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{{short description|Indian king and founder of the Maratha Empire (r. 1674–80)}} | {{short description|Indian king and founder of the Maratha Empire (r. 1674–80)}} | ||
{{Other uses|Shivaji (disambiguation)}} | {{Other uses|Shivaji (disambiguation)}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date= | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}} | |||
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}} | {{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}} | ||
{{Infobox royalty | {{Infobox royalty | ||
| name = Shivaji I<!-- | | name = Shivaji I<!-- | ||
NOTE: | NOTE: | ||
OTHER SOVEREIGN ARTICLES SIMPLY STATE NAME, SEE [[Richard III]], [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] FOR PRECEDENT. DO NOT ADD THE TERM "Chatrapati" TO THIS INFOBOX, OR IT WILL JUST BE REMOVED. SEE THE OLD TALK PAGE DISCUSSIONS BEFORE POSTING, AND OUR GUIDELINES ON USING THE MOST COMMON NAME AND AVOIDING HONORIFIC TITLES | OTHER SOVEREIGN ARTICLES SIMPLY STATE NAME, SEE [[Richard III]], [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] FOR PRECEDENT. DO NOT ADD THE TERM "Chatrapati" TO THIS INFOBOX, OR IT WILL JUST BE REMOVED. SEE THE OLD TALK PAGE DISCUSSIONS BEFORE POSTING, AND OUR GUIDELINES ON USING THE MOST COMMON NAME AND AVOIDING HONORIFIC TITLES | ||
--> | --> | ||
| title = Shakakarta{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=222}} | | title = {{br entries|Shakakarta{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=222}}|[[Defender of the Faith#Other|Haindava Dharmoddharak]]<ref name="Chandra1982">{{cite book|author=Satish Chandra|title=Medieval India: Society, the Jagirdari Crisis, and the Village|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRM1AAAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Macmillan|page=140|isbn=978-0-333-90396-4}}</ref>}} | ||
| royal house = [[Bhonsle]] | | royal house = [[House of Bhonsle|Bhonsle]] | ||
| image = Shivaji British Museum.jpg <!-- Consensus at Special:PermaLink/1028625186#Consensus_for_Infobox_image --> | | image = Shivaji British Museum.jpg <!-- Consensus at Special:PermaLink/1028625186#Consensus_for_Infobox_image --> | ||
| caption = Portrait of Shivaji ({{circa|1680s}}), [[British Museum]] | | caption = Portrait of Shivaji ({{circa|1680s}}), [[British Museum]] | ||
| succession = [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|33x30px]] 1st [[Chhatrapati]] of the [[Maratha Empire]] | | succession = [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|33x30px]] 1st [[Chhatrapati]] of the [[Maratha Empire]] | ||
| reign = 1674–1680 | | reign = 1674–1680 | ||
| coronation = 6 June 1674 (first) | | coronation = {{Plainlist| | ||
| predecessor = Position | * 6 June 1674 (first) | ||
| successor = [[Sambhaji | * 24 September 1674 (second) | ||
}} | |||
| predecessor = ''Position established'' | |||
| successor = [[Sambhaji]] | |||
| birth_date = 19 February 1630 | | birth_date = 19 February 1630 | ||
| birth_place = [[Shivneri Fort]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] | | birth_place = [[Shivneri Fort]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] (present-day [[Maharashtra]], India) | ||
| death_date = 3 April 1680 (aged 50) | | death_date = 3 April 1680 (aged 50) | ||
| death_place = [[Raigad Fort]], [[Mahad]], [[Maratha Empire]] | | death_place = [[Raigad Fort]], [[Mahad]], [[Maratha Empire]] (present-day [[Maharashtra]], India) | ||
| spouse = {{Plainlist| | | spouse = {{Plainlist| | ||
* {{marriage|[[Sai Bhonsale]]|1640|1659|end= | * {{marriage|[[Sai Bhonsale]]|1640|1659|end=d.}} | ||
* {{marriage|[[Soyarabai]]|1650}} | * {{marriage|[[Soyarabai]]|1650}} | ||
* {{marriage|[[Putalabai]]|1653}} | * {{marriage|[[Putalabai]]|1653}} | ||
Line 30: | Line 34: | ||
* Kashibai Jadhav{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=260}} | * Kashibai Jadhav{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=260}} | ||
}} | }} | ||
| issue = 8<ref>{{cite book|editor=Anne Feldhaus|author=James Laine|title=Images of women in Maharashtrian literature and religion|date=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-7914-2837-5|page=183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooV3Rz9zQvQC&q=sabhasad+shivaji+rajaram+bakhar&pg=PA97}}</ref> | | issue = 8,<ref>{{cite book|editor=Anne Feldhaus|author=James Laine|title=Images of women in Maharashtrian literature and religion|date=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-7914-2837-5|page=183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooV3Rz9zQvQC&q=sabhasad+shivaji+rajaram+bakhar&pg=PA97}}</ref> including [[Sambhaji]] and [[Rajaram I]] | ||
| father = [[Shahaji]] | | father = [[Shahaji]] | ||
| mother = [[Jijabai]] | | mother = [[Jijabai]] | ||
Line 40: | Line 44: | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Shivaji | '''Shivaji I''' (''Shivaji Shahaji Bhosale''; {{IPA-mr|ʃiʋaːd͡ʒiˑ bʱoˑs(ə)leˑ}}; {{circa|}}19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680<ref>Dates are given according to the [[Julian calendar]], see [http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf Mohan Apte, Porag Mahajani, M. N. Vahia. Possible errors in historical dates: Error in correction from Julian to Gregorian Calendars].</ref>), also referred to as '''Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj''', was an Indian ruler and a member of the [[Bhonsle]] [[Maratha clan]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} Shivaji carved out his own independent kingdom from the declining [[Adilshahi sultanate]] of [[Bijapur]] which formed the genesis of the [[Maratha Empire]]. In 1674, he was formally crowned the ''[[Chhatrapati]]'' of his realm at [[Raigad Fort]].<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Govind Ranade|first=Mahadev|title=Rise of the Maratha Power|publisher=[[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]]|year=1900|location=India}}</ref> | ||
Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the [[Mughal Empire]], the [[Sultanate of Golkonda]], [[Sultanate of Bijapur]] and the [[Colonial India|European colonial powers]]. Shivaji | Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the [[Mughal Empire]], the [[Sultanate of Golkonda]], [[Sultanate of Bijapur]] and the [[Colonial India|European colonial powers]]. Shivaji used the difficult terrain of Western Ghats to his advantage. He captured and built new Hill Forts in Sahyadri Mountain range which proved very difficult for invading forces to capture, particularly Mughal armies. Shivaji perfected and used Guerilla Warfare to great success against much larger armies of Mughals and Deccan Sultanates. Shivaji built a formidable Navy which kept English Navy in check. Shivaji's exploits and potential of Maratha nation threatened Mughals so much that Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb|Aurangzib]] started a campaign to conquer Marathas shortly after Shivaji's Death <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=M. N. |date=1976 |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053980 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=221–235 |doi=10.2307/2053980 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>. This campaign, better known as [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]], was a strategic defeat for Mughals. Aurangzeb failed to crush Marathas, and this campaign had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury and Army <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osborne |first=Eric |date=24 Jun 2020 |title=The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680-1707 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711?journalCode=fswi20 |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies}}</ref>. Shortly after Aurangzeb's death, Marathas marched northwards, and soon confined Mughals to city of Delhi <ref>{{Cite book |last=Capper |first=John |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Delhi, the Capital of India |date=1997 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1282-2 |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref>. | ||
Shivaji | Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil rule with well-structured administrative organisations. He revived ancient Hindu political traditions, court conventions and promoted the usage of the [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Sanskrit]] languages, replacing [[Persian language|Persian]] in court and administration.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> Praised for his chivalrous treatment of Women by his enemies, Shivaji employed people of all castes in his administration and army. | ||
{{ | Shivaji's legacy has varied by observer and time. Contemporary English, French, Dutch, Portugese, and Italian writers praised his exploits and stratagems. Mughal depictions of Shivaji were mostly negative, although most authors praised his chivalrous treatment of women. At the beginning of the [[Indian independence movement]], Indian nationalists elevated him as a proto-nationalist and hero of the [[Hindus]].{{sfn|Wolpert|1962|p=79-81}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Biswas |editor-first1=Debajyoti |editor-last2=Ryan |editor-first2=John Charles |last=Chakraborty |first=Ayusman |title=Nationalism in India: Texts and Contexts |date=14 September 2021 |chapter=The founder of Hindu nationalism? The representation of Shivaji in Philip Meadows Taylor's novel ''Tara'' |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-045282-2 |pages=32 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RC5AEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 |language=en}}</ref> [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Bal Gangadhra Tilak]] painted him as a "opponent of the oppressor". For [[Jyotirao Phule]], he was a hero of Shudras. | ||
== Early life == | == Early life == | ||
{{Main|Early life of Shivaji}} | {{Main|Early life of Shivaji}} | ||
{{See also|Bhonsle#origin}}[[File:Shahaji and Shivaji at Jejuri.jpg|thumb|Young Shivaji (right) meets his father [[Shahaji]] | {{See also|Bhonsle#origin}}[[File:Shahaji and Shivaji at Jejuri.jpg|thumb|Young Shivaji (right) meets his father [[Shahaji]] (left).|left]] | ||
Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of [[Shivneri]], near the city of [[Junnar]], which is now in [[Pune district]]. Scholars disagree on his date of birth. The [[Government of Maharashtra]] lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth ([[Shiv Jayanti|Shivaji Jayanti]]).{{efn|Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate. This [[Julian calendar]] date of that period (1 March 1630 of today's [[Gregorian calendar]]) corresponds<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Mohan |last1=Apte |first2=Parag |last2=Mahajani |first3=M. N. |last3=Vahia|title=Possible errors in historical dates|journal=Current Science|volume=84|issue=1|pages=21|date =January 2003|url=http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf}}</ref> to the [[Hindu calendar]] birth date from contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book|first=A. R. |last=Kulkarni|title=Jedhe Shakavali Kareena|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003539370|date=2007|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-89959-35-7|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kavindra Parmanand Nevaskar|title=Shri Shivbharat|url=https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat|date=1927|publisher=Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat/page/n140 51]}}</ref><ref name="ApteParanjpe1927">{{cite book|author=D.V Apte and M.R. Paranjpe|title=Birth-Date of Shivaji|url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/32857|date=1927|publisher=The Maharashtra Publishing House|pages=6–17}}</ref> Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day.<ref name="Sib_Pada">{{cite book|title=Historians and historiography in modern India|author=Siba Pada Sen|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies|year=1973|isbn=978-81-208-0900-0|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = History of India | author = N. Jayapalan| publisher = Atlantic Publishers & Distri| year = 2001 | isbn = 978-81-7156-928-1| page = 211}}</ref>}}<ref name="sen2">{{cite book |author=Sailendra Sen|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=196–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Holidays|url=https://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/HolidayList-2016.pdf|website=maharashtra.gov.in|access-date=19 May 2018}}</ref> Shivaji was named after a local deity, the goddess Shivai Devi.<s><!--</s> <s> "Shivai Devi" not Shiva --></s>{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=19}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laine |first1=James W. |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |url=https:// | Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of [[Shivneri]], near the city of [[Junnar]], which is now in [[Pune district]]. Scholars disagree on his date of birth. The [[Government of Maharashtra]] lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth ([[Shiv Jayanti|Shivaji Jayanti]]).{{efn|Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate. This [[Julian calendar]] date of that period (1 March 1630 of today's [[Gregorian calendar]]) corresponds<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Mohan |last1=Apte |first2=Parag |last2=Mahajani |first3=M. N. |last3=Vahia|title=Possible errors in historical dates|journal=Current Science|volume=84|issue=1|pages=21|date =January 2003|url=http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf}}</ref> to the [[Hindu calendar]] birth date from contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book|first=A. R. |last=Kulkarni|title=Jedhe Shakavali Kareena|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003539370|date=2007|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-89959-35-7|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kavindra Parmanand Nevaskar|title=Shri Shivbharat|url=https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat|date=1927|publisher=Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat/page/n140 51]}}</ref><ref name="ApteParanjpe1927">{{cite book|author=D.V Apte and M.R. Paranjpe|title=Birth-Date of Shivaji|url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/32857|date=1927|publisher=The Maharashtra Publishing House|pages=6–17}}</ref> Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day.<ref name="Sib_Pada">{{cite book|title=Historians and historiography in modern India|author=Siba Pada Sen|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies|year=1973|isbn=978-81-208-0900-0|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = History of India | author = N. Jayapalan| publisher = Atlantic Publishers & Distri| year = 2001 | isbn = 978-81-7156-928-1| page = 211}}</ref>}}<ref name="sen2">{{cite book |author=Sailendra Sen|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=196–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Holidays|url=https://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/HolidayList-2016.pdf|website=maharashtra.gov.in|access-date=19 May 2018}}</ref> Shivaji was named after a local deity, the goddess Shivai Devi.<s><!--</s> <s> "Shivai Devi" not Shiva --></s>{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=19}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laine |first1=James W. |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__pQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji's father [[Shahaji Bhonsle]] was a [[Maratha]] general who served the [[Deccan Sultanates]].<ref name="Eaton2005">{{cite book|author=Richard M. Eaton|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC&pg=PA128|volume=1|date=17 November 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25484-7|pages=128–221}}</ref> His mother was [[Jijabai]] the daughter of [[Lakhuji Jadhavrao]] of [[Sindhkhed]], a Mughal-aligned [[sardar]] claiming descent from the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Seuna]] royal family of [[Devagiri]].<ref name="Metha2004">{{cite book|author=Arun Metha|title=History of medieval India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0IwAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=ABD Publishers|page=278|isbn=978-81-85771-95-3}}</ref><ref name="Menon2011">{{cite book|author=Kalyani Devaki Menon|title=Everyday Nationalism: Women of the Hindu Right in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TLRCtw-zvoC&pg=PA44|date=6 July 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0279-3|pages=44–}}</ref> | ||
Shivaji belonged to [[Maratha]] family of [[Bhonsle]] clan.<ref name="Kulkarni1963">{{cite book|author=V. B. Kulkarni|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nU8_AAAAMAAJ|title=Shivaji: The Portrait of a Patriot|publisher=Orient Longman|year=1963}}</ref> His paternal grandfather [[Maloji Bhosale|Maloji]] (1552–1597) was an influential general of [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]], and was awarded the epithet of "Raja". He was given ''[[deshmukh]]i'' rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan and Indapur for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence ({{circa|1590}}).<ref>Marathi book Shivkaal (Times of Shivaji) by Dr V G Khobrekar, Publisher: Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture, First edition 2006. Chapter 1</ref><ref name="Salma314">{{cite book|author=Salma Ahmed Farooqui|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&pg=PA314|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|publisher=Dorling Kindersley India|year=2011|isbn=978-81-317-3202-1|pages=314–}}</ref> | Shivaji belonged to a [[Maratha]] family of the [[Bhonsle]] clan.<ref name="Kulkarni1963">{{cite book|author=V. B. Kulkarni|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nU8_AAAAMAAJ|title=Shivaji: The Portrait of a Patriot|publisher=Orient Longman|year=1963}}</ref> His paternal grandfather [[Maloji Bhosale|Maloji]] (1552–1597) was an influential general of [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]], and was awarded the epithet of "Raja". He was given ''[[deshmukh]]i'' rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan and Indapur for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence ({{circa|1590}}).<ref>Marathi book Shivkaal (Times of Shivaji) by Dr V G Khobrekar, Publisher: Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture, First edition 2006. Chapter 1</ref><ref name="Salma314">{{cite book|author=Salma Ahmed Farooqui|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&pg=PA314|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|publisher=Dorling Kindersley India|year=2011|isbn=978-81-317-3202-1|pages=314–}}</ref> | ||
At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]], and [[Golkonda Sultanate|Golkonda]]. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the [[Nizam Shahi dynasty|Nizamshahi]] of Ahmadnagar, the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adilshah]] of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his ''[[jagir]]'' (fiefdom) at [[Pune]] and his small army.<ref name="Eaton2005" /> | At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]], and [[Golkonda Sultanate|Golkonda]]. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the [[Nizam Shahi dynasty|Nizamshahi]] of Ahmadnagar, the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adilshah]] of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his ''[[jagir]]'' (fiefdom) at [[Pune]] and his small army.<ref name="Eaton2005" /> | ||
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=== Background and context === | === Background and context === | ||
[[File:MainEntranceGate.jpg|thumb|[[Shivneri Fort]]]] | [[File:MainEntranceGate.jpg|thumb|[[Shivneri Fort]]]] | ||
[[File:JoppenSouthIndia1605max.jpg|thumb|Map of Southern India | [[File:JoppenSouthIndia1605max.jpg|thumb|Map of Southern India {{Circa|1605}}]] | ||
In 1636, the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi sultanate]] of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the [[Mughal empire]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}}{{Sfn|Subrahmanyam|2002|p=33–35}} It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the [[Maharashtra|Maratha uplands]] of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of ''[[jagir]]'' land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} | In 1636, the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi sultanate]] of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the [[Mughal empire]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}}{{Sfn|Subrahmanyam|2002|p=33–35}} It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the [[Maharashtra|Maratha uplands]] of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of ''[[jagir]]'' land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} | ||
Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA59|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref> | Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA59|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref> | ||
In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained [[Pune|Poona]] as a grant. Shahaji, being deployed in [[Bangalore]] by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed [[Dadoji Kondadeo]] as Poona's administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona | In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained [[Pune|Poona]] as a grant. Shahaji, being deployed in [[Bangalore]] by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed [[Dadoji Kondadeo]] as Poona's administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |title=Shivaji and his times |publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited |year=1952 |isbn=9788125040262 |edition=5th |location=Hyderabad |pages=19}}</ref> Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over its administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA61|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref> | ||
== Conflict with Bijapur sultanate == | == Conflict with Bijapur sultanate == | ||
In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji took the [[Torna Fort]], taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the ailment of [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah]], | In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji took the [[Torna Fort]], taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the ailment of [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah]], | ||
and seized the large treasure he found there.<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=V. D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986|title=India since 1526|date=2000|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=81-219-1145-1|edition=17th ed., rev. & enl|location=New Delhi|pages=198|oclc=956763986}}</ref>{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=61}} In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including [[Purandar Fort|Purandar]], [[Kondhana]] and [[Chakan Fort|Chakan]]. | and seized the large treasure he found there.<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=V. D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986|title=India since 1526|date=2000|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=81-219-1145-1|edition=17th ed., rev. & enl|location=New Delhi|pages=198|oclc=956763986}}</ref>{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=61}} In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including [[Purandar Fort|Purandar]], [[Kondhana]] and [[Chakan Fort|Chakan]]. He also brought areas east of Pune around [[Supa, Parner|Supa]], [[Baramati]], and [[Indapur]] under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named [[Rajgad Fort|Rajgad]].That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade.<ref name="auto3" /> After this, Shivaji turned west to the [[Konkan]] and took possession of the important town of [[Kalyan]]. Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called, Baji Ghorpade under the orders of Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.<ref>Kulkarni, A.R., 1990. Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 49, pp.221–226.</ref> | ||
Shahaji was released in 1649 after the capture of [[Gingee Fort|Jinji]] secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During the period of 1649–1655 Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=41–42}} Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed [[Morè (clan)| | Shahaji was released in 1649 after the capture of [[Gingee Fort|Jinji]] secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During the period of 1649–1655 Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=41–42}} Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed [[Morè (clan)| | ||
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The Bijapur sultanate was displeased at their losses to Shivaji's forces, which their vassal Shahaji disavowed. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young [[Ali Adil Shah II]] as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=66}} In 1657 the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]], a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the [[Tulja Bhavani Temple]], holy to Shivaji's family, and the [[Vithoba Temple|Vithoba temple]] at [[Pandharpur]], a major pilgrimage site for the Hindus.<ref name="Richards1995">{{cite book |author=John F. Richards |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA208 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=208–}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton, The Sufis of Bijapur|2015|pp=183–184}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-57684-0|page=202|language=en}}</ref> | The Bijapur sultanate was displeased at their losses to Shivaji's forces, which their vassal Shahaji disavowed. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young [[Ali Adil Shah II]] as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=66}} In 1657 the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]], a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the [[Tulja Bhavani Temple]], holy to Shivaji's family, and the [[Vithoba Temple|Vithoba temple]] at [[Pandharpur]], a major pilgrimage site for the Hindus.<ref name="Richards1995">{{cite book |author=John F. Richards |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA208 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=208–}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton, The Sufis of Bijapur|2015|pp=183–184}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-57684-0|page=202|language=en}}</ref> | ||
Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to [[Pratapgad]] fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender.<ref name="Eraly2000">{{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |title=Last Spring: The Lives and Times of Great Mughals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyVW0STaGBcC&pg=PT550 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-128-6 |page=550}}</ref> The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private outside the fort for negotiations.<ref name="Roy2012">{{cite book |author=Kaushik Roy |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1IgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |date=15 October 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-57684-0 |pages=202–}}</ref>{{sfn|Gier, The Origins of Religious Violence|2014|p=17}} | Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to [[Pratapgad]] fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender.<ref name="Eraly2000">{{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |title=Last Spring: The Lives and Times of Great Mughals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyVW0STaGBcC&pg=PT550 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-128-6 |page=550}}</ref> The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private, outside the fort, for negotiations.<ref name="Roy2012">{{cite book |author=Kaushik Roy |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1IgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |date=15 October 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-57684-0 |pages=202–}}</ref>{{sfn|Gier, The Origins of Religious Violence|2014|p=17}} | ||
The two met in a hut at the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=70}}{{efn|A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=67 |url=https:// | The two met in a hut at the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=70}}{{efn|A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA67 |language=en}}</ref>}} wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a ''[[bagh nakh]]'' (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=22}} The precise transpirings are not recoverable to historical certainty and remains enmeshed with legends in Maratha sources; however, they agree upon the fact that the protagonists landed themselves in a physical struggle which would prove fatal for Khan.{{efn|Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf, has settled the point "that Afzal Khan struck the first blow" and that "Shivaji committed.... a preventive murder. It was a case of a diamond cut diamond." The conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially political in nature, and not communal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Prof A. R. |title=The Marathas |date=1 July 2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |language=en}}</ref>}} Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji had him disemboweled; he then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960}} | ||
In the ensuing [[Battle of Pratapgarh]] fought on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]'s forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}} After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}} | In the ensuing [[Battle of Pratapgarh]] fought on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]'s forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}} After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}} | ||
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== Conflict with the Mughals == | == Conflict with the Mughals == | ||
Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to [[Aurangzeb]] | Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to [[Aurangzeb]], the son of the Mughal Emperor and [[viceroy]] of the Deccan, in conquering Bijapur in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=55–56}} Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near [[Ahmednagar]].<ref>{{cite book |author=S.R. Sharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wC27JDyApwC|title=Mughal empire in India: a systematic study including source material, Volume 2|year=1999 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|page=59 |isbn=978-81-7156-818-5 }}</ref> This was followed by raids in [[Junnar]], with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 ''[[hun (coin)|hun]]'' in cash and 200 horses.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=57}} Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battle of succession with his brothers for the Mughal throne following the illness of the emperor [[Shah Jahan]].{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=60}} | ||
=== Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat === | === Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat === | ||
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Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal uncle [[Shaista Khan]], with an army numbering over 150,000 along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of [[Chakan, Maharashtra|Chakan]], besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Historical Records Commission: Proceedings of Meetings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmotObeC3zUC|year=1929|publisher=Superintendent Government Printing, India|page=44}}</ref> Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger, better provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory, seizing the city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji's palace of [[Lal Mahal]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Shivaji the Great Liberator|author=Aanand Aadeesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|page=69|year=2011|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|isbn=978-81-8430-102-1}}</ref> | Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal uncle [[Shaista Khan]], with an army numbering over 150,000 along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of [[Chakan, Maharashtra|Chakan]], besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Historical Records Commission: Proceedings of Meetings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmotObeC3zUC|year=1929|publisher=Superintendent Government Printing, India|page=44}}</ref> Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger, better provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory, seizing the city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji's palace of [[Lal Mahal]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Shivaji the Great Liberator|author=Aanand Aadeesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|page=69|year=2011|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|isbn=978-81-8430-102-1}}</ref> | ||
On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=71 |url=https:// | On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA71 |language=en}}</ref> He, along with his 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahmud |first1=Sayyid Fayyaz |last2=Mahmud |first2=S. F. |title=A Concise History of Indo-Pakistan |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577385-9 |pages=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xtuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son, several of his wives, servants and soldiers were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=209 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA209 |language=en}}</ref> The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Mehta|2009|p=543}} | ||
In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji [[Battle of Surat|sacked the port city of Surat]], a wealthy Mughal trading centre.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=491}} On 13 | In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji [[Battle of Surat|sacked the port city of Surat]], a wealthy Mughal trading centre.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=491}} On 13 | ||
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=== Arrest in Agra and escape === | === Arrest in Agra and escape === | ||
[[File:Raja Shivaji at Aurangzeb's Darbar- M V Dhurandhar.jpg|thumb|20th century depiction by M.V. Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal Badshah, Aurangzeb.]] | [[File:Raja Shivaji at Aurangzeb's Darbar- M V Dhurandhar.jpg|thumb|20th century depiction by M.V. Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal Badshah, Aurangzeb.]] | ||
In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to [[Agra]] (though some sources instead state Delhi), along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's planned to send Shivaji to [[Kandahar]], now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-century India |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-563386-3 |pages=206 |url=https:// | In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to [[Agra]] (though some sources instead state Delhi), along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's planned to send Shivaji to [[Kandahar]], now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-century India |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-563386-3 |pages=206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBlKh1Pwof0C |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji took offence and stormed out of court,{{sfn|Gordon, The Marathas|1993|p=78}} and was promptly placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Meenakshi |title=THE INDIA THEY SAW (VOL-3) |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |isbn=978-81-8430-108-3 |pages=299, 300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=76 |url=https:// | Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |pages=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA76 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son and surrendered himself to Mughal forces.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Sarkar |first1=Jadunath |title=A History of Jaipur: C. 1503–1938 |date=1994 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-0333-5 |url=https:// | Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son and surrendered himself to Mughal forces.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Sarkar |first1=Jadunath |title=A History of Jaipur: C. 1503–1938 |date=1994 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-0333-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC&pg=PA132 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jl |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-1015-3 |pages=547 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PA547 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Nonica |title=Indian History: Ancient and medieval |date=2003 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) and Popular Prakashan, Mumbai |isbn=978-81-7991-067-2 |pages=263 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQxuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Patel |first1=Sachi K. |title=Politics and Religion in Eighteenth-Century India: Jaisingh II and the Rise of Public Theology in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism |date=1 October 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-045142-9 |pages=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCM_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT40 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sabharwal |first1=Gopa |title=The Indian Millennium, AD 1000–2000 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-029521-4 |pages=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sghuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahajan |first1=V. D. |title=History of Medieval India |date=2007 |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |isbn=978-81-219-0364-6 |pages=190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&pg=RA2-PA190 |language=en}}</ref> On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the large baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped and left Agra.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Prof A. R. |title=The Marathas |date=1 July 2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |pages=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Rajmohan |title=Revenge and Reconciliation: Understanding South Asian History |date=14 October 2000 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-81-8475-318-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAASBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT163 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=SarDesai |first1=D. R. |title=India: The Definitive History |date=4 May 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-97950-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6HsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT202 |language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|As per Stewart Gordon, there is no proof for this, and Shivaji probably bribed the guards. But other Maratha Historians including A. R. Kulkarni and G. B. Mehendale disagree with Gordon. Jadunath Sarkar probed more deeply into this and put forth a large volume of evidence from Rajasthani letters and Persian Akhbars. With the help of this new material, Sarkar presented a graphic account of Shivajï's visit to Aurangzeb at Agra and his escape. Kulkarni agrees with Sarkar.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=A. R. |title=Marathas And The Maratha Country: Vol. I: Medieval Maharashtra: Vol. Ii: Medieval Maratha Country: Vol. Iii: The Marathas (1600–1648) (3 Vols.) |date=1996 |publisher=Books & Books |isbn=978-81-85016-51-1 |pages=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZNBPgAACAAJ |language=en}}</ref>}} | ||
=== Peace with the Mughals === | === Peace with the Mughals === | ||
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== Reconquest == | == Reconquest == | ||
[[File:Shivaji Rijksmuseum.jpg|thumb|[[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] painting depicting Shivaji | [[File:Shivaji Rijksmuseum.jpg|thumb|[[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] painting depicting Shivaji {{Circa|1680}} ]] | ||
The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670. At that time Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.<ref name="Deopujari1973">{{cite book|author=Murlidhar Balkrishna Deopujari|title=Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iF8MAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal|page=138}}</ref>{{sfn|Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne|2000|p=460}} Also at that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.{{sfn|Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne|2000|p=461}} The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=173–174}} In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to them in a span of four months.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=175}} | The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670. At that time Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.<ref name="Deopujari1973">{{cite book|author=Murlidhar Balkrishna Deopujari|title=Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iF8MAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal|page=138}}</ref>{{sfn|Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne|2000|p=460}} Also at that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.{{sfn|Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne|2000|p=461}} The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=173–174}} In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to them in a span of four months.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=175}} | ||
Shivaji sacked Surat for second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from [[Mawara-un-Nahr]] who was returning from [[Mecca]]. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat, but were defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day [[Nashik]].{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=189}} | Shivaji sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from [[Mawara-un-Nahr]] who was returning from [[Mecca]]. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat, but were defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day [[Nashik]].{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=189}} | ||
In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=393}} | In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=393}} | ||
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In 1674, [[Prataprao Gujar]], the commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=230–233}} | In 1674, [[Prataprao Gujar]], the commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=230–233}} | ||
Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by his commander's rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind. Prataprao was killed in combat; Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]], to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by [[Hambirrao Mohite]], as the new ''sarnaubat'' (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces). [[Raigad Fort]] was newly built by [[Hiroji Indulkar]] as a capital of nascent Maratha kingdom.<ref name="Malavika_1999">{{cite journal | author= Malavika Vartak| title =Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol | journal =Economic and Political Weekly| volume =34 | issue =19 | pages =1126–1134 | date =May 1999| jstor =4407933 }}</ref> | Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by his commander's rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind. Prataprao was killed in combat; Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]], to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by [[Hambirrao Mohite]], as the new ''sarnaubat'' (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces). [[Raigad Fort]] was newly built by [[Hiroji Indulkar]] as a capital of the nascent Maratha kingdom.<ref name="Malavika_1999">{{cite journal | author= Malavika Vartak| title =Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol | journal =Economic and Political Weekly| volume =34 | issue =19 | pages =1126–1134 | date =May 1999| jstor =4407933 }}</ref> | ||
== Coronation == | == Coronation == | ||
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The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to [[Panhala]] in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the [[Mughals]] for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}} | The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to [[Panhala]] in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the [[Mughals]] for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}} | ||
Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=278}} on the eve of [[Hanuman Jayanti]]. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux being sick for 12 days.{{Efn|As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council’s letter dated | Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=278}} on the eve of [[Hanuman Jayanti]]. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux being sick for 12 days.{{Efn|As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council’s letter dated 28 April 1680 says: “We have certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now | ||
April 1680 says: “We have certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now | |||
23 days since he deceased, it is said of a bloody flux, being sick 12 | 23 days since he deceased, it is said of a bloody flux, being sick 12 | ||
days.” A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died | days.” A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died | ||
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of “navjvar” (possibly typhoid).{{Sfn|Mehendale|2011|p=1147}}}} In a contemporary work in Portuguese, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pissurlencar|first=Pandurang Sakharam|title=Portuguese-Mahratta Relations|publisher=Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture|pages=61}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Mehendale|first=Gajanan Bhaskar|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/801376912|title=Shivaji his life and times|date=2011|publisher=Param Mitra Publications|isbn=978-93-80875-17-0|location=India|pages=1147|oclc=801376912}}</ref> However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of [[Sabhasad Bakhar]], the biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death of Shivaji.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> [[Putalabai]], the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'' by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}} There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife [[Soyarabai]] had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]] on the throne.{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=53}} | of “navjvar” (possibly typhoid).{{Sfn|Mehendale|2011|p=1147}}}} In a contemporary work in Portuguese, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pissurlencar|first=Pandurang Sakharam|title=Portuguese-Mahratta Relations|publisher=Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture|pages=61}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Mehendale|first=Gajanan Bhaskar|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/801376912|title=Shivaji his life and times|date=2011|publisher=Param Mitra Publications|isbn=978-93-80875-17-0|location=India|pages=1147|oclc=801376912}}</ref> However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of [[Sabhasad Bakhar]], the biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death of Shivaji.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> [[Putalabai]], the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'' by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}} There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife [[Soyarabai]] had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]] on the throne.{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=53}} | ||
After Shivaji's death, [[Soyarabai]] made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her son [[Rajaram I|Rajaram]] rather than her stepson [[Sambhaji]]. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of [[Raigad Fort]] after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=48}} Rajaram, his | After Shivaji's death, [[Soyarabai]] made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her son [[Rajaram I|Rajaram]] rather than her stepson [[Sambhaji]]. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of [[Raigad Fort]] after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=48}} Rajaram, his mother [[Soyarabai]] and wife [[Jankibai|Janki Bai]] were imprisoned, and Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy that October.<ref name="SharmaLāʼibrerī2004">{{cite book|author=Sunita Sharma, K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibrerī|title=Veil, sceptre, and quill: profiles of eminent women, 16th- 18th centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2kaAAAAYAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library|page=139|quote=By June 1680 three months after Shivaji's death Rajaram was made a prisoner in the fort of Raigad, along with his mother Soyra Bai and his wife Janki Bai. Soyra Bai was put to death on charge of conspiracy.}}</ref> | ||
== Governance == | == Governance == | ||
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|All matters related to army of the king | |All matters related to army of the king | ||
|} | |} | ||
Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> | Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> | ||
=== Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit === | === Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit === | ||
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=== Religious policy === | === Religious policy === | ||
Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=421}} When [[Aurangzeb]] imposed the [[Jizya]] tax on non- | Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=421}} When [[Aurangzeb]] imposed the [[Jizya]] tax on [[Kafir|non-Muslim]]s on 3 April 1679, Shivaji wrote a strict letter to [[Aurangzeb]] criticising his tax policy. He wrote: | ||
{{blockquote|In strict justice, the Jizya is not at all lawful. If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus, you ought to first levy the tax on [[Rana Raj Singh|Raj Singh I]], who is the head of Hindus. But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit. If you believe in Quran, God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only. Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for God alone. To show bigotry to any man's religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gier |first1=Nicholas F. |title=The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective |date=20 August 2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9223-8 |url=https:// | {{blockquote|In strict justice, the Jizya is not at all lawful. If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus, you ought to first levy the tax on [[Rana Raj Singh|Raj Singh I]], who is the head of Hindus. But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit. If you believe in Quran, God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only. Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for God alone. To show bigotry to any man's religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gier |first1=Nicholas F. |title=The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective |date=20 August 2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9223-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LBhBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=250}}|author=|title=|source=}} | ||
Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet [[Kavi Bhushan]] stated: {{blockquote|Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised.<ref name="Society1963">{{cite book|author=American Oriental Society|title=Journal of the American Oriental Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K684AAAAIAAJ|access-date=27 September 2012|year=1963|publisher=American Oriental Society.|page=476}}</ref>}} | Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet [[Kavi Bhushan]] stated: {{blockquote|Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised.<ref name="Society1963">{{cite book|author=American Oriental Society|title=Journal of the American Oriental Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K684AAAAIAAJ|access-date=27 September 2012|year=1963|publisher=American Oriental Society.|page=476}}</ref>}} | ||
However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India argues that the roots of modern communalism (the antagonism between “communities” of Hindus and Muslims) first appeared in the decade 1677–1687, in the interplay between Shivaji and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in 1680).<ref>Gijs Kruijtzer, ''Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India'' (Leiden University Press, 2009).</ref> {{Page needed|date=October 2021}} During the sack of Surat in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a [[Capuchin | However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India argues that the roots of modern communalism (the antagonism between “communities” of Hindus and Muslims) first appeared in the decade 1677–1687, in the interplay between Shivaji and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in 1680).<ref>Gijs Kruijtzer, ''Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India'' (Leiden University Press, 2009).</ref> {{Page needed|date=October 2021}} During the sack of Surat in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] friar who asked him to spare the city's Christians. Shivaji left the Christians untouched, saying "the Frankish Padrys are good men."<ref name="Pissurlencar1975">{{cite book|author=Panduronga S. S. Pissurlencar|title=The Portuguese and the Marathas: Translation of Articles of the Late Dr. Pandurang S. Pissurlenkar's Portugueses E Maratas in Portuguese Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdoBAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=State Board for Literature and Culture, Government of Maharashtra|page=152}}</ref> | ||
Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant to different religions and believed in syncretism. He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, to fight the Mughals.{{Efn|Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused tolerance and syncretism. He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even against Hindu powers, such as the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&dq=n+his+own+army+Muslim+leaders+appear+quite+early,+and+the+first+Pathan+unit+joined+in+1656.+His+naval+commander+was,+of+course,+a+Muslim&pg=PA81|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref>}} In his own army, Muslim leaders appear quite early. The first Pathan unit was formed in 1656. His naval admiral, Darya Sarang,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kulkarni|first=Prof A. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY5LDwAAQBAJ&dq=Darya+Sarang+shivaji&pg=PT143|title=Medieval Maratha Country|date=1 July 2008|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-8483-072-9|language=en}}</ref> was a Muslim.<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> | Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant to different religions and believed in syncretism. He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, to fight the Mughals.{{Efn|Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused tolerance and syncretism. He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even against Hindu powers, such as the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Stewart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&dq=n+his+own+army+Muslim+leaders+appear+quite+early,+and+the+first+Pathan+unit+joined+in+1656.+His+naval+commander+was,+of+course,+a+Muslim&pg=PA81|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|language=en}}</ref>}} In his own army, Muslim leaders appear quite early. The first Pathan unit was formed in 1656. His naval admiral, Darya Sarang,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kulkarni|first=Prof A. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY5LDwAAQBAJ&dq=Darya+Sarang+shivaji&pg=PT143|title=Medieval Maratha Country|date=1 July 2008|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-8483-072-9|language=en}}</ref> was a Muslim.<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> | ||
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=== Seal === | === Seal === | ||
[[File:Shivaji's seal, enlarged.jpg|thumb|Royal seal of Shivaji]] | [[File:Shivaji's seal, enlarged.jpg|thumb|Royal seal of Shivaji]] | ||
Seals were means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian seals. But Shivaji, right from beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|last1=Pollock|first1=Sheldon|url=https:// | Seals were means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian seals. But Shivaji, right from beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|last1=Pollock|first1=Sheldon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740AqMUW8WQC&pg=PA60|title=Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia: Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet, 1500–1800|date=14 March 2011|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4904-4|pages=60|language=en}}</ref> The seal proclaims: "This seal of Shiva, son of Shah, shines forth for the welfare of the people and is meant to command increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the moon."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eraly |first1=Abraham |title=Emperors Of The Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls |date=17 September 2007 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-093-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kPQs8llvkC&pg=PT545 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
== Shivaji's mode of warfare == | == Shivaji's mode of warfare == | ||
Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army consisted of peasants of the Maratha and [[Kunbi]] castes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE |date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-58691-3 |url=https:// | Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army consisted of peasants of the Maratha and [[Kunbi]] castes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE |date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-58691-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oh7ICQAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji was aware of the limitations of his army. He realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to confront the big, well-trained cavalry of the Mughals which was equipped with field artillery. As a result, Shivaji adopted [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla tactics]] which became known as 'Ganimi Kawa'.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barua |first1=Pradeep |title=The State at War in South Asia |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&dq=Shivaji,+realizing+that+he+could+not+defeat+the+imperial+armies+inhttps://books.google.co.in/books&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji was a master of guerrilla warfare.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Paul |title=Masters of the Battlefield: Great Commanders from the Classical Age to the Napoleonic Era |date=25 July 2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-534235-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRRZ3Zeb4NsC&pg=PA481 |language=en}}</ref> His strategies consistently perplexed and defeated armies sent against him. He realized that the most vulnerable point of the large, slow-moving armies of the time was supply. He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the superior mobility of his light cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03316-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA81 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji refused to confront in pitched battles. Instead, he lured the enemies in difficult hills and jungles of his own choosing, catching them at a disadvantage and routing them.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Kantak |first1=M. R. |title=The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774–1783: A Military Study of Major Battles |date=1993 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-696-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&q=Shivaji&pg=PA8 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji didn't stick to a particular tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies as required by circumstances, like sudden raids, sweeps and ambushes and use of psychological pressure.<ref name="auto" /> | ||
Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by [[Aurangzeb]] and his generals because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bhave|first=Y. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kVk6msxUcC&pg=PR7|title=From the Death of Shivaji to the Death of Aurangzeb: The Critical Years|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2000|isbn=978-81-7211-100-7|page=7}}</ref><ref name="Wolpert1994">{{cite book|author=Stanley A. Wolpert|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp|title=An Introduction to India|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=1994|isbn=978-0-14-016870-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp/page/43 43]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book|author=Hugh Tinker|url=https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink|title=South Asia: A Short History|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8248-1287-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink/page/23 23]|url-access=registration}}</ref> | Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by [[Aurangzeb]] and his generals because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bhave|first=Y. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kVk6msxUcC&pg=PR7|title=From the Death of Shivaji to the Death of Aurangzeb: The Critical Years|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2000|isbn=978-81-7211-100-7|page=7}}</ref><ref name="Wolpert1994">{{cite book|author=Stanley A. Wolpert|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp|title=An Introduction to India|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=1994|isbn=978-0-14-016870-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp/page/43 43]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book|author=Hugh Tinker|url=https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink|title=South Asia: A Short History|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8248-1287-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink/page/23 23]|url-access=registration}}</ref> | ||
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{{Main|Maratha Navy}} | {{Main|Maratha Navy}} | ||
[[File:Sindhudurg watchtower.JPG|thumb|[[Sindhudurg|Sindudurg Fort]] provided anchorages for Shivaji's Navy]] | [[File:Sindhudurg watchtower.JPG|thumb|[[Sindhudurg|Sindudurg Fort]] provided anchorages for Shivaji's Navy]] | ||
Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the Konkan coast, Shivaji began to build his navy in 1657 or 1659, with the purchase of twenty [[galivat]]s from the Portuguese shipyards of [[Vasai|Bassein]].<ref name="Roy2011">{{cite book|author=Kaushik Roy|title=War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0FbTniNaYC&pg=PA17|date=30 March 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-79087-4|pages=17–}}</ref> Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet counted some 400 warships, though contemporary English chronicles counter that the number never exceeded 160.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}} [[Kanhoji Angre]] was the chief of Maratha Navy. | Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the Konkan coast, Shivaji began to build his navy in 1657 or 1659, with the purchase of twenty [[galivat]]s from the Portuguese shipyards of [[Vasai|Bassein]].<ref name="Roy2011">{{cite book|author=Kaushik Roy|title=War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0FbTniNaYC&pg=PA17|date=30 March 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-79087-4|pages=17–}}</ref> Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet counted some 400 warships, though contemporary English chronicles counter that the number never exceeded 160.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}} [[Kanhoji Angre]] was the chief of the Maratha Navy. | ||
With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search for qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates") as well as Muslim mercenaries.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}} Noting the power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with him.<ref name="Shastry1981">{{cite book|author=Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry|title=Studies in Indo-Portuguese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AsYcAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=IBH Prakashana}}</ref> | With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search for qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates") as well as Muslim mercenaries.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}} Noting the power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with him.<ref name="Shastry1981">{{cite book|author=Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry|title=Studies in Indo-Portuguese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AsYcAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=IBH Prakashana}}</ref> | ||
Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at [[Sindhudurg Fort|Sindhudurg]], which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.<ref name="RoyLorge2014">{{cite book|author1=Kaushik Roy|author2=Peter Lorge|title=Chinese and Indian Warfare – From the Classical Age to 1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=627fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA183|date=17 December 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-58710-1|pages=183–}}</ref> The navy itself was a [[ | Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at [[Sindhudurg Fort|Sindhudurg]], which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.<ref name="RoyLorge2014">{{cite book|author1=Kaushik Roy|author2=Peter Lorge|title=Chinese and Indian Warfare – From the Classical Age to 1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=627fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA183|date=17 December 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-58710-1|pages=183–}}</ref> The navy itself was a [[green-water navy|coastal navy]], focused on travel and combat in the littoral areas, and not intended to go far out to sea.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://optimizeias.com/new-naval-ensign-the-naval-prowess-of-chhatrapati-shivaji-that-has-always-inspired-the-indian-navy/ | title=New Naval Ensign: The naval prowess of Chhatrapati Shivaji that has always inspired the Indian Navy - Optimize IAS | date=3 September 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Misra1986">{{cite book|author=Raj Narain Misra|title=Indian Ocean and India's Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NhVz7mZCisC&pg=PA13|year=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=13–|id=GGKEY:CCJCT3CW16S}}</ref> | ||
== Expansion of Maratha Empire after Shivaji == | == Expansion of the Maratha Empire after Shivaji == | ||
{{See also|Mughal–Maratha Wars}} | {{See also|Mughal–Maratha Wars}} | ||
[[File:Maratha Empire in 1758.png|right|thumb|Maratha Empire at its peak in 1758]] | [[File:Maratha Empire in 1758.png|right|thumb|Maratha Empire at its peak in 1758]] | ||
Shivaji left behind a state always at odds with the Mughals. Soon after his death, in 1681, Aurangzeb launched an offensive in the South to capture territories held by the Marathas, the Bijapur-based Adilshahi and [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahi of Golkonda]] respectively. He was successful in obliterating the Sultanates but could not subdue the Marathas after spending 27 years in the Deccan. The period saw the capture, torture, and execution of Sambhaji in 1689, and the Marathas offering strong resistance under the leadership of Sambhaji's successor, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]] and then Rajaram's widow [[Tarabai]]. Territories changed hands repeatedly between the Mughals and the Marathas | Shivaji left behind a state always at odds with the Mughals. Soon after his death, in 1681, Aurangzeb launched an offensive in the South to capture territories held by the Marathas, the Bijapur-based Adilshahi and [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahi of Golkonda]] respectively. He was successful in obliterating the Sultanates but could not subdue the Marathas after spending 27 years in the Deccan. The period saw the capture, torture, and execution of Sambhaji in 1689, and the Marathas offering strong resistance under the leadership of Sambhaji's successor, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]] and then Rajaram's widow [[Tarabai]]. Territories changed hands repeatedly between the Mughals and the Marathas. Better known as [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]], this campaign had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire. According to contemporary sources, about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and [[Famine in India|famine]] <ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Q5w9qmd1UeMC&pg=PP113&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Mughal&f=false |title=Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements |date=2011-10-20 |publisher=Canongate Books |isbn=978-0-85786-125-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kPQs8llvkC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Emperors Of The Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls |date=2007-09-17 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-093-7 |language=en}}</ref>. The conflict ended in [[Mughal–Maratha Wars|defeat for the Mughals in 1707.]]<ref name="John Clark Marshman">{{cite book |author=[[John Clark Marshman]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC&pg=PA93 |title=History of India from the Earliest Period to the Close of the East India Company's Government |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-108-02104-3 |page=93}}</ref> | ||
[[Chattrapati Shahu|Shahu]], a grandson of Shivaji and son of [[Sambhaji]], was kept prisoner by [[Aurangzeb]] during the 27-year period conflict. After the latter's death, his successor released Shahu. After a brief power struggle over succession with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from 1707 to 1749. Early in his reign, he appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath]] and later his descendants, as [[Peshwa]]s (prime ministers) of the Maratha Empire. The empire expanded greatly under the leadership of Balaji's son, Peshwa [[Bajirao I]] and grandson, Peshwa [[Balaji Bajirao]]. At its peak, the Maratha empire stretched from [[Tamil Nadu]]{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=204}} in the south, to [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|Peshawar]] (modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]) in the north, and [[Expeditions in Bengal|Bengal]], in the east. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] to [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]] of the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]], which halted their imperial expansion in northwestern India. Ten years after Panipat, [[Maratha Resurrection|Marathas regained influence]] in North India during the rule of [[Madhavrao Peshwa]].<ref name="Sen1994">{{cite book|author=Sailendra N. Sen|title=Anglo-Maratha relations during the administration of Warren Hastings 1772–1785|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4hHNz7T-AEC&pg=PR7|year=1994|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-578-0|pages=6–7}}</ref> | [[Chattrapati Shahu|Shahu]], a grandson of Shivaji and son of [[Sambhaji]], was kept prisoner by [[Aurangzeb]] during the 27-year period conflict. After the latter's death, his successor released Shahu. After a brief power struggle over succession with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from 1707 to 1749. Early in his reign, he appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath]] and later his descendants, as [[Peshwa]]s (prime ministers) of the Maratha Empire. The empire expanded greatly under the leadership of Balaji's son, Peshwa [[Bajirao I]] and grandson, Peshwa [[Balaji Bajirao]]. At its peak, the Maratha empire stretched from [[Tamil Nadu]]{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=204}} in the south, to [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|Peshawar]] (modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]) in the north, and [[Expeditions in Bengal|Bengal]], in the east. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] to [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]] of the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]], which halted their imperial expansion in northwestern India. Ten years after Panipat, [[Maratha Resurrection|Marathas regained influence]] in North India during the rule of [[Madhavrao Peshwa]].<ref name="Sen1994">{{cite book|author=Sailendra N. Sen|title=Anglo-Maratha relations during the administration of Warren Hastings 1772–1785|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4hHNz7T-AEC&pg=PR7|year=1994|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-578-0|pages=6–7}}</ref> | ||
In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Shahu and the Peshwas gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights, creating the [[Maratha Confederacy]].{{Sfn|Pearson, Shivaji and Mughal decline|1976|p=226}} They became known as [[Gaekwad]]s of [[Vadodara|Baroda]], the [[Holkar]]s of [[Indore]] and [[Malwa]], the [[Scindia]]s of [[Gwalior]] and [[Bhonsale]]s of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]]. In 1775, the [[East India Company]] intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, which | In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Shahu and the Peshwas gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights, creating the [[Maratha Confederacy]].{{Sfn|Pearson, Shivaji and Mughal decline|1976|p=226}} They became known as [[Gaekwad]]s of [[Vadodara|Baroda]], the [[Holkar]]s of [[Indore]] and [[Malwa]], the [[Scindia]]s of [[Gwalior]] and [[Bhonsale]]s of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]]. In 1775, the [[East India Company]] intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, which resulted in the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]]. The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|Third Anglo-Maratha]] wars (1805–1818), which left the company the dominant power in most of India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jeremy Black |date=2006 |title=A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present |location=Westport, Conn. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-99039-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&q=9780275990398}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Percival Spear|author-link=Percival Spear |date=1990 |orig-year=First published 1965 |title=A History of India |volume=2 |publisher=Penguin Books |page=129 |isbn=978-0-14-013836-8}}</ref> | ||
{{Clear}} | {{Clear}} | ||
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[[File:Shivaji Maharaj and Baji Prabhu at Pawan Khind.jpg|right|thumb|An early-20th-century painting by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]] of Shivaji and [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande|Baji Prabhu]] at Pawan Khind]] | [[File:Shivaji Maharaj and Baji Prabhu at Pawan Khind.jpg|right|thumb|An early-20th-century painting by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]] of Shivaji and [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande|Baji Prabhu]] at Pawan Khind]] | ||
Shivaji was well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character.{{Sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=74}} He was recognized as a national hero during the Indian Independence Movement.<ref name="ChandraMukherjee2016">{{cite book|author1=Bipan Chandra|author2=Mridula Mukherjee|author3=Aditya Mukherjee|author4=K N Panikkar|author5= Sucheta Mahajan|title=India's Struggle for Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q7xH06NrFkC&pg=PT107|date=9 August 2016|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-183-3|pages=107–}}</ref> | Shivaji was well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character.{{Sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=74}} He was recognized as a national hero during the Indian Independence Movement.<ref name="ChandraMukherjee2016">{{cite book|author1=Bipan Chandra|author2=Mridula Mukherjee|author3=Aditya Mukherjee|author4=K N Panikkar|author5= Sucheta Mahajan|title=India's Struggle for Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q7xH06NrFkC&pg=PT107|date=9 August 2016|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-183-3|pages=107–}}</ref> | ||
=== Early depictions === | === Early depictions === | ||
Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese and Italian writers.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.500042/2015.500042.Foreign-Biographies#page/n15/mode/1up|title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji|last=Sen|first=Surendra|publisher=London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co. ltd.|year=1928|volume=II|pages=xiii}}</ref> Contemporary English writers compared him with [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], [[Hannibal]] and [[Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/shivajithegreat035466mbp#page/n28/mode/1up|title=Shivaji The Great|last=Krishna|first=Bal|publisher=The Arya Book Depot Kolhapur|year=1940|pages=11–12}}</ref> The French traveller [[Francois Bernier]] wrote in his ''Travels in Mughal India'':<ref>{{cite book |author=Surendra Nath Sen |title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji |publisher=K. P. Bagchi |year=1977 |pages=14,139 |url=https:// | Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese and Italian writers.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.500042/2015.500042.Foreign-Biographies#page/n15/mode/1up|title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji|last=Sen|first=Surendra|publisher=London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co. ltd.|year=1928|volume=II|pages=xiii}}</ref> Contemporary English writers compared him with [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], [[Hannibal]] and [[Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/shivajithegreat035466mbp#page/n28/mode/1up|title=Shivaji The Great|last=Krishna|first=Bal|publisher=The Arya Book Depot Kolhapur|year=1940|pages=11–12}}</ref> The French traveller [[Francois Bernier]] wrote in his ''Travels in Mughal India'':<ref>{{cite book |author=Surendra Nath Sen |title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji |publisher=K. P. Bagchi |year=1977 |pages=14,139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89sJAQAAIAAJ }}</ref> | ||
<blockquote>I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-Gi! respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive.</blockquote> | <blockquote>I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-Gi! respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive.</blockquote> | ||
[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as {{Sort|ar|''kafir bi jahannum raft''}} ({{Literal translation|the infidel went to Hell}}).{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=54}} | [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as {{Sort|ar|''[[kafir]] bi jahannum raft''}} ({{Literal translation|the infidel went to Hell}}).{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=54}} | ||
=== Reimagining === | === Reimagining === | ||
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In the late 20th century, [[Babasaheb Purandare]] became one of the most significant author in portraying Shivaji in his writings, leading him to be declared in 1964 as the ''Shiv-Shahir'' ({{Literal translation|Bard of Shivaji}}).<ref>{{cite book|title=Lok Sabha Debates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlZPAQAAMAAJ|year=1952|publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat|page=121|quote=Will the Minister of EDUCATION, SOCIAL WELFARE AND CULTURE be pleased to state: (a) whether Shri Shivshahir Bawa Saheb Purandare of Maharashtra has sought the permission of Central Government ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Indian P.E.N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLtjAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=P.E.N. All-India Centre.|page=32|quote=Sumitra Raje Bhonsale of Satara honoured Shri Purandare with the title of "Shiva-shahir" and donated Rs. 301 for the proposed publication.}}</ref> However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also accused of overemphasising the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,{{sfn|Laine|2011|p=164}} and his [[Maharashtra Bhushan]] award ceremony in 2015 was protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/writer-babasaheb-purandare-receives-maharashtra-bhushan-despite-protests/articleshow/48551741.cms|title=Writer Babasaheb Purandare receives 'Maharashtra Bhushan' despite protests|author=Krishna Kumar|date=20 August 2015|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> | In the late 20th century, [[Babasaheb Purandare]] became one of the most significant author in portraying Shivaji in his writings, leading him to be declared in 1964 as the ''Shiv-Shahir'' ({{Literal translation|Bard of Shivaji}}).<ref>{{cite book|title=Lok Sabha Debates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlZPAQAAMAAJ|year=1952|publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat|page=121|quote=Will the Minister of EDUCATION, SOCIAL WELFARE AND CULTURE be pleased to state: (a) whether Shri Shivshahir Bawa Saheb Purandare of Maharashtra has sought the permission of Central Government ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Indian P.E.N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLtjAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=P.E.N. All-India Centre.|page=32|quote=Sumitra Raje Bhonsale of Satara honoured Shri Purandare with the title of "Shiva-shahir" and donated Rs. 301 for the proposed publication.}}</ref> However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also accused of overemphasising the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,{{sfn|Laine|2011|p=164}} and his [[Maharashtra Bhushan]] award ceremony in 2015 was protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/writer-babasaheb-purandare-receives-maharashtra-bhushan-despite-protests/articleshow/48551741.cms|title=Writer Babasaheb Purandare receives 'Maharashtra Bhushan' despite protests|author=Krishna Kumar|date=20 August 2015|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> | ||
In September 2022, prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] unveiled the new [[Indian Naval Ensign]] to replace the St. George's Cross design used from 2004, which includes a [[navy blue]]-[[Gold (color)|gold]] octagon bearing naval crest in the fly.<ref name="Lion Ensign">{{Cite web|url=https://theprint.in/defence/colonial-st-georges-cross-dropped-for-chhatrapati-shivajis-seal-on-indian-navys-new-flag/1112742/|title=Colonial St. George's Cross dropped for Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's seal on Indian Navy's new flag|website=theprint.in|date=2 September 2022}}</ref> The octagon is an emulation of a royal seal of Shivaji.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/was-shivaji-the-first-indian-ruler-to-build-the-navy#read-more|title=Was Shivaji The 'First Indian Ruler' to Build the Navy?|website=www.thequint.com|date=20 February 2018}}</ref> | |||
=== Controversy === | === Controversy === | ||
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=== Commemorations === | === Commemorations === | ||
[[File:Emperor of Maratha India.jpg|thumb|Statue of Shivaji opposite [[Gateway of India]] in [[South Mumbai]]]] | [[File:Emperor of Maratha India.jpg|thumb|Statue of Shivaji opposite the [[Gateway of India]] in [[South Mumbai]]]] | ||
Commemorations of Shivaji are found throughout India, most notably in Maharashtra. Shivaji's statues and monuments are found almost in every town and city in Maharashtra as well as in different places across India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/comments/modi-unveils-shivaji-statue-at-limbayat/974660/ |title=comments : Modi unveils Shivaji statue at Limbayat |work=The Indian Express |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106235945/http://www.indianexpress.com/comments/modi-unveils-shivaji-statue-at-limbayat/974660/ |archive-date=6 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punemirror.in/article/2/20120516201205160833063629266b10c/New-Shivaji-statue-faces-protests.html?pageno=5 |title=New Shivaji statue faces protests |publisher=Pune Mirror |date=16 May 2012 |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928023003/http://www.punemirror.in/article/2/20120516201205160833063629266b10c/New-Shivaji-statue-faces-protests.html?pageno=5 |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/04/29/stories/2003042907691200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928043424/http://www.hindu.com/2003/04/29/stories/2003042907691200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2013 |title=Kalam unveils Shivaji statue |date=29 April 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> Other commemorations include the Indian Navy's station [[INS Shivaji]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/training/navy-training/ins-shivaji-engineering-training-establishment |title=INS Shivaji (Engineering Training Establishment) : Training |publisher=Indian Navy |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718031536/http://indiannavy.nic.in/training/navy-training/ins-shivaji-engineering-training-establishment |archive-date=18 July 2012 }}</ref> numerous [[postage stamp]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Paper/Watermarked%20paper/CHHATRAPATI%20SHIVAJI%20MAHARAJ |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj |publisher=Indianpost.com |date=21 April 1980 |access-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> and the [[Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport|main airport]] and [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus|railway headquarters]] in Mumbai.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/politics-over-shivaji-statue-delays-mumbai-airport-expansion-111062500010_1.html |title=Politics over Shivaji statue delays Mumbai airport expansion |newspaper=Business Standard |date=25 June 2011 |access-date= 11 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Times|first1=Maharashtra|title=Mumbai Railway station renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-railway-station-renamed-to-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-terminus/articleshow/59390999.cms|access-date=14 January 2018|issue=30 June|newspaper=Times of India|date=2017}}</ref> In Maharashtra, there has been a long tradition of children building a replica fort with toy soldiers and other figures during the festival of [[Diwali]] in memory of Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-29/pune/28232881_1_forts-historian-ninad-bedekar-diyas | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104080547/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-29/pune/28232881_1_forts-historian-ninad-bedekar-diyas | url-status=dead | archive-date=4 November 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Shivaji killas express pure reverence | date=29 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Laine |first=James W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__pQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |language=en}}</ref> | Commemorations of Shivaji are found throughout India, most notably in Maharashtra. Shivaji's statues and monuments are found almost in every town and city in Maharashtra as well as in different places across India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/comments/modi-unveils-shivaji-statue-at-limbayat/974660/ |title=comments : Modi unveils Shivaji statue at Limbayat |work=The Indian Express |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106235945/http://www.indianexpress.com/comments/modi-unveils-shivaji-statue-at-limbayat/974660/ |archive-date=6 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punemirror.in/article/2/20120516201205160833063629266b10c/New-Shivaji-statue-faces-protests.html?pageno=5 |title=New Shivaji statue faces protests |publisher=Pune Mirror |date=16 May 2012 |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928023003/http://www.punemirror.in/article/2/20120516201205160833063629266b10c/New-Shivaji-statue-faces-protests.html?pageno=5 |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/04/29/stories/2003042907691200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928043424/http://www.hindu.com/2003/04/29/stories/2003042907691200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2013 |title=Kalam unveils Shivaji statue |date=29 April 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> Other commemorations include the Indian Navy's station [[INS Shivaji]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/training/navy-training/ins-shivaji-engineering-training-establishment |title=INS Shivaji (Engineering Training Establishment) : Training |publisher=Indian Navy |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718031536/http://indiannavy.nic.in/training/navy-training/ins-shivaji-engineering-training-establishment |archive-date=18 July 2012 }}</ref> numerous [[postage stamp]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Paper/Watermarked%20paper/CHHATRAPATI%20SHIVAJI%20MAHARAJ |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj |publisher=Indianpost.com |date=21 April 1980 |access-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> and the [[Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport|main airport]] and [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus|railway headquarters]] in Mumbai.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/politics-over-shivaji-statue-delays-mumbai-airport-expansion-111062500010_1.html |title=Politics over Shivaji statue delays Mumbai airport expansion |newspaper=Business Standard |date=25 June 2011 |access-date= 11 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Times|first1=Maharashtra|title=Mumbai Railway station renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-railway-station-renamed-to-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-terminus/articleshow/59390999.cms|access-date=14 January 2018|issue=30 June|newspaper=Times of India|date=2017}}</ref> In Maharashtra, there has been a long tradition of children building a replica fort with toy soldiers and other figures during the festival of [[Diwali]] in memory of Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-29/pune/28232881_1_forts-historian-ninad-bedekar-diyas | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104080547/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-29/pune/28232881_1_forts-historian-ninad-bedekar-diyas | url-status=dead | archive-date=4 November 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Shivaji killas express pure reverence | date=29 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Laine |first=James W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__pQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
A proposal to build a giant memorial called [[Shiv Smarak]] was approved in 2016 to be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be 210 meters tall, making it the [[List of tallest statues|world's largest statue]] when completed in possibly 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/india-now-boasts-world-apos-190059518.html |title=India Now Boasts The World's Tallest Statue, And It's Twice Lady Liberty's Size |work=[[Huffington Post]] |via=[[Yahoo! News]] |author=Nina Golgowski |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> | A proposal to build a giant memorial called [[Shiv Smarak]] was approved in 2016 which is to be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be 210 meters tall, making it the [[List of tallest statues|world's largest statue]] when completed in possibly 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/india-now-boasts-world-apos-190059518.html |title=India Now Boasts The World's Tallest Statue, And It's Twice Lady Liberty's Size |work=[[Huffington Post]] |via=[[Yahoo! News]] |author=Nina Golgowski |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> In August 2021, the project was stalled since January 2019 due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]], only the [[bathymetry]] survey complete while the [[Geotechnical investigation|geotechnical survey]] was underway. Consequently, state PWD proposed extending project completion date by a year from 18 October 2021 to 18 October 2022.<ref name=connect2>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/contract-for-shivaji-memorial-project-pwd-proposes-extension-of-one-year-to-firm-without-cost-escalation-7466001/ |title= Contract for Shivaji Memorial Project, PWD proposes extension of one year to firm without cost escalation |website= indianexpress.com |date=23 August 2021 |accessdate=6 December 2021}}</ref> | ||
== Sources == | == Sources == | ||
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{{EB1911 poster|Sivaji|Shivaji}} | |||
* | * | ||
* {{curlie|Society/History/By_Region/Asia/South_Asia/Personalities/Sivaji|Shivaji}} | * {{curlie|Society/History/By_Region/Asia/South_Asia/Personalities/Sivaji|Shivaji}} | ||
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[[Category:Hindu nationalists]] | [[Category:Hindu nationalists]] | ||
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]] | [[Category:Hindu monarchs]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Maratha emperors]] | ||
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in India]] | [[Category:Infectious disease deaths in India]] | ||
[[Category:Age controversies]] | [[Category:Age controversies]] | ||
[[Category:Founding monarchs]] | [[Category:Founding monarchs]] | ||
[[Category:Legendary Indian people]] | [[Category:Legendary Indian people]] |