Tapioca: Difference between revisions

{{About|a purified starch product|use as a root vegetable|Cassava|other uses}}

[[File:Tepung casava.jpg|300px|thumb|Tapioca starch]]

Tapioca is a [[staple food]] for millions of people in [[tropical countries]]. It provides only [[carbohydrate]] food value, and is low in [[protein]], [[vitamin]]s and [[Mineral (nutrient)|minerals]]. In other countries, it is used as a [[thickening agent]] in various manufactured foods.

''Tapioca'' is derived from the word ''tipi'óka'', its name in the [[Tupi–Guarani languages|Tupi]] language spoken by natives when the Portuguese first arrived in the Northeast Region of Brazil around 1500.<ref>{{cite web| title =Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary – tapioca|

url =http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/tapioca| access-date =2007-02-19}}</ref> This Tupi word is translated as 'sediment' or 'coagulant' and refers to the curd-like starch sediment that is obtained in the extraction process.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The cassava plant has either red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove [[linamarin]], a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, which otherwise may be converted into [[cyanide]].<ref name="fao.org">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, "Roots, tubers, plantains, and bananas in human nutrition," Rome, 1990, Ch. 7 "Toxic substances and antinutritional factors." Document available online at http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E00.htm#Contents. Ch. 7 appears at http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity. (Accessed 25 June 2011.)</ref> [[Konzo]] (also called mantakassa) is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava.

Commercially, the starch is processed into several forms: hot soluble powder, meal, pre-cooked fine or coarse flakes, rectangular sticks, and spherical "pearls."<ref>{{cite web|author=Carolina Moura |url=http://snapguide.com/guides/make-your-own-tapioca-pearls-from-scratch/ |title=How to make tapioca pearls |publisher=Snapguide.com |access-date=2014-02-10}}</ref> Pearls are the most widely available shape; sizes range from about 1&nbsp;mm to 8&nbsp;mm in diameter, with 2–3&nbsp;mm being the most common.

Flakes, sticks, and pearls must be soaked well before cooking to rehydrate, absorbing water up to twice its volume. After rehydration, tapioca products become leathery and swollen. Processed tapioca is usually white, but sticks and pearls may be colored. Traditionally, the most common color applied to tapioca has been brown, but recently pastel colors have been available. Tapioca pearls are generally opaque when raw but become [[translucent]] when cooked in boiling water.

Brazil, Thailand, and Nigeria are the world's largest cassava producers. Currently, Thailand accounts for about 60 percent of worldwide exports.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/19/world/asia/19thai.html | work=The New York Times | title=Wasps to Fight Thai Cassava Plague | first=Seth | last=Mydans | date=2010-07-18}}</ref>

Dried tapioca pearls are 11% water and 89% [[carbohydrate]]s, with no [[protein]] or [[fat]].<ref name="nd">{{cite web |title=Tapioca, dried pearls per 100 g |url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/cereal-grains-and-pasta/5733/2 |publisher=Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast; from SR-21 of the USDA National Nutrient Database |access-date=1 July 2020 |date=2018}}</ref> In a 100-gram reference amount, dried tapioca supplies 358 [[calorie]]s and no or only trace amounts of [[dietary mineral]]s and [[vitamin]]s.<ref name=nd/>

Processing of the cassava flour into tapioca pearls requires the intermediate step of a product called tapioca grit. Tapioca grit is dried cassava flour that is partially [[Starch gelatinization|gelatinized]] so that it looks like flakes or irregularly-shaped granules.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Adebowale|first1=A.A.|last2=Sanni|first2=L.O.|last3=Onitilo|first3=M.O.|year=2008|title=Chemical composition and pasting properties of tapioca grits from different cassava varieties and roasting methods.|journal=African Journal of Food Science|volume=2|pages=77–82}}</ref>

In contrast, making starch pearls uses a different process of roasting. To form the pearls, the tapioca grit can be cut or extruded into the shape of pearls, either small ({{convert|3|mm|sp=us}}) or large ({{convert|6-8|mm|sp=us}}).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Collado|first1=Lilia S.|last2=Corke|first2=Harold|year=1998|title=Pasting properties of commercial and experimental starch pearls|journal=Cereal Chemistry|volume=35|issue=1–2|pages=89–96}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Fu|first1=Yi-Chung|last2=Dai|first2=Li|last3=Yang|first3=Binghuei B.|date=2005-02-01|title=Microwave finish drying of (tapioca) starch pearls|journal=International Journal of Food Science & Technology|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=119–132|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00898.x|issn=1365-2621}}</ref> The pearls are subjected to a form of heat-moisture treatment, which can extend shelf life up to 2 years.<ref name=":2" />

Tapioca pearls have many unique properties that contribute to texture and mouth feel. Many of these physical properties are a result of its starch composition and are significantly affected by processing. Tapioca pearls are characteristically soft and chewy, with a prominent elastic texture and translucent appearance.<ref name=":2" />

Tapioca root can be used to manufacture [[biodegradable plastic|biodegradable]] bags developed from a tapioca [[resin]] of the plant as a viable plastic substitute.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/manioc-to-the-rescue-in-the-fight-against-plastic-pollution/a-46125335|title=Manioc to the rescue in the fight against plastic pollution|last=Kasper-Claridge|first=Manuela|date=5 November 2018|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-06-15}}</ref> The product is [[renewable]], [[Reuse|reusable]] and [[recyclable]]. Other tapioca resin products include gloves,<ref>{{Cite patent|title=Disposable biodegradable gloves and preparation method thereof|gdate=2014-01-02|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/CN103740022A/en}}</ref> capes and aprons.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

The low amylose and low residual content, combined with the high molecular weight of its amylose, make tapioca a useful starting material for modification into a variety of specialty products. Tapioca starch applications in specialty products has become increasingly popular. The effects of additives on thermal transitions and physical and chemical properties can affect the quality and storage stability of tapioca-based products.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=Huaiwen Yang* and Yuhsien Lin |title=Effect of Thermal Processing on Flow Properties and Stability of Thickened Fluid Matrices Formulated by Tapioca Starch, Hydroxyl Distarch Phosphate (E-1442), and Xanthan Gum Associating Dysphagia-Friendly Potential - PMC |journal=Polymers |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date=2014-03-19 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=162 |doi=10.3390/polym13010162 |pmid=33406799 |pmc=7795945 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Salt is often added to starch-based products to enhance flavor and functionality, as it can increase the gelatinization temperature of tapioca starch and delay the retrogradation of the gels formed upon cooling. Cations, particularly Na⁺ and Ca²⁺, can interact electrostatically with the oxygen atoms in the glucose molecule of the starch polymer. This interaction induces an antiplasticizing effect and increases competition for available water, increasing the glass transition temperature of the gelatinized molecule.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chuang|first1=Lillian|last2=Panyoyai|first2=Naksit|last3=Shanks|first3=Robert A.|last4=Kasapis|first4=Stefan|title=Effect of salt on the glass transition of condensed tapioca starch systems|journal=Food Chemistry|language=en|volume=229|pages=120–126|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.063|date=15 August 2017|pmid=28372154}}</ref>

All process water streams contain some amount of sulfur dioxide to control the growth of microbes. Dried starch provides a shelf-stable product. For example, uncooked, dried tapioca pearls have at least a 2-year shelf life stability, whereas freshly cooked pearls may last ten days in the refrigerator. This difference is accounted to the water activity difference between the wet and dried product, the former introducing a much more favorable condition for microbes to grow.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fu|first1=Yi-Chung|last2=Dai|first2=Li|last3=Yang|first3=Binghuei B.|title=Microwave finish drying of (tapioca) starch pearls|journal=International Journal of Food Science and Technology|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=119–132|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00898.x|issn=0950-5423|date=16 February 2005}}</ref>

In [[Cuisine of Brazil|Brazilian cuisine]], tapioca is used for different types of meals. In beiju (or biju), also simply called "tapioca," <ref>{{cite web|last=McMenamin|first=Aura|date=2019-06-05|title=At Padoca, Brazilian Comfort Foods that Are Easy on the Wallet|url=https://www.dublininquirer.com/2019/06/05/at-padoca-brazilian-comfort-foods-that-are-easy-on-the-wallet|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-05|website=Dublin Inquirer}}</ref> the tapioca is moistened, strained through a sieve to become a coarse flour, then sprinkled onto a hot griddle or pan, where the heat makes the moist grains fuse into a flatbread which resembles a [[pancake]] or [[Crêpe|crepe]]. Then it may be buttered and eaten like toast (its most common use as a breakfast dish), or it may be filled with savory or sweet fillings, which define the kind of meal the tapioca is used for: breakfast/dinner or dessert. Choices for fillings range from butter, cheese, ham, bacon, vegetables, various kinds of [[meat]], [[chocolate]], [[fruit]]s such as ground coconut, [[condensed milk]], chocolate with slices of banana or [[strawberry]], Nutella and cinnamon among others. This kind of tapioca dish is usually served warm.

The fine-grained tapioca starch is called ''polvilho,'' and it is classified as either "sweet" or "sour." Sour ''polvilho'' is commonly used in dishes such as ''[[pão de queijo]]'' or "cheese bread," in which the starch is mixed with a hard cheese, usually matured [[Minas cheese]] (could be substituted by [[Parmesan cheese]]), eggs and butter and baked in the oven. The final result is an aromatic, chewy, and often crusty kind of bread that is ubiquitous across the country. Sweet ''polvilho'' is commonly used in cookies or cakes.

While frequently associated with [[tapioca pudding]], a dessert in the United States, tapioca is also used in other courses.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/03/dining/tapioca-moves-beyond-its-pudding-phase.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|title=Tapioca Moves Beyond Its Pudding Phase|last=Clark|first=Melissa|date=3 March 1999|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=29 September 2012}}</ref> People on [[gluten-free diet]]s can eat bread made with tapioca flour (however some tapioca flour has wheat added to it). Tapioca syrup is sometimes added as a sweetener to a wide variety of foods and beverages as an alternative to sucrose or corn syrup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancernetwork.com/food-beverage/tapioca-syrup-corn-syrup-replacer|title=Tapioca Syrup is a Corn Syrup Replacer|last=Gardner|first=Robby|website=www.cancernetwork.com|language=en|access-date=2017-06-25}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In various Asian countries, tapioca pearls are widely used and are known as ''sagudana'', ''sabudana'' or ''shabudana'' (pearl [[sago]]) or ''sabba akki'' (in [[Kannada language|Kannada]]). The pearls are used to make snacks. Tapioca pearls are essential ingredients for Taiwanese [[bubble tea]].

[[Krupuk]], or traditional Indonesian crackers, is a significant use of tapioca starch in [[Indonesia]]. The most common krupuk is ''kerupuk kampung'' or ''kerupuk aci'' made of tapioca starch. The tapioca starch might be flavored with minced shrimp as ''krupuk udang'' ([[prawn cracker]]) or ''krupuk ikan'' ([[fish cracker]]). The thinly sliced or sometimes quite thick cassava was also sun-dried and deep fried to be made as ''[[kripik]] singkong'' crackers ([[cassava chips]] or [[tapioca chips]]). A variant of hot and spicy ''kripik singkong'' coated with sugar and chili pepper is known as ''kripik [[balado (food)|balado]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/indonesian/2014-02-07/warga-australia-pun-belajar-membuat-keripik-balado/1261030|title=Warga Australia Pun Belajar Membuat Keripik Balado|website=www.radioaustralia.net.au|language=id|access-date=2018-01-27}}</ref> or ''[[keripik sanjay]]'', a specialty of [[Bukittinggi]] city in West Sumatra.

====South Asia====

=====Bangladesh=====

=== India ===

Tapioca pearls are used to make ''Sabudana [[khichdi]], [[pakoda]]'' in Western India, which is commonly eaten during ''vrat'' (fasting).

It was introduced in 1880-1885 C.E. by the then Maharaja of [[Travancore]], [[Visakham Thirunal|Vishakham Thirunal Rama Varma]] after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.<ref name=Saraswathy2019>Saraswathy Nagarajan, [https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece "How tapioca came to Travancore"], ''The Hindu'', June 27, 2019</ref>

In Lagos, cassava is processed into tapioca which is cooked in coconut milk and sugar; this can be eaten as a breakfast meal or as a dessert at parties or dinner.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rapportnaija.com/2017/08/health-benefits-of-tapioca.html | title=Seven Incredible Health Benefits Of Tapioca}}</ref> This is called ''mengau''.