Sherpa people: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Tibetan ethnic group of mountainous eastern Nepal Sherpa ཤར་པ}}

| caption          = Nepalese Sherpa

| related-c        = [[Hyolmo people|Hyolmo]], [[Jirel]]s, other Tibeto-Burmese populations

The '''Sherpa''' are one of the [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] [[ethnic group]]s native to the most mountainous regions of [[Nepal]], [[Tingri County]] in the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] and the [[Himalayas]]. The term ''sherpa'' or ''sherwa'' derives from the [[Sherpa language]] words {{lang|xsr|ཤར|}} {{transl|xsr|shar}} ("east") and {{lang|xsr|པ}} {{transl|xsr|pa}} ("people"), which refer to their geographical origin of eastern [[Tibet]].

Most Sherpa people live in the eastern regions of [[Nepal]] and [[Tingri County]], though some live farther west in the [[Rolwaling Himal|Rolwaling Valley]], [[Bigu Rural Municipality|Bigu]] and in the [[Helambu]] region north of [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]]. Sherpas establish [[gompa]]s where they practice their religious traditions. [[Tengboche]] was the first celibate monastery in [[Solukhumbu District|Solu-Khumbu]]. Sherpa people also live in [[Tingri County]], [[Bhutan]], and the Indian states of [[Sikkim]] and the northern portion of [[West Bengal]], specifically the district of [[Darjeeling]]. The [[Sherpa language]] belongs to the south branch of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], mixed with Eastern Tibet (Khamba) and central Tibetan dialects. However, this language is separate from [[Standard Tibetan|Lhasa Tibetan]] and unintelligible to Lhasa speakers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/deserts/videos_gestion/nt.htm |title=Journée d'étude : Déserts. Y a-t-il des corrélations entre l'écosystème et le changement linguistique ? |publisher=Lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr |access-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318215914/http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/deserts/videos_gestion/nt.htm |archive-date=18 March 2012 }}</ref>

[[File:Ethnolinguistic Groups of Nepal.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|Selected ethnic groups of [[Nepal]]: <span style="color:#660000;">Sherpa</span>, [[Thakali people|<span style="color:#660000;">Thakali</span>]], [[Gurung|<span style="color:green;">Gurung</span>]], <span style="color:#ff6600;">[[Sunuwar]], Kirati</span>, [[Rai (ethnic group)|<span style="color:#ff6600;">Rai</span>]], [[Lohorung people|<span style="color:#ff6600;">Lohorung</span>]], [[Parali|<span style="color:#ff6600;">Parali</span>]], [[Bahing|<span style="color:#ff6600;">Bahing</span>]], [[Limbu people|<span style="color:#ff6600;">Limbu</span>]], [[Newar|<span style="color:red;">Newar</span>]], [[Pahari people (Nepal)|<span style="color:#ffcc33;">Pahari</span>]], [[Tamang|<span style="color:#333366;">Tamang</span>]]]]

Tibet to Solukhumbu at different times, giving rise to the four fundamental Sherpa clans: Minyagpa, Thimmi, Sertawa and Chawa. These four groups gradually split into the more than 20 different clans that exist today. Mahayana Buddhism religious conflict may have contributed to the migration out of Tibet in the 13th and 14th centuries and arrival in Khumbu regions of Nepal. Sherpa migrants travelled through [[Ü (region)|Ü]] and Tsang, before crossing the Himalaya.<ref name="Bhandari 2015"/>

A 2010 study identified more than 30 genetic factors that make [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]]' bodies well-suited for high altitudes, including [[EPAS1]], referred to as the "super-athlete gene" that regulates the body's production of hemoglobin,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.berkeley.edu/2010/07/01/tibetan_genome/|title=Tibetans adapted to high altitude in less than 3,000 years|first1=Robert|last1=S|last2=ers|first3=Media relations|last3=July 1|last4=2010July 9|last5=2015|website=Berkeley News|access-date=21 May 2019|date=30 November 2001}}</ref> allowing for greater efficiency in the use of oxygen.<ref>{{cite news |title=Five myths about Mount Everest|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/five-myths-about-mount-everest/2014/04/24/9a30ace2-caf5-11e3-a993-b6b5a03db7b4_story.html |date=24 April 2014 |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.berkeley.edu/2010/07/01/tibetan_genome/|title=Tibetans adapted to high altitude in less than 3,000 years|first1=Robert|last1=S|last2=ers|website=Berkeley News|access-date=21 May 2019|date=30 November 2001}}</ref>

Many Sherpas are highly regarded as elite mountaineers and experts in their local area. They were valuable to early [[List of explorers|explorers]] of the [[Himalaya]]n region, serving as guides at the extreme altitudes of the peaks and passes in the region, particularly for expeditions to climb [[Mount Everest]]. Today, the term is often used by foreigners to refer to almost any guide or climbing supporter hired for [[mountaineering]] expeditions in the Himalayas, regardless of their ethnicity.<ref>Educational Media and Technology Yearbook – Volume 36, Michael Orey, Stephanie A. Jones, Robert Maribe Branch, page 94 (2011), {{ISBN|1461413044}}: "A Sherpa is traditionally a knowledgeable native who guides mountain climbers on their most difficult and risky ascents." Buried in the Sky: The Extraordinary Story of the Sherpa Climbers, by Peter Zuckerman, Amanda Padoan, page 65 (2012): "Lowlanders clutching the Lonely Planet guide are convinced they want to hire “a sherpa,” even if they don't know what a Sherpa is..."</ref> Because of this usage, the term has become a slang byword for a guide or mentor in other situations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/g20-meet-what-role-does-the-sherpa-play-in-the-negotiations-3015461/|title=G20 meet: What role does the Sherpa play in the negotiations?|date=2016-09-06|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2018-10-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Sherpas are renowned in the international [[climbing]] and mountaineering community for their hardiness, expertise, and experience at very high altitudes. It has been speculated that part of the Sherpas' climbing ability is the result of a [[high-altitude adaptation in humans|genetic adaptation to living in high altitudes]]. Some of these adaptations include unique [[hemoglobin]]-binding capacity and doubled [[nitric oxide]] production.<ref>Kamler, K. (2004). ''Surviving the extremes: What happens to the body and mind at the limits of human endurance'', p. 212. New York: Penguin.</ref>

On 18 April 2014, a [[serac]] collapsed above the [[Khumbu Icefall]] on Mount Everest, causing an avalanche of massive chunks of ice and snow which killed 16 Nepalese guides, mostly Sherpas.<ref name=NYr>{{cite news|last=Krakauer|first=Jon|title=Death and Anger on Everest|url=http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2014/04/everest-sherpas-death-and-anger.html|access-date=24 April 2014|newspaper=[[The New Yorker]]|date=21 April 2014|quote=Of the twenty-five men hit by the falling ice, sixteen were killed, all of them Nepalis working for guided climbing teams.}}</ref> The 2014 avalanche is the second-deadliest disaster in Everest's history, only exceeded by avalanches in the Khumbu Icefall area a year later, on 25 April 2015, caused by a [[April 2015 Nepal earthquake|magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Nepal]]. In response to that tragedy and others involving deaths and injuries sustained by Sherpas hired by climbers, and the lack of government support for Sherpas injured or killed while providing their services, some Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job, and some climbing companies are no longer providing guides and porters for Everest expeditions.<ref>{{cite news|work=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/2014/04/24/306390312/sherpas-walk-off-the-job-after-avalanche-kills-16-guides|title=Sherpas Walk Off The Job After Deadly Avalanche |author=McCarthy, Julie |date=24 April 2014 <!-- 5:04&nbsp;am ET -->  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Sherpas Consider Boycott After Everest Disaster|author=The Associated Press|work=NPR|date= 21 April 2014 <!-- 2:03&nbsp;am ET -->  |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=305178526}}</ref> The Khumbu Icefall is essentially a waterfall of ice, the structure is continuously shifting and no matter how many times you trek through this area the route will be different.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnette |first1=Alan |title=Everest 2017: Why is the Khumbu Icefall so Dangerous? |url=https://www.alanarnette.com/blog/2017/03/15/everest-2017-why-is-the-khumbu-icefall-so-dangerous/ |website=alanarnette.com}}</ref> With that said, this is one of the most dangerous, if not the most, dangerous part of climbing Mount Everest. Climbers have to walk on ladders over crevasses, while walking underneath large serac formations that could potentially fall at any moment. Oftentimes this journey through the Khumbu Icefall is in the pitch black. It is safer for climbers to go through the icefall at night because the temperatures at night drop. Therefore, the icefall is not melting as fast as it would during the day.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peedom |first1=Jennifer |title=Sherpa |publisher=Discovery |date=2016}}</ref>  These dangers have resulted in 66 deaths as of 2017. 6 deaths from falling in a crevasse, 9 deaths from a collapse in a section of the icefall, and 29 deaths from avalanches onto the icefall.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnette |first1=Alan |title=Everest 2017: Why is the Khumbu Icefall so Dangerous? |url=https://www.alanarnette.com/blog/2017/03/15/everest-2017-why-is-the-khumbu-icefall-so-dangerous/ |website=alanarnette.com}}</ref> With the effects of climate change melting the icefall faster the dangers of going through the Khumbu Icefall will increase, as well as the number of deaths.

The families of those who died in the avalanche were only offered 40,000 rupees, the equivalent of about $400 US dollars, from the Nepalese government.<ref>{{cite web |last1=NewsHour |first1=PBS |title=Mt. Everest disaster raises questions of compensation for Sherpas |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/mteverstavalanche |website=PBS NewsHour |publisher=PBS |language=en-us |date=13 November 2014}}</ref> At the time of the disaster the Sherpas were carrying loads of equipment for their clients, including many luxury items.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jenkins |first1=Mark |title=Historic Tragedy on Everest, With 12 Sherpa Dead in Avalanche |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/140418-everest-avalanche-sherpa-killed-mountain |website=Adventure |publisher=National Geographic |language=en |date=19 April 2014}}</ref> There had been two broken ladders causing a traffic jam in the Khumbu Icefall.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barry |first1=Ellen |last2=Bowley |first2=Graham |title=After Everest Disaster, Sherpas Contemplate Strike |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/21/world/asia/after-everest-disaster-sherpas-contemplate-strike.html |website=The New York Times |date=21 April 2014}}</ref> It is not uncommon for Sherpas to go through the Khumbu Icefall around 30 times each season, in comparison foreigners only go through the icefall 2 or 3 times during the season.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peedom |first1=Jennifer |title=Sherpa |publisher=Discovery |date=2016}}</ref>  Sherpas are expected to haul all the majority of their clients gear to each of the 5 camps and set up before their clients reach the camps. During each season Sherpas typically make up to $5000 US dollars during their 2 or 3 month period of taking international clients to the summit of Everest.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peedom |first1=Jennifer |title=Sherpa |publisher=Discovery |date=2016}}</ref> As of 2019, expeditions on Mt. Everest contributed $300 million.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robles |first1=Pablo |title=Covid Pandemic: Mount Everest, Nepal Try to Restart Economy After Shutdowns |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-everest-reopening-sherpa-supply-chain/?leadSource=uverify+wall |website=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref> The economy of Nepal thrives off of tourism and adventure seekers.  

As a result of the 2014 disaster, the remaining Sherpas went on strike. They were angry at the government, lack of compensation, and their working conditions. The days after Sherpas came together to make a list of demands for the government.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peedom |first1=Jennifer |title=Sherpa |publisher=Discovery |date=2016}}</ref> In the documentary entitled Sherpa, there is footage of one of their meetings. Sherpas wanted to cancel the climbing season that year out of respect for those who lost their lives. Even arguing that “this route has become a graveyard” and asking “how could we walk over their bodies?” as heard in the 2016 documentary Sherpa. Their clients were debating whether or not to continue to try to reach the summit of Everest because they had paid tens of thousands dollars to be there.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barry |first1=Ellen |last2=Bowley |first2=Graham |title=After Everest Disaster, Sherpas Contemplate Strike |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/21/world/asia/after-everest-disaster-sherpas-contemplate-strike.html |website=The New York Times |date=21 April 2014}}</ref> However, international clients were fearful of this strike and how it would affect themselves and had their bags packed in case of a need for a swift escape.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peedom |first1=Jennifer |title=Sherpa |publisher=Discovery |date=2016}}</ref> On top of this, rumors spread among the Sherpa community that others would hurt them if they were to continue to take foreigners on their expedition (Peedom, 2016).  

and, in 2015, 10 Sherpas died at the [[Everest base camps|Everest Base Camp]] after the earthquake. In total, 118 Sherpas have died on this mountain between 1921 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alanarnette.com/blog/2018/05/22/everest-2018-wave-9-recap-more-sherpa-deaths-with-summits/|title=Everest 2018: Summit Wave 9 Recap – More Sherpa Deaths with Summits|date=22 May 2018|website=The Blog on alanarnette.com|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/05/150513-everest-climbing-nepal-earthquake-avalanche-sherpas/|title=Will Everest's Climbing Circus Slow Down After Disasters?|date=13 May 2015|website=National Geographic News|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> An April 2018 report by [[NPR]] stated that Sherpas account for one-third of Everest deaths.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2018/04/14/599417489/one-third-of-everest-deaths-are-sherpa-climbers |date=14 April 2018 |publisher=NPR |access-date=17 May 2019 |title=One-Third of Everest Deaths Are Sherpa Climbers }}</ref>

 

 

 

On April 27, 2013 Sherpas warned climbers not to ascend the mountain because they had not finished fixing the ropes. However, three experienced European climbers continued their trek. When they were stopped by Sherpas they told them they would not disrupt their work and carry on with a different route.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adhikari |first1=D. |last2=Dreier |first2=F. |last3=Green |first3=S.M. |last4=Ayers |first4=B. |title=The Everest Brawl: A Sherpa's Tale |url=https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/climbing/everest-brawl-sherpas-tale/ |website=Outside Online |date=13 August 2013}}</ref>  The climbers went through the Mingma Tenzing causing ice to fall down and hit the Sherpa crew. The climbers and the Sherpa all retrieved to camp two, where the European climbers started to verbally abuse the Sherpas and even grabbed one of the Sherpa crew members chest. The act of grabbing someone's chest at that high of an altitude can be very dangerous and can have serious consequences.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adhikari |first1=D. |last2=Dreier |first2=F. |last3=Green |first3=S.M. |last4=Ayers |first4=B. |title=The Everest Brawl: A Sherpa's Tale |url=https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/climbing/everest-brawl-sherpas-tale/ |website=Outside Online |date=13 August 2013}}</ref> When the Europeans were called for on the radio to discuss their next move, Simone Moro one of the European climbers, said “We will see; We will talk with the f*cking Sherpas”. The Sherpas were already angered by the Europeans ignoring their decision to fix the ropes before anyone could continue on, but were angrier when they heard that sort of disrespect from the climbers. When Sherpas came to demand an apology the European climbers continued to be disrespectful towards the Sherpas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adhikari |first1=D. |last2=Dreier |first2=F. |last3=Green |first3=S.M. |last4=Ayers |first4=B. |title=The Everest Brawl: A Sherpa's Tale |url=https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/climbing/everest-brawl-sherpas-tale/ |website=Outside Online |date=13 August 2013}}</ref> This vicious verbal assault resulted in the break out of a physical fight. When reporters caught wind of this event it was labeled the “Everest Brawl”. The European climbers claimed that they were scared for their lives, while Sherpas claimed they felt that they had to defend themselves.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Douglas |first1=Ed |title=Forget the Everest brawl: the real story is how Sherpas are taking control |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/05/sherpa-resentment-fuelled-everest-brawl |website=the Guardian |language=en |date=4 May 2013}}</ref>

According to oral Buddhist traditions, the initial Tibetan migration was a search for a [[beyul]] (Buddhist pure-lands). Sherpa practised the [[Nyingmapa]], the "Ancient" school of Buddhism. Allegedly the oldest Buddhist sect in Tibet, founded by [[Padmasambhava]] (commonly known as Guru Rinpoche) during the 8th century, it emphasizes mysticism and the incorporation of local deities shared by the pre-Buddhist [[Bon|Bön religion]], which has [[shamanic]] elements. Sherpa particularly believe in hidden [[Terma (religion)|treasures]] and [[beyul|valleys]]. Traditionally, Nyingmapa practice was passed down orally through a loose network of lay practitioners. Monasteries with celibate monks and nuns, along with the belief in reincarnated spiritual leaders, are later adaptations.<ref name=":0" />

=== Sacred land in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal ===

Mt. Everest is located within the Sagarmatha National Park, which is a sacred landscape for local Sherpas. The word Sagarmatha means Goddess of the universe to the Sherpa community.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riley |first1=Mark |title=Sagarmatha National Park |url=https://sites.coloradocollege.edu/indigenoustraditions/sacred-lands/sagarmatha-national-park/ |website=Indigenous Religious Traditions |date=20 November 2012}}</ref> The region is considered the “dwelling of supernatural beings”.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riley |first1=Mark |title=Sagarmatha National Park |url=https://sites.coloradocollege.edu/indigenoustraditions/sacred-lands/sagarmatha-national-park/ |website=Indigenous Religious Traditions |date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Sherpas value life and the beauty it provides, meaning they avoid killing living creatures (ie: trees, wildlife, plants). Furthermore, Mt. Everest has attracted many tourists who unknowingly or knowingly are disrupting the sacred land of the park. For example, finding firewood has been deemed problematic. Many tourists stick with the methods they know how to do, which is oftentimes cutting down trees or taking branches off trees to make a fire. This practice is against Sherpa's spiritual law of the land.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Riley |first1=Mark |title=Sagarmatha National Park |url=https://sites.coloradocollege.edu/indigenoustraditions/sacred-lands/sagarmatha-national-park/ |website=Indigenous Religious Traditions |date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Moreover, the Sherpas do a spiritual ritual before climbing the mountain to ask the mountain for permission to climb. This ritual seems to have become a spectacle for foreign climbers.  

In addition, the entirety of the national park is not governed by the Sherpas but rather foreigners to the land. Park managers have made an effort to try to include Sherpa's voices by creating “Buffer-Zone user groups”. These groups were made up of strong political leaders within the surrounding villages in order for their voices to be heard and make demands.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sivinski |first1=Jake |title=Conservation For Whom?: The Struggle for Indigenous Rights in Sagarmatha National Park. |url=https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2226 |website=Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection |date=1 October 2015}}</ref> However, these groups do not have any official status and the government can decide whether or not to hear these demands and/or make the changes desired by the Sherpa community.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sivinski |first1=Jake |title=Conservation For Whom?: The Struggle for Indigenous Rights in Sagarmatha National Park |url=https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/2226 |website=Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection |date=1 October 2015}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Temba Tsheri]] became the youngest Everest climber in the world (holder of the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness World Record]]), then aged 16.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TEMBA TSHERI SHERPA|url=http://www.sherpakhangri.com/member/temba_tsheri_sherpa|access-date=2020-12-27|website=www.sherpakhangri.com|language=en}}</ref>

On 11 May 2011, [[Apa Sherpa]] successfully reached the summit of Everest for the twenty-first time, breaking his own record for the most successful ascents.<ref>{{cite web |title=Apa Sherpa summits Everest for the 21st time' |publisher=Salt Lake Tribune |date=11 May 2011 |url=http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/51789082-78/apa-sherpa-everest-pool.html.csp |access-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> He first climbed Mount Everest in 1989 at the age of 29.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13358135 |title=Since The Age of 12 |publisher=BBC |date=11 May 2011 |access-date=8 March 2012|work=BBC News }}</ref>

Peter James Sherpa- Mountaineer, led Expeditions in Mount Everest multiple times notably from 1989 to 2001 when he tragically died on the north face due to lack of oxygen- he was well known for climbing without oxygen tanks or masks due to his unusually large lung capacity and unique ability to breathe low Levels of oxygen. His body was not able to be recovered from the mountain and a tribute was installed at base camp to memorialise him

* [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=NXWxbvFEi8sC&oi=fnd&pg=PA68&dq=faith+in+nyingma&ots=wqtidrTewR&sig=8Vp1QOzQZclNwoXKoJ3K9RHPCqM#v=onepage&q&f=false Beyul Khumbu: The Sherpa and Sagarmatha (Mount Everest National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal)]

[[Category:Mountaineering]]