translator-last=Mayeda |title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC |year=1979 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0791409435 |page=4}}</ref>

  | footer = Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night, usually in lighted temples or special ''prabha'' (above).

[[Thiruvathira]] is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva. It is believed that on this day, Parvati met Shiva after her long penance and Shiva took her as his wife.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/tubers-are-the-veggies-of-the-day-to-celebrate-thiruvathira-in-kerala/article30522721.ece|title=Tubers are the veggies of choice to celebrate Thiruvathira|access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu (folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Shiva's affection).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.manoramaonline.com/travel/essential-kerala/thiruvathira-and-its-unique-traditions.html|title=Thiruvathira – Kerala's own version of Karva Chauth|publisher=Manorama|access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref>

In [[Pakistan]], major Shivaratri celebration occurs at the [[Umarkot Shiv Mandir]] in the [[Umerkot District|Umarkot]]. The three-day [[Shivarathri]] celebration at the temple is attended by around 250,000 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1392074 |title=The thriving Shiva festival in Umarkot is a reminder of Sindh's Hindu heritage |date=27 February 2018 |first1=Zulfiqar Ali |last1=Kalhoro |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |access-date=5 August 2020}}</ref>

The worship of Shiva became popular in [[Central Asia]] through the influence of the [[Hephthalite Empire]]<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 377 ''Classical Hinduism'' By Mariasusai Dhavamony</ref> and [[Kushan Empire]]. Shaivism was also popular in [[Sogdia]] and the [[Kingdom of Yutian]] as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.<ref name="ReferenceB">Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia</ref> In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (''Yajnopavita'').<ref name="ReferenceB" /> He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> A panel from [[Dandan Oilik]] shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref name="unesco427">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf|title=Request Rejected}}</ref> Another site in the [[Taklamakan Desert]] depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> It is also noted that the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] wind god [[Vayu-Vata]] took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.<ref name="unesco427" />

[[File:Tibetan thangka from AD 1500, Mahakala, Protector of the Tent, Central Tibet. Distemper on cloth- (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Mahakala]], c. 1500 CE Tibetan Thangka]]

Shiva is mentioned in the [[Buddhist Tantras]] and worshipped as the fierce deity [[Mahākāla]] in [[Vajrayana]], [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism|Chinese Esoteric]], and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Bryson |author-first=Megan |year=2017 |chapter=Between China and Tibet: Mahākāla Worship and Esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA402 |editor1-last=Bentor |editor1-first=Yael |editor2-last=Shahar |editor2-first=Meir |title=Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Studies on East Asian Religions |volume=1 |pages=402–428 |doi=10.1163/9789004340503_019 |isbn=978-9004340497 |issn=2452-0098}}</ref> In the cosmologies of Buddhist Tantras, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart: Shiva as ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajña]]'' and Shakti as ''[[Upaya|Upāya]]''.<ref name="Kalupahana 2001">{{cite book |last=Kalupahana |first=David J. |author-link=David Kalupahana |year=2001 |origyear=1991 |chapter=Integration of Sūtra and Tantra: Śiva, Śakti interpreted as ''Prajña'', ''Upāya'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC&pg=PA95 |title=Buddhist Thought and Ritual |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |page=95 |isbn=978-8120817739 |oclc=487199178}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aWyaaw9pC0C&pg=PA43 | title=What Is Tantric Practice? | author=Barnaby B. Dhs | page=43 |access-date=13 October 2013| isbn=978-1465330093 | date=2006}}</ref>

In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in art, films, books, tattoos, etc. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/lord-shiva-god-of-cool-things-wendy-doniger/1/261983.html|title=Shiva, the god of cool things|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> and a "bonafide rock hero".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/onmyplate/shiva-the-brand-god-who-never-fails/|title=Shiva, the brand God who never fails|work=Economic Times Blog|access-date=2017-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

Popular films include the [[Gujarati language]] movie ''Har Har Mahadev'',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsKR1RKoJKUC&pg=PA50|title=Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134380701|language=en}}</ref> the [[Kannada]] movie ''[[Gange Gowri]]'' and well-known books include [[Amish Tripathi]]'s ''[[Shiva Trilogy]]'', which has sold over a million copies.<ref name=":1" /> On television, ''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]'', a television serial about Shiva on the [[Life OK]] channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Mahadev-tops-TRP-charts-with-a-new-record-of-8-2-TVR/articleshow/16488940.cms|title=Mahadev tops TRP charts with a new record of 8.2 TVR|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> A 90's television series of [[DD National]] titled [[Om Namah Shivay (1997 TV series)|Om Namah Shivay]] was also based on legends of Shiva.<ref>{{cite news |title=TV series ''Om Namah Shivay'' had 52 songs by top singers: Director Dheeraj Kumar |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/tv-series-om-namah-shivay-had-52-songs-by-top-singers-director-dheeraj-kumar/1868023 |access-date=2 December 2021 |work=www.outlookindia.com/ |agency=IANS |date=16 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

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* {{cite book |last=Vohra |first=Ranbir |title = The Making of India: A Historical Survey| url = https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr| url-access = limited | publisher = M.E. Sharpe| year = 2000| isbn = 978-0765607119}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Wayman|first1=Alex|last2=Singh|first2=Jaideva|title=Review: A Trident of Wisdom: Translation of Paratrisika-vivarana of Abhinavagupta|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=41|issue=2|year=1991|pages=266–268|doi=10.2307/1399778|jstor=1399778}}

* {{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |year=1972 |title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization |orig-year=1946 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0691017786|url=https://archive.org/stream/HeinrichRobertZimmerMythsAndSymbolsInIndianArtAndCivilization/Heinrich%20Robert%20Zimmer%20Myths%20and%20Symbols%20in%20Indian%20Art%20and%20Civilization#page/n3/mode/2up}}