Vijayanagara Empire: Difference between revisions

| common_name            = Vijayanagara Empire

| native_name            = <!--Please do not add "[[WP:INDICSCRIPT]]"-->

| status                = Empire

| government_type        = Monarchy

| p7                    = Musunuri Nayakas

| p8                    = Reddi Kingdom

| s1                    = Wadiyar dynasty

| s2                    = Nayakas of Keladi

| s7                    = Qutb Shahi dynasty

| s8                    = Nayaks of Gingee

| capital                = [[Vijayanagara]] (1336–1565)

[[Penukonda]] (1565–1592)

[[Chandragiri]] (1592–1604)

[[Vellore]] (1604–1646)<ref name=capitals>{{cite book |last=Howes |first=Jennifer |title=The Courts of Pre-colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship |publisher=Psychology Press |date=1998 |page=43 |isbn=978-07-0071-585-5}}</ref>

| religion              = [[Hinduism]]

| currency              = [[Vijayanagara coinage|Varaha]]

| title_leader          = [[Monarch|King]]

| today                  = India

}}

{{Vijayanagara_empire}}

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center

| image1 = Ruins of Bala Krishna Temple Vijayanagara Hampi 1868 Edmund Lyon photo.jpg| caption1 = Krishna temple in 1868

| image2 = Ruins of Vijianuggur, the Volkonda Ramachandra temple in Hampi, Vijayanagara, 1868 photo.jpg| caption2 = Rama temple in 1868

| image4 = Hampi King's Balance Vitthala temple street entrance near river 1856 photo.jpg| caption4 = King's balance in 1858

}}

==Alternative names==

''Karnata Rajya'' (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions<ref name="reviver1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=268}}</ref> and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King [[Krishnadevaraya]] and Telugu work ''Vasu Charitamu''.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=14}} According to historians including Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat, B. A. Saletore, P. B. Desai, and Ram Sharma, "although Robert Sewell mentioned in the body of the text that the empire was called Karnataka, he chose Vijayanagar in the title because he knew Kannada and Telugu groups would fight if he called it Karnataka." As per the historical records exist from the inscriptions available in historical ruins of the empire, it was called ''Karnataka Samrajya'' (translated in English to ''Karnataka Empire'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/karnataka-a-name-centuries-in-the-making-stamped-in-73-101636224147642.html |title=Karnataka: A name centuries in the making, stamped in '73 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date= 7 November 2021|accessdate=2022-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fountainink.in/qna/when-the-south-was-one |title=When the south was one |publisher=Fountain Ink |date= |accessdate=2022-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/book-review-hampi-by-pierre-sylvain-filliozat-and-vasundhara-kavali-filliozat-is-more-than-a-coffee-table-book-on-the-vijayanagar-empire/article38185980.ece#! | title=Book Review: 'Hampi' by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat and Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat is more than a coffee-table book on the Vijayanagar Empire | date=9 January 2022 }}</ref>

| align = right

| image1 = Garuda Temple, Maha Mandapa and Eastern Gopura, Vitthala Temple Complex 1856 photo.jpg

| image2 = The elegant stone chariot.jpg

| footer = The Garuda stone chariot and Vitthala temple gopuram in 1856 (left) and 2016.

}}

The empire reached its peak during the rule of [[Krishna Deva Raya]] when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.{{sfn| Eaton|2006|pp=88–89}} The empire gained territory formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan, such as Raichur and Gulbarga from the Bahamani Sultanate, territories in the eastern Deccan from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shahi of Golkonda, and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] region from the Gajapatis of [[Odisha]]. This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan.<ref name="richcity">The notes of Portuguese Barbosa confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city. {{harv|Kamath|2001|p=186}}</ref><ref name="Golkonda">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=part II, p. 37–39}}</ref> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of King Krishnadevaraya.<ref name="dibba">{{Harvard citation|Dallapiccola|2001|p=66}}</ref>

===Defeat and decline===

Eventually the [[Deccan sultanates]] to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the [[Battle of Talikota]].{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=96–98}} Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them a greater reach, and their archers used metal cross bows which enabled them to reach longer distance targets. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow moving war elephants, a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter reach javelines, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with the Sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of the Sultanates. The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=191}}{{sfn|Eaton|2006|p=98}}{{sfn|Kamath|2001|pp=172–173}} Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the [[Vijayanagara army]], which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army plundered [[Hampi (town)|Hampi]] and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today.{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=98–101}}

==Governance==

[[File:Hampi group of monuments-Hampi-Karnataka-DSC 7874.jpg|thumb|Corridor at Temple from Vijayanagara  capital [[Hampi]].]]

[[File:Kannada inscription (1509 AD) of Krishnadeva Raya at entrance to mantapa of Virupaksha temple in Hampi.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=|Kannada inscription of King Krishnadeva Raya, dated 1509, at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi, describing his coronation and the construction of the large open mantapa]]

[[File:Hampi aug09 56.jpg|thumb|left|Paddy fields in Vijayanagara capital Hampi]]

According to Abdur Razzak, much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated.<ref name="ports"/> Most of the growers were [[tenant farmer]]s and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment.<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak in {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=298}}</ref> Salt production and the manufacture of [[Salt pan (evaporation)|salt pans]] were controlled by similar means. The making of [[ghee]] (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable.<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak in {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=299}}</ref> Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, [[semi-precious stone]]s, ivory, rhino horn, [[ebony]], [[amber]], coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The ports of [[Mangalore]], [[Honavar]], [[Bhatkal]], [[Barkur]], [[Cochin]], [[Kannur|Cannanore]], [[Machilipatnam]], and [[Dharmadam]] were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers.<ref name="ports">From the notes of Abdur Razzak in {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=304}}</ref>

When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities ([[Arabs]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Gujar Khan|Guzerates]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorassanians]]) settled in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], drawn by the thriving trade business.<ref name="ports"/> Ship building prospered and [[keel]]ed ships between 1000 and 1200 ''bahares'' ([[Tonnage|burden]]) were built without decks by sewing the entire [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the [[Red Sea]] ports of [[Aden]] and [[Mecca]] with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as [[Venice]]. The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, [[cinnamon]], cardamom, [[Prunus cerasifera|myrobalan]], [[Tamarind|tamarind timber]], [[Golden Shower Tree|anafistula]], precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, [[musk]], [[ambergris]], [[rhubarb]], [[aloe]], cotton cloth and [[porcelain]].<ref name="ports"/> Cotton yarn was shipped to [[Burma]] and [[indigo]] to [[Persia]]. Chief imports from [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] were [[copper]], quicksilver ([[mercury (element)|mercury]]), [[vermilion]], coral, [[saffron]], coloured velvets, [[rose water]], knives, colored [[camlet]]s, gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. [[Silk]] arrived from China and sugar from [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=304–305}}

[[File:15th century aqua duct to Mahanavami platform Pushkarani step well, Hampi Hindu monuments Karnataka 1.jpg|thumb|Raised water-channel or aqueduct for city.]]

[[File:Vijayanagar snakestone.jpg|thumb |alt=Nāga|''[[Nāga]]'', snake worship in Hampi]]

The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries, such as [[Lingayatism]], provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time [[South India]]n women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts.<ref name="finearts">B.A. Saletore in {{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=179}}</ref> [[Tirumalamba|Tirumalamba Devi]] who wrote ''Varadambika Parinayam'' and [[Gangadevi]] the author of ''Madhuravijayam'' were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language.<ref name="femalepoet"/> Early Telugu women poets such as [[Timmakka|Tallapaka Timmakka]] and [[Molla (poet)|Atukuri Molla]] became popular. Further south the provincial [[Nayaks of Tanjore]] patronised several women poets. The [[Devadasi system]], as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of [[harem]]s among men of the royalty and the existence of [[seraglio]] is well known from records.<ref name="prostitute">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=180}}</ref>

[[File:Karnataka Hampi IMG 0730.jpg|thumb |alt=Virupaksha Temple, Hampi|''[[Virupaksha Temple, Hampi]]'']]

[[File:Ugranarasimha statue at Hampi.JPG|thumb |upright=0.75 |alt=Narasimha|''Ugra'' ''[[Narasimha]]'' monolith at Hampi]]

In addition to epigraphs and coins, the sources of Vijayanagara history (its origin, social and political life and eventual defeat) are the accounts of foreign travelers and contemporary literary sources in Sanskrit, Kannada, Persian and Telugu. The Portuguese visitors to the empire were Domingo Paes (1522), [[Fernão Nunes]] (1537),<ref name="portuguese">{{harvnb|Davison-Jenkins|2001|p=63,72,98,99}}</ref> [[Duarte Barbosa]] (1516) and Barradas (1616), and Athanasius Nikitin (1470) came from Russia.<ref name="other-portuguese">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Introductory p. ix,x}}</ref> [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1420),<ref name="nicoli">{{harvnb|Sattar|Sharma|Pokharia|2010|p=245}}</ref> [[Ludovico di Varthema]] (1505), Caesar Fredericci (1567) and Filippo Sassetti (1585)<ref name="Ramaraya">{{harvnb|Savile|1996|p=858}}</ref>{{sfn|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|pp=304–305}} were travelers from Italy and Abdur Razzak (1443)<ref name="persian">{{harvnb|Sinopoli|Morrison|2001|p=101,104}}</ref> visited from Persia. Contemporary Muslim writers who were either under the patronage of rival kingdoms (the Sultanates) or were visitors to Vijayanagara and accomplished valuable works are [[Ziauddin Barani]] (''Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi'', 1357), Isamy (''Fatuhat us salatin''), Syed Ali Tabatabai (''Burhan-i-Maisar'', 1596), Nisammuddin Bakshi, [[Firishta]] (''Tarik-i-Firishta'') and Rafiuddin Shirazi (''Tazkirat ul Mulk'', 1611).<ref name="Barani">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Introductory ix, part II, p. 9}}</ref> Among writings by native authors, the important Sanskrit works that shed light on the empire are ''Vidyaranya Kalajnana'', Dindima's ''Ramabhyudayam'' on the life of King Saluva Narasimha, Dindima II's ''Achyutabhyudayam'' and Tirumalamba's ''Varadambika Parinayam''. Among Kannada literary works, ''Kumara Ramana Kathe'' by Nanjunda Kavi, ''[[Mohanatarangini]]'' by [[Kanakadasa]], ''Keladiripavijayam'' by Linganna and the recently discovered ''Krishnadevarayana Dinachari'' are useful sources, and among Telugu works, Srinatha's ''Kashikanda'', Mallayya and Singayya's ''Varahapuranamu'', Vishvanatha Nayani's ''Rayavachakamu'', Nandi Timmanna's ''Parijathapaharanamu'', Durjati's ''Krishnaraja Vijayamu'', Peddanna's ''Manucharitamu'' and King Krishnadevaraya's ''[[Amuktamalyada]]'' are important sources of information.<ref name="sources">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|pp=157–158}}</ref><ref name="nativeworks">{{harvnb|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|loc=Introductory p. ix}}</ref>

The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold ''Varaha'' (or ''Hun/Honnu'', ''Gadyana'') weighted 50.65 {{endash}} 53 grains. The ''Partab'' or ''Pratapa'' was valued at half a ''Varaha'', the ''Fanam'', ''Phanam'' or ''Hana'', an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the ''Varaha''. A ''Tar'' made of pure silver was a sixth of a ''Phanam'' and a ''Chital'' made of brass was a third of the ''Tar''. ''Haga'', ''Visa'' and ''Kasu'' were also coins of lower denominations.<ref name="Varaha">{{harvnb|Sinopoli|2003|p=105}}</ref><ref name="hana">{{harvnb|Kamath|2001|p=176}}</ref>

===Architecture===

Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic [[Percy Brown (scholar)|Percy Brown]] is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]], [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]], [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.<ref>{{harv|Kamath|2001|p=182}}.</ref> Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate [[Column|pillared]] ''Kalyanamantapa'' (marriage hall), ''Vasanthamantapa'' (open pillared halls) and the ''Rayagopura'' (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at [[Vijayanagara]] is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="heritage">{{cite news|title=Group of Monuments at Hampi-Cultural Sites|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241|work=UNESCO |access-date=27 April 2021|location=World Heritage Centre, Paris, France|date=1986}}</ref>

An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many [[arch]]es, [[dome]]s and [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] that show these influences. The concentration of structures like [[Chhatri|pavilions]], [[stable]]s and [[tower]]s suggests they were for use by royalty.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2001|p=10}} The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been [[Mughal architecture|Muslim architects]]. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.{{sfn|Philon|2001|p=87}} The "Great Platform" (''Mahanavami Dibba'') has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.{{sfn|Dallapiccola|2001|p=69}}

[[File:Sultan of Delhi (top) and King of Vijayanagar (bottom) in the Catalan Atlas of 1375.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Tughlaq dynasty|Sultan of Delhi]] (top, flag: [[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|15px]]) and King of Vijayanagara (bottom, with "Christian" flag: [[File:Flag of the Kigdom of Colombo, Catalan Atlas 1375.png|15px]]), named as "[[Kollam|King of Colombo]]" after the city of [[Kollam]]. His caption reads: ''Here rules the king of [[Kollam|Colombo]], a Christian.'' He was mistakenly identified as Christian because of the Christian mission established in Kollam by [[Jordanus]] since 1329.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liščák |first1=Vladimír |title=Mapa mondi (Catalan Atlas of 1375), Majorcan cartographic school, and 14th century Asia |journal=International Cartographic Association |date=2017 |page=5 |url=https://www.proc-int-cartogr-assoc.net/1/69/2018/ica-proc-1-69-2018.pdf}}</ref><ref>Several of the location names too are accurate, in {{cite book |title=Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic-Islamic World, 1100–1500: Divergent Traditions |date=17 June 2021 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-44603-8 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eq0zEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |language=en}}</ref> Detail of the [[Catalan Atlas]] of 1375.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massing |first1=Jean Michel |last2=Albuquerque |first2=Luís de |last3=Brown |first3=Jonathan |last4=González |first4=J. J. Martín |title=Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration |date=1 January 1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-05167-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMK-Ba0-RG4C&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref>]]

In the memoirs of [[Niccolò de' Conti]], an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and traveller who visited Hampi about 1420, the city had an estimated circumference of {{convert|60|miles|km}} and it enclosed agriculture and settlements in its fortifications. In 1442, [[Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī|Abdul Razzaq]], who visited from [[Persia]], described it as a city with seven layers of forts, with outer layers for agriculture, crafts and residence, the inner third to seventh layers very crowded with shops and bazaars (markets).<ref>{{cite book|author=Carla M. Sinopoli|title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA146|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44074-5|pages=146–149}}</ref>

* [[Vijayanagara military]]

* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]]

{{clear}}

}}

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

* {{cite book | last =Dhere | first =Ramchandra | year =2011 | title =Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur South Asia Research  | publisher =Oxford University Press, 2011 | isbn =9780199777648 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=jUeeAgAAQBAJ}}

* {{cite book |last=Durga Prasad |first=J. |title=History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D. |year=1988 |publisher=P.G. Publisher |location=Guntur |url=http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf |access-date=27 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422120411/http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2006 }}

* {{cite book|last1=Fritz |first1=John M. |last2=Michell |first2=George |title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year=2001|publisher=MARG|location=Mumbai|pages=|isbn=978-81-85026-53-4|chapter=Introduction}}

* {{Citation | last =Goodding | first =Robert A. | year =2013 | chapter =A Theologian in a South Indian Kingdom: The Historical Context of the Jivanmuktiviveka of Vidyaranya | editor-last =Lindquist | editor-first =Steven E. | title =Religion and Identity in South Asia and Beyond: Essays in Honor of Patrick Olivelle | publisher =Anthem Press}}

* {{cite book |last=Philon |first=Helen |year=2001 |chapter=Plaster decoration on Sultanate-styled courtly buildings |editor1-first=John M. |editor1-last=Fritz |editor2-first=George |editor2-last=Michell |title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara |publisher=MARG |location=Mumbai |isbn=978-81-85026-53-4}}

* {{cite book |last=Rice |first=B. Lewis |author-link=B. Lewis Rice |orig-year=1897 |year=2001 |title=Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government |url=https://archive.org/details/mysoregazetteerc01rice/page/n6/mode/2up |volume=1 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi, Madras |isbn=978-81-206-0977-8 }}

* {{cite book |last=Savile|first=Charles|editor1-last=Schellinger|editor1-first=Paul E. |editor-last2=Salkin|editor-first2=Robert M.|year=1996 |chapter=vol 5, Asia & Oceania |title=International Dictionary of Historical Places|publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=1-884964-04-4}}

* {{cite book |last=Sewell |first=Robert |year=1901 |title=A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/3310/pg3310.html}}

* {{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |year=2003 |title=The Penguin History of Early India |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0-14-302989-2}}

* {{cite book |last=Talbot |first=Cynthia|author-link=|year=2002 |title=Precolonial India in Practice:Society, Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York |isbn=0-19-513661-6}}

* {{cite book |last=Verghese |first=Anila |year=2001 |chapter=Memorial stones |editor1-first=John M. |editor1-last=Fritz |editor2-first=George |editor2-last=Michell |title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara |publisher=MARG |location=Mumbai |isbn=978-81-85026-53-4}}

* {{cite book|last=Wagoner|first=Phillip|editor=John M. Fritz |editor2=George Michell|title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year=2001|publisher=MARG|location=Mumbai|pages=|isbn=978-81-85026-53-4|chapter=Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas}}

==External links==

{{Karnataka topics}}

[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1646]]

[[Category:Medieval Karnataka]]

[[Category:History of Karnataka]]

[[Category:Former empires]]