Maratha Empire: Difference between revisions

{{Infobox former country

| image_flag            = Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg

| alt_flag              = [[Bhagwa Dhwaj|Flag]]

| image_coat            = Royal Seal of Shivaji Maharaj.png

| symbol_type            = Royal Seal of [[Shivaji|Shivaji I]]

| s2                     = Satara state

| s3                     = Sikh Empire

| flag_s3               = Sikh Empire flag.svg

| image_map_caption      = Maratha Empire at its peak in 1758 (Yellow)

| motto                  = "हर हर महादेव"<br />"Har Har Mahadev"

| englishmotto          = ([[English language|English]]: "Praises to [[Shiva|Mahadev (Shiva)]]")

| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]] (1674–1731)<br />[[Federation|Federal]] [[oligarchy]] with a restricted monarchial [[figurehead]] (1731–1818)

| title_deputy          = [[Peshwa]] (Principal Minister)

| year_deputy3          = 1851-1859

| deputy3                = [[Nana Saheb Peshwa II|Nana Saheb]] (claimed titular)

| area_label            = 1760

| today                  = {{ubl|[[India]]|[[Pakistan]]|[[Afghanistan]]}}

The Marathas were a [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-speaking warrior group from the western [[Deccan Plateau]] (present-day [[Maharashtra]]) who rose to prominence by establishing [[Hindavi Swarajya]] (meaning "self-rule of Hindus").{{sfnp|Pagdi| 1993|p=98|ps=: Shivaji's coronation and setting himself up as a sovereign prince symbolises the rise of the Indian people in all parts of the country. It was a bid for ''Hindavi Swarajya'' (Indian rule), a term in use in Marathi sources of history.}}{{sfnp|Jackson|2005|p=38}} The Marathas became prominent in the 17th century under the leadership of [[Shivaji]], who revolted against the [[Adil Shahi dynasty]] and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] to carve out a kingdom with [[Raigad Fort|Raigad]] as his capital. They are largely credited for ending Mughal control over the Indian subcontinent and establishing the Maratha Empire.{{sfnp|Pearson|1976|pp=221–235}}{{sfnp|Capper|1997|p=|ps=: This source establishes the Maratha control of Delhi before the British}}{{sfnp|Sen|2010|pp=1941–|ps=: The victory at Bhopal in 1738 established Maratha dominance at the Mughal court}} The religious attitude of [[Aurangzeb|Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb]] estranged [[Kafir|non-Muslim]]s, and his inability to suppress the resulting Maratha uprising after a [[Mughal–Maratha Wars|27-year war]] at a great cost to his men and treasury, eventually ensured Maratha ascendency and their control over sizeable portions of former Mughal lands in the north of the Indian subcontinent or about 1/3 of the subcontinent by 1757.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osborne |first=Eric W. |date=2020-07-03 |title=The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680–1707 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=988–1009 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |s2cid=221060782 |issn=0959-2318}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clingingsmith |first1=David |last2=Williamson |first2=Jeffrey G. |date=2008-07-01 |title=Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th century India: Mughal decline, climate shocks and British industrial ascent |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014498307000447 |journal=Explorations in Economic History |language=en |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=209–234 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2007.11.002 |issn=0014-4983}}</ref>  

The empire, at its peak in 1758, stretched for a brief time from [[Tamil Nadu]]{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=204}} in the south, to the [[Sutlej River]] in the north, in the course of the [[Maratha conquest of North-west India]],{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=16}} and [[Orissa]]{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}} in the east. However the Marathas lost Delhi in 1761 after their defeat in the [[third Battle of Panipat]].

To effectively manage the large empire, Madhav Rao gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights, creating a confederacy of Maratha states. These leaders became known as the [[Gaekwad]]s of [[Baroda State|Baroda]], the [[Holkar]]s of [[Indore State|Indore]] and [[Malwa]], the [[Scindia]]s of [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] and [[Ujjain]], the [[Bhonsale]]s of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]], the [[Jadhav]]s of [[Vidarbha]], the [[Dabhade]]s of [[Gujarat]], the [[Puars]] of [[Dhar State|Dhar]] and [[Dewas State|Dewas]]. In 1775, the [[East India Company]] intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in [[Pune]], which led to the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] in which the Marathas emerged victorious.{{sfnp|Naravane|2006|p=63}} The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]s (1805–1818), which resulted in the East India Company seizing control of most of the Indian subcontinent. Maratha rule officially ended in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa [[Bajirao II]] at the hands of the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] in [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].

[[Shivaji]] (1630–1680) was a Maratha aristocrat of the [[Bhosle|Bhosale]] clan who was the founder of the Maratha empire.{{sfnp|Pearson|1976|pp=221–235}} Shivaji led a resistance to free the people from the Sultanate of [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]] in 1645 by winning the fort Torna, followed by many more forts, placing the area under his control and establishing [[Hindavi Swarajya]] (self-rule of Hindu people{{sfnp|Jackson|2005|p=38}}). He created an independent Maratha kingdom with [[Raigad fort|Raigad]] as its capital{{sfnp|Vartak|1999|pp=1126–1134}} and successfully fought against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as [[Chhatrapati]] (sovereign) of the new Maratha kingdom in 1674.

The Maratha dominion under him comprised about 4.1% of the subcontinent, but it was spread over large tracts. At the time of his death,{{sfnp|Pearson|1976|pp=221–235}} it was reinforced with about 300 forts, and defended by about 40,000 cavalries, and 50,000 soldiers, as well as naval establishments along the west coast. Over time, the kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity;{{sfnp|Kantak|1993|p=18}} by the time of his grandson's rule, and later under the Peshwas in the early 18th century, it was a full-fledged empire.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=707|ps=: quote: It explains the rise to power of his Peshwa (prime minister) Balaji Vishwanath (1713–20) and the transformation of the Maratha kingdom into a vast empire, by the collective action of all the Maratha stalwarts.}}

During Shahu's reign, [[Raghoji I Bhonsle|Raghoji Bhosale]] expanded the empire Eastwards. [[Khanderao Dabhade]] and later his son, Triambakrao, expanded it Westwards into Gujarat.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|pp=101–103}} Peshwa Bajirao and his three chiefs, [[Pawar]] ([[Dhar]]), [[Holkar]] ([[Indore]]), and [[Scindia]] ([[Gwalior]]).

Shahu appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath|Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath]] in 1713. From his time, the office of Peshwa became supreme while Shahu became a figurehead.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=11}} Balaji Vishwanath's first major achievement was the conclusion of the ''Treaty of Lonavala'' in 1714 with [[Kanhoji Angre]], the most powerful naval chief on the Western Coast who later accepted Shahu as Chhatrapati. In 1719, [[Maratha Army|Marathas]] marched to [[Delhi]] after defeating Sayyid Hussain Ali, the Mughal governor of Deccan, and deposed the Mughal emperor. The Mughal Emperors became puppets in the hands of their Maratha overlords from this point on.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=12}}{{better source needed|date=December 2022}}

After the successful campaign of Karnataka and the [[Siege of Trichinopoly (1741)|Trichinopolly]], Raghuji returned from Karnataka. He undertook [[Expeditions in Bengal|six expeditions into Bengal]] from 1741 to 1748. {{sfnp|Sarkar|1991|p=}} The resurgent Maratha Empire launched [[Maratha invasions of Bengal|brutal raids against the prosperous Bengali state in the 18th century]], which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. During their invasions and occupation of [[Bihar]]{{sfnp|Chaudhuri|2006|p=253}} and [[West Bengal|western Bengal]] up to the [[Hooghly River]]{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}} and during their occupation of [[West Bengal|western Bengal]], the Marathas perpetrated atrocities against the local population.{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}} The Maratha atrocities were recorded by both Bengali and European sources, which reported that the Marathas demanded payments, and tortured or killed anyone who couldn't pay.{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}}

Balaji Bajirao encouraged agriculture, protected the villagers and brought about a marked improvement in the state of the territory. [[Raghunath Rao]], brother of Nanasaheb, pushed into the wake of the Afghan withdrawal after [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]]'s plunder of Delhi in 1756. Delhi was captured by the Maratha army under Raghunath Rao in August 1757, defeating the Afghan garrison in the [[Siege of Delhi, 1757|Battle of Delhi]]. This laid the foundation for the [[Maratha conquest of North-west India]]. In [[Lahore]], as in Delhi, the Marathas were now major players.{{sfnp|Roy|2004|pp=80–81}} After the 1758 Battle of [[Attock]], the Marathas captured [[Peshawar]] defeating the Afghan troops in the [[Capture of Peshawar (1758)|Battle of Peshawar]] on 8 May 1758.{{sfnp| Sen|2010|p=16}}

Delhi had been reduced to ashes many times due to previous invasions, and there was an acute shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered the sacking of the already depopulated city.{{sfnp|Agrawal|1983|p=26}}{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=274}} He is said to have planned to place his nephew and the Peshwa's son, [[Vishwasrao]], on the Mughal throne. By 1760, with the defeat of the Nizam in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], Maratha power had reached its zenith with a territory of over {{convert|2500000|km2}}.{{sfnp|Turchin|Adams|Hall|2006|p=223}}

[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] called on the [[Rohillas]] and the [[Nawab of Oudh]] to assist him in driving out the Marathas from Delhi.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} Huge armies of Muslim forces and Marathas collided with each other on 14 January 1761 in the [[Third Battle of Panipat]]. The [[Maratha Army]] lost the battle, which halted their imperial expansion. The [[Jat]]s and [[Rajput]]s did not support the Marathas. Historians have criticised the Maratha treatment of fellow Hindu groups. Kaushik Roy says, "The treatment by the Marathas of their co-religionist fellows – Jats and Rajputs was definitely unfair and ultimately had to pay its price in Panipat where Muslim forces had united in the name of religion."{{sfnp|Roy|2004|pp=80–81}} After the battle, Malhar Rao Holkar attacked the Rajputs and defeated them at the battle of Mangrol. This largely restored Maratha power in [[Rajasthan]].{{sfnp|Stewart|1993|p=157}}

The Marathas had antagonised the Jats and Rajputs by taxing them heavily, punishing them after defeating the Mughals and interfering in their internal affairs.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} The Marathas were abandoned by [[Suraj Mal|Raja Suraj Mal]] of [[Bharatpur, India|Bharatpur]], who quit the Maratha alliance at [[Agra]] before the start of the great battle and withdrew their troops as Maratha general [[Sadashivrao Bhau]] did not heed the advice to leave soldiers' families (women and children) and pilgrims at Agra and not take them to the battle field with the soldiers, rejected their co-operation. Their supply chains (earlier assured by [[Raja]] [[Suraj Mal]]) did not exist.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

Peshwa [[Madhavrao I]] was the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. It was during his tenure that the [[Maratha Resurrection]] took place. He worked as a unifying force in the Maratha Empire and moved to the south to subdue Mysore and the Nizam of Hyderabad to assert Maratha power. He sent generals such as Bhonsle, Scindia and Holkar to the north, where they re-established Maratha authority by the early 1770s.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} Madhav Rao I crossed the [[Krishna River]] in 1767 and defeated [[Hyder Ali]] in the battles of Sira and Madgiri. He also rescued the last queen of the [[Keladi Nayaka Kingdom]], who had been kept in confinement by Hyder Ali in the fort of Madgiri.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=458}}  

In early 1771, ten years after the collapse of Maratha authority over North India following the Third Battle of Panipat, [[Mahadji Shinde]] recaptured Delhi and installed [[Shah Alam II]] as a puppet ruler on the Mughal throne{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=8}} receiving in return the title of deputy ''[[Vakil-i-Mutlaq|Vakil-ul-Mutlak]]'' or vice-regent of the Empire and that of ''Vakil-ul-Mutlak'' being at his request conferred on the Peshwa. The Mughals also gave him the title of ''Amir-ul-Amara'' (head of the amirs).{{sfnp|Farooqui|2011|p=334}} After taking control of Delhi, the Marathas sent a large army in 1772 to punish Afghan [[Rohilla]]s for their involvement in Panipat. Their army devastated [[Rohilkhand]] by looting and plundering as well as taking members of the royal family as captives.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=8}}

 

The Marathas invaded Rohilkhand to avenge the Rohillas' atrocities in the [[Panipat]] war. The Marathas under the leadership of [[Mahadji Shinde]] entered the ''[[jagir|land]]'' of [[Sardar]] Najib-ud-Daula which was held by his son [[Zabita Khan]] after the sardar's death. Zabita Khan initially resisted the attack with Sayyid Khan and Saadat Khan behaving with gallantry, but was eventually defeated with the death of Saadat Khan by the Marathas and was forced to flee to the camp of [[Shuja-ud-Daula]] and his country was ravaged by Marathas.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7YBAAAAYAAJ&dq=sayyid+rohilla&pg=PA88 |title=Statistical, Descriptive and Historical Account of the North-western Provinces of India: Meerut division. 1875–76 |author= Edwin Thomas Atkinson  |date=1875 |page=88 |publisher=Printed at the North-western Provinces' Government Press }}</ref>[[Mahadji Shinde]] captured the family of Zabita Khan, desecrated the grave of [[Najib ad-Dawlah]] and looted his fort.<ref>''The Great Maratha Mahadji Scindia'' by N. G. Rathod pp. 8–9</ref> With the fleeing of the Rohillas, the rest of the country was burnt, with the exception of the city of Amroha, which was defended by some thousands of [[Amrohi Syed|Amrohi Sayyid]] tribes.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Av9HAAAAMAAJ&q=marathas+amroha |title= Maratha Policy Towards Northern India |page=158 |author= Poonam Sagar  |date= 1993 |publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan }}</ref> The Rohillas who could offer no resistance fled to the Terai whence the remaining Sardar [[Hafiz Rahmat Khan]] Barech sought assistance in an agreement formed with the Nawab of [[Oudh]], Shuja-ud-Daula, by which the Rohillas agreed to pay four million rupees in return for military help against the Marathas. Hafiz Rehmat, abhorring unnecessary violence, unlike the outlook of his fellow Rohillas such as Ali Muhammad and Najib Khan, prided himself on his role as a political mediator and sought an alliance with Awadh to keep the Marathas out of Rohilkhand. He bound himself to pay on behalf of the Rohillas. However, after he refused to pay, [[Oudh]] attacked the Rohillas.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire: c. 1710–1780 |author= Jos J. L. Gommans |date=1995  |publisher= Brill |page=178 }}</ref>

 

 

[[Madhavrao I|Madhavrao Peshwa]]'s victory over the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] and [[Hyder Ali]] of [[Mysore State|Mysore]] in southern India established Maratha dominance in the Deccan. On the other hand, [[Mahadji]]'s victory over Jats of Mathura, Rajputs of Rajasthan and Pashtun-Rohillas of [[Rohilkhand]] (in the western part of present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]] state) re-established the Marathas in northern India. With the [[Capture of Delhi, 1771|Capture of Delhi in 1771]] and the capture of Najibabad in 1772 and treaties with [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Alam II]] as a restricted monarch to the throne under Maratha suzerainty, the resurrection of Maratha power in the North was complete.{{sfnp|Stewart|1993|p=158}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TXxjo0OY2oQC&dq=marathas+re-established+themselves+under+mahadji&pg=PA138 Mahrattas, Sikhs and Southern Sultans of India: Their Fight Against Foreign (2001)]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Chand Singh|last=Kadiyan|title=Panipat in History: A Study of Inscriptions|date=26 June 2019|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=64|pages=403–419|jstor = 44145479}}</ref>{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=8}}

 

Madhav Rao died in 1772, at the age of 27. His death is considered to be a fatal blow to the Maratha Empire and from that time Maratha power started to move on a downward trajectory, less an empire than a confederacy.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

After the growth in power of feudal lords like the Malwa sardars, the landlords of Bundelkhand and the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan who refused to pay tribute to Mahadji, Mahadji Shinde sent his army to conquer the states such as [[Bhopal State|Bhopal]], Datiya, Chanderi, Narwar, Salbai and Gohad. However, he launched an unsuccessful expedition against the Raja of Jaipur, but withdrew after the inconclusive Battle of Lalsot in 1787.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=95}} The [[Battle of Gajendragad]] was fought between the Marathas under the command of Tukojirao Holkar (the adopted son of Malharrao Holkar) and [[Tipu Sultan]] from March 1786 to March 1787 in which Tipu Sultan was defeated by the Marathas. By the victory in this battle, the border of the Maratha territory extended till the [[Tungabhadra]] river.{{sfnp|Sampath|2008|p=238}} The strong fort of [[Gwalior]] was then in the hands of [[Chhatar Singh]], the Jat ruler of [[Gohad]]. In 1783, Mahadji besieged the fort of Gwalior and conquered it. He delegated the administration of Gwalior to Khanderao Hari Bhalerao. After celebrating the conquest of Gwalior, Mahadji Shinde turned his attention to Delhi again.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=30}}

 

 

Mahadaji Shinde had conquered [[Rania, Haryana|Rania]], [[Fatehabad district|Fatehabad]] and [[Sirsa]] from the governor of Hissar. [[Haryana]] then came under the Maratha Empire. Mahadji divided Haryana into four territories: Delhi (Mughal emperor [[Shah Alam II]], his family and areas surrounding Delhi), Panipat (Karnal, Sonepat, Kurukshetra and Ambala), Hisar (Hisar, Sirsa, Fatehabad, parts of Rohtak), Ahirwal (Gurugram, Rewari, Narnaul, Mahendragarh) and Mewat. [[Daulat Rao Scindia]] ceded Haryana on 30 December 1803 under the [[Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon]] to the [[British East India Company]] leading to the [[Company rule in India]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ls0xDwAAQBAJ&dq=Madhogarh&pg=PA208|title=Indian Cultural Heritage|last=Das|first=Dr Manas Kumar|date=1989|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781387044283|language=en}}</ref>

In 1788, Mahadji's armies defeated [[Ismail Beg]], a Mughal noble who resisted the Marathas.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=106}} The Rohilla chief [[Ghulam Kadir]], Ismail Beg's ally, took over Delhi, capital of the Mughal dynasty and deposed and blinded the king Shah Alam II, placing a puppet on the Delhi throne. Mahadji intervened and killed him, taking possession of Delhi on 2 October restoring Shah Alam II to the throne and acting as his protector.{{sfnp|Kulakarṇī|1996|p=}} [[Jaipur]] and [[Jodhpur]], the two most powerful Rajput states, were still out of direct Maratha domination, so Mahadji sent his general [[Benoît de Boigne]] to crush the forces of Jaipur and Jodhpur at the [[Battle of Patan]].{{sfnp|Sarkar|1994|p=}} Marwar was also captured on 10 September 1790. Another achievement of the Marathas was their victories over the [[Nizam]] of Hyderabad's armies including in the [[Battle of Kharda]].{{sfnp|Majumdar|1951b|p=}}{{sfnp|Barua|2005|p=91}}

The Marathas came into conflict with [[Tipu Sultan]] and his [[Kingdom of Mysore]], leading to the [[Maratha–Mysore Wars|Maratha–Mysore War]] in 1785. The war ended in 1787 with Tipu Sultan being defeated by the Marathas.{{sfnp|Hasan|2005|pp=105–107}} The Maratha-Mysore war ended in April 1787, following the finalizing of the, ''treaty of Gajendragad'', as per which, Tipu Sultan of Mysore was obligated to pay 4.8&nbsp;million rupees as a war cost to the Marathas, and an annual tribute of 1.2&nbsp;million rupees, in addition to returning all the territory captured by [[Hyder Ali]].{{sfnp|Naravane|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxsa3jtHoCEC&pg=PA175 175]}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-kanqrtVhYC&dq=gajendragad+1787&pg=PA54 ''Anglo-Maratha relations, 1785–96'']</ref>  In 1791–92, large areas of the Maratha Confederacy suffered a massive population loss due to the [[Doji bara famine]].<ref name=igi-III-502>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III|1907|p=502}}</ref>

In 1791, [[Irregular military|irregulars]] like ''lamaans'' and [[pindari]]s of the Maratha army raided and looted the temple of [[Sringeri]] ''[[Shankaracharya]]'', killing and wounding many people l, including Brahmins, plundering the monastery of all its valuable possessions, and desecrating the temple by displacing the image of goddess [[Saraswati|Sāradā]].{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} The incumbent ''Shankaracharya'' petitioned [[Tipu Sultan]] for help. A bunch of about 30 letters written in [[Kannada]], which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the [[Sringeri]] [[Shankaracharya]] were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in [[Mysore]]. Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at the news of the raid:{{sfnp|Hasan|2005|p=358}}

{{blockquote|People who have sinned against such a holy place are sure to suffer the consequences of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali age in accordance with the verse: "Hasadbhih kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate" (People do [evil] deeds smilingly but suffer the consequences crying).<ref>''Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department'' 1916 pp.&nbsp;10–11, 73–76</ref>}}

The Maratha Empire soon allied with the British [[East India Company]] (based in the [[Bengal Presidency]]) against Mysore in the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. After the British had suffered a defeat against Mysore in the first two Anglo-Mysore Wars, the Maratha cavalry assisted the British in the last two Anglo-Mysore Wars from 1790 onwards, eventually helping the British conquer Mysore in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1799.{{sfnp|Cooper|2003|p=}} After the British conquest, however, the Marathas launched frequent raids in Mysore to plunder the region, which they justified as compensation for past losses to Tipu Sultan.{{sfnp|Cooper|2003|p=69}}

In 1775, the [[British East India Company]], from its base in Bombay, intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, on behalf of [[Raghunathrao]] (also called Raghobadada), who wanted to become Peshwa of the empire. Maratha forces under Tukojirao Holkar and Mahadaji Shinde defeated a British expeditionary force at the [[Battle of Wadgaon]], but the heavy surrender terms, which included the return of annexed territory and a share of revenues, were disavowed by the British authorities at Bengal and fighting continued. What became known as the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war ''status quo'' and the East India Company's abandonment of Raghunathrao's cause.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Wadgaon |title=Battle of Wadgaon, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623110244/https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Wadgaon |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1799, [[Yashwantrao Holkar]] was crowned King of the Holkars and he captured Ujjain. He started campaigning towards the north to expand his empire in that region. Yashwant Rao rebelled against the policies of Peshwa [[Baji Rao II]]. In May 1802, he marched towards Pune the seat of the Peshwa. This gave rise to the [[Battle of Poona]] in which the Peshwa was defeated. After the Battle of Poona, the flight of the Peshwa left the government of the Maratha state in the hands of Yashwantrao Holkar.{{harv|Kincaid|Pārasanīsa|1925|p=194}} He appointed Amrutrao as the Peshwa and went to Indore on 13 March 1803. All except Gaikwad, chief of [[Baroda]], who had already accepted British protection by a separate treaty on 26 July 1802, supported the new regime. He made a treaty with the British. Also, Yashwant Rao successfully resolved the disputes with Scindia and the Peshwa. He tried to unite the Maratha Confederacy but to no avail. In 1802, the British intervened in Baroda to support the heir to the throne against rival claimants and they signed a treaty with the new Maharaja recognising his independence from the Maratha Empire in return for his acknowledgment of British paramountcy. Before the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] (1803–1805), the Peshwa Baji Rao II signed a similar treaty. The defeat in the [[Battle of Delhi, 1803]] during the Second Anglo-Maratha War resulted in the loss of the city of Delhi for the Marathas.{{sfnp|Capper|1997|p=28}}

The Second Anglo-Maratha War represents the military high-water mark of the Marathas who posed the last serious opposition to the formation of the [[British Raj]]. The real contest for India was never a single decisive battle for the subcontinent, rather, it turned on a complex social and political struggle for the control of the South Asian military economy. The victory in 1803 hinged as much on finance, diplomacy, politics and intelligence as it did on battlefield maneuvering and war itself.{{sfnp|Cooper|2003|p=69}}

[[File:Peshwa Baji Rao II.jpg|thumb|upright|Peshwa Baji Rao II signing the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] with the British East India Company]]

In 1760, the peace of the Peshwa government was held to ransom by a repetitive uprising of [[Koli people|Kolis]] under their Naik [[Javji Bamble]] who withdrew to the hills and organised a series of gang robberies, causing widespread terror and misery throughout the country. For twenty years he held out bravely, defeating and killing the generals of the Peshwa's Government sent against him. At last he was so hotly pursued that, on the advice of Dhondo Gopal, the Peshwa's governor at [[Nashik|Nasik]], he surrendered all his forts to [[Tukoji Rao Holkar|Tukoji Holkar]] and, through [[Holkar|Holkar's]] influence, was pardoned and placed in military and police charge of a district of sixty villages with powers of life and death to outlaws. In 1798, a fresh disturbance took place among the Kolis. The leader of this outbreak was Ramji Naik Bhangria, who was an abler and more daring man than his predecessors and succeeded in avoiding all the efforts of the Government officers to seize him. As force seemed hopeless, the Government offered Ramji a pardon and gave him an important police post.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hassan|first=Syed Siraj ul|url=|title=The Castes and Tribes of H.E.H. the [[Nizam]]'s Dominions|publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]]|year=1989|isbn=978-81-206-0488-9|location=[[New Delhi]]|page=333|language=en}}</ref>

In 1763, the [[Peshwa]] [[Raghunath Rao|Raghunathrao]] had appointed Abha [[Purandare]] who was an anti koli as [[Sarnaik]], due to which the Chivhe [[Koli people|Kolis]] revolted against the Peshwa and captured [[Purandar Fort|Purandar]] and [[Sinhagad]] [[Forts in India|forts]] because the Kolis did not like Abha Purandare, so Abha removed the Kolis from the fortification and posted new Kiledars, due to which the Kolis attacked and captured the forts on 7 May 1764. Five days later, Rudramal fort was also captured and presented a challenge to the [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]] of the Maratha Empire, Peshwa Raghunathrao.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guha|first=Sumit|url=|title=History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000|date=2019|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|isbn=978-0-295-74623-4|location=New Delhi|pages=191|language=en}}</ref> A few days later the Peshwa came to the fort to worship the deity inside the Purandar fort but the Peshwa got caught up by the Kolis. The Kolis looted all the belongings and weapons of the Peshwa and took him prisoner but released after some time. After this, the Kolis started collecting revenue from the surrounding area. Then, the chief of the Kolis, Kondaji Chivhe, sent a letter to the Peshwa, in which it was written, "What now sir, what is the condition, how is the government doing, have fun". After reading this letter, the Peshwa felt a bit humiliated and in a fit of rage ordered the [[Maratha Army|Maratha army]] to attack but the army could not do anything because the Kolis themselves were [[Subedar]]s and had fortified the forts well and the Peshwa faced failure. The humiliated Peshwa started taking the Kolis of Chivhe clan as captive. All those Chivhe kolis who were living in the territory of the Peshwa were declared as rebels and started being made captives. After this, the Chivhe Kolis sent a letter to [[Madhavrao I|Madhavrao]] and explained the whole matter, after which the Kolis handed over the forts to Madhavrao but the forts were returned to the Chivahe Kolis.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Guha|first1=Sumit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSa5blriOYcC&dq=chivhe&pg=PA90|title=Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200–1991|last2=Guha|first2=Lecturer Sumit|date=1999|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-64078-7|location=New Delhi|pages=83–105|language=en}}</ref>

In the year 1776, a large number of the Shelkande [[Koli people|Kolis]] of [[Otur, Maharashtra|Otur]] village, tevolted against the [[Peshwa]] because of their hereditary land rights were refused by the Peshwa.  The Kolis assembled a revolutionary army of Shelkande and Kokate Kolis and commenced plundering the surrounding villages and doing other violent activities in the hope of obtaining redress.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gāre|first=Govinda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZciAAAAMAAJ|title=Tribals in an Urban Setting: A Study of Socio-economic Impact of Poona City on the Mahadeo Kolis|publisher=Shubhada Saraswat Publications|year=1976|location=New Delhi|pages=26|language=en}}</ref>  In response, The Peshwa sent [[Maratha Army|Maratha]] troops from [[Pune]] against rebel kolis and surprised them, killed and wounded many of them. The Koli leaders were consequently forced to disperse the [[Rebellion|rebels]].  The government officers learned that Sattu Shelkande, chief of the insurgents, was hiding in the neighboring [[jungle]]. They obliged him to enter into the Sunkli zamin or chain security (one [[Patil (title)|Patil]] providing security for two or three cultivators, another Patil for five or six poorer Patils and a [[Deshmukh]] for a number of the Patils).  Hearing of the measures the government officers were adopting, they moved off to another place;  this was partly for their own safety, and partly to save their friends from being harassed and punished for not fulfilling their promise of apprehending them.  After the troops retired from the jungles, the Kolis recommenced their operations.  Several seasons passed this way but when [[Javji Bamble]] was appointed as [[Mansabdar]] of [[Rajur]] he was ordered by the Peshwa to prevent the rebellious activities by rebels. Kolis did not wish to fight with Bamble because he was also a Koli by caste.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hardiman|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNA-AQAAIAAJ|title=Histories for the Subordinated|publisher=[[Seagull Books]]|year=2007|isbn=978-1-905422-38-8|location=New Delhi|pages=104|language=en}}</ref> The Kolis remained quiet for four years but Kolis went again to the jungles because their hereditary rights were cancelled.  The troops employed against the Shelkande Kolis again forced them to disperse and the chiefs went to [[Aurangabad]]. The Kolis had taken an oath that they would cut off the head of Patil of Otur, unless Peshwa afforded them redress.  [[Nana Fadnavis|Nana Phadnavis]] who was minister in Maratha Empire declared that he would not pardon the Kolis again, as they were such a turbulent race and as no faith could be reposed in them. Nana Fadnavis detached few [[Brahmin]]s disguised as [[Gusainji|Gusai]], who gained information of the hiding place of Kolis and a detachment that marched to apprehend them was so fortunate as to bring them all prisoners to [[Junnar]], where the five Kolis were executed.  Balwantrao, brother-in-law to Nana Fadnavis, was [[subedar]] of the district at the time and it is claimed that Balwantrao became very unhappy after the execution of these kolis.  Therefore, in the hope of reestablishing the happiness that he had enjoyed, he erected a temple near the river in Junnar, in which was placed as the object of worship a Punah Ling, or five stones representing the five Kolis who were executed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pillai|first=S. Devadas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&q=mahadev+koli|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1997|isbn=978-81-7154-807-1|location=New Delhi|pages=207–210|language=en}}</ref>

The Maratha Empire, at its peak, encompassed a large area of the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian sub-continent]]. The Maratha Empire at its zenith, expanded from [[Punjab]] in the north to [[Hyderabad]] in the south, [[Kutch]] in the west to [[Oudh]] in the east. It bordered [[Oudh]] and [[Rajputana]] in the north. Apart from capturing various regions, the Marathas maintained a large number of tributaries who were bounded by agreements to pay a certain amount of regular tax, known as [[Chauth]]. The empire defeated the [[Sultanate of Mysore]] under [[Hyder Ali]] and [[Tipu Sultan]], the [[Nawab of Oudh]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], the [[Nawab of Bengal]], [[Talpur dynasty|Nawab of Sindh]] and the [[Nawab of Arcot]] as well as the [[Polygar]] kingdoms of South India. They extracted ''chauth'' from the rulers in [[Delhi]], [[Oudh State|Oudh]], [[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Odisha]] and [[Rajputana]].{{sfnp|Lindsay|1967|p=556}}{{sfnp|Saini|Chand|n.d.|p=97}} They built up the large empire in India.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

[[File:The_Seat_of_the_Mahratta_War.jpg|thumb]]

The Marathas were requested by [[Safdarjung]], the Nawab of Oudh, in 1752 to help him defeat the Afghani Rohillas. The Maratha force set out from Pune and defeated the Afghan Rohillas in 1752, capturing the whole of [[Rohilkhand]] (present-day northwestern Uttar Pradesh).{{sfnp|Agrawal|1983|p=26}} In 1752, the Marathas entered into an agreement with the Mughal emperor, through his ''wazir'', Safdarjung, and the Mughals gave the Marathas the chauth of [[Doab]] in addition to the ''[[Subahdar]]i'' of [[Ajmer]] and [[Agra]].{{sfnp|Sen|2006|p=13}} In 1758, Marathas started their [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|north-west conquest]] and expanded their boundary till Afghanistan. They defeated the Afghan forces of [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]]. The Afghans were numbered around 25,000–30,000 and were led by [[Timur Shah]], the son of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]. {{sfnp|Roy|2011|p=103}}

During the confederacy era, [[Mahadji Shinde]] resurrected the Maratha domination over much of Northern India which was lost after the Third battle of Panipat. [[Delhi]] and much of [[Uttar Pradesh]] were under the suzerainty of the [[Scindhias]] of the Maratha Empire, but following the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–1805, the Marathas lost these territories to the British East India Company.{{sfnp|Farooqui|2011|p=334}}{{sfnp|Chaurasia|2004|p=13}}

|Except for the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese possessions]] of Goa, Chaul, Salsette, and Bassein, the [[Murud-Janjira|Abyssinian pirate stronghold of Janjira]], and the English settlement on Bombay Island, Sivaji had complete control over the entire [[Konkan|Konkan region]] from Daman in the north to Karwar in the south at the time of his death in 1680. His eastern boundary extended through the districts of Nasik and Poona, encompassing the entire Satara region and most of Kolhapur. Additionally, he held territories in Bellary, Kopal, Sira, Bangalore, Kolar, Vellore, Arni, and Gingi, along with a share in his brother's principality of [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=48}}</ref>

|-

| [[File:India in 1700.png|frameless]]

|[[Sambhaji]], who succeeded Shivaji, was captured and subsequently executed by [[Aurangzeb|Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb]] in 1689. However, by the beginning of the 18th century, the Marathas had managed to regain their power.<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=48}}</ref>

| [[File:India in 1785.png|frameless]]

|After Aurangzeb, Marathas conquered a significant portion of India, stretching from the [[Chenab River]] to the borders of Bengal.<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=50}}</ref>

The involvement of the [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay Government]] in advocating [[Raghunath Rao|Raghoba]]'s claim to the peshwaship of the Maratha confederacy resulted in the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]], ultimately concluding with the signing of the [[Treaty of Salbai]] (1782).<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=52}}</ref>

| [[File:India in 1798.png|frameless]]

|In 1795, the Marathas overwhelmed the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] at [[Battle of Kharda|Kharda]]. The Maratha frontier was expanded all the way to the [[Tungabhadra River]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=54}}</ref>

| [[File:India in 1805.png|frameless]]

|The [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] (1802) resulted in a conflict with the Marathas. As per the treaty, the Peshwa, [[Baji Rao II]], was reinstated in Poona as a mere figurehead under the control of the British East India Company. In exchange, he agreed to allow the British to station a subsidiary force in his territory and accepted British arbitration in any disputes with other regional powers. This agreement made a war with the Marathas unavoidable. In the ensuing [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], the Treaty of Deogaon saw Berar surrender the province of Cuttack, including Balasore, which connected Bengal with Madras. Additionally, the Treaty of Surji Arjangaon led to [[Scindia Dynasty|Sindhia]] relinquishing the Upper Doab, his forts and territories northeast of the Rajput States, the districts of Broach and Ahmadnagar, as well as his possessions south of the Ajanta hills. Asirgarh, Burhanpur, and certain districts in the Tapti Valley were returned to Sindhia. The Peshwa received the fort and district of Ahmadnagar, while the Nizam acquired the district south of the Ajanta hills. Furthermore, the western part of Berar, lying west of the Wardha River and south of the fortress of Gawilgarh, was also granted to the Nizam.<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=58}}</ref>

| [[File:India in 1836.png|frameless]]

|During the final and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|Third Anglo-Maratha war]] (1817-19), the British achieved widespread success in their military endeavours. They successfully removed the Peshwa from power, confiscated his territories, and compelled him to reside in Bithur near Cawnpore. The [[Pratap Singh (Raja of Satara)|Raja of Satara]] was permitted to retain a small portion of his ancestral domains until it eventually came under British control during the time of Dalhousie. The independence of Sindhia, Holkar, and Berar was completely dismantled, leading to significant territorial reductions for these states. Holkar was compelled to relinquish Ajmer, which held strategic importance in Rajputana. The pirate leaders of the Konkan were coerced into surrendering their coastal holdings. Treaties were established with significant Rajput States such as Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Mewar, as well as with smaller Rajput States like Banswara, Dungarpur, Partabgarh, Jaisalmer, and Kotah. Additionally, British protection was extended to Bhopal, the States of Bundelkhand, Malwa, and Kathiawar.<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=60}}</ref>

| [[File:India in 1856.png|frameless]]

|The British territory expanded by incorporating the following States under Dalhousie's rule, following the doctrine of lapse: [[Satara state|Satara]] (1848), Jaitpur (1849) situated northeast of Jhansi, Sambalpur (1849), [[Jhansi State|Jhansi]] (1853), and [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]] (1854).<ref>{{cite book | last=Davies | first=Cuthbert Collin | title=An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula | date=1959 | isbn=978-0-19-635139-1 | page=66}}</ref>

* "Chitnis" - [[Chitnis|Personal Secretary]] and senior writer of the Chhatrapati. Sometimes considered second to the [[Peshwa]] in the absence of the Peshwa, not in the [[Ashta Pradhan|Ashta Pradhan Mandal]] but equal to them.

The Peshwa was the titular equivalent of a modern Prime Minister. Shivaji created the Peshwa designation in order to more effectively delegate administrative duties during the growth of the Maratha Empire. Prior to 1749, the Peshwas held office for 8–9 years and controlled the [[Maratha Army]]. They later became the ''de facto'' hereditary administrators of the Maratha Empire from 1749 till its end in 1818.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The [[Maratha Army]] under [[Shivaji]] was a national army consisting of personnel drawn mainly from his empire which corresponds to present day [[Maharashtra]]. It was a homogeneous body commanded by a regular cadre of officers, who had to obey one supreme commander. With the rise of the [[Peshwa]]s, however, this national army had to make room for a feudal force provided by different Maratha sardars.{{sfnp|Kar|1980|p={{page needed|date=April 2022}}}} This new Maratha Army was not homogeneous, but employed soldiers of different backgrounds, both locals and foreign mercenaries, including large numbers of [[Arabs]], [[Sikhs]], [[Rajput]]s, [[Sindhis]], [[Rohilla]]s, [[Habesha peoples|Abyssinians]], [[Pashtuns]], and Europeans. The army of [[Nana Fadnavis]], for example, included 5,000 Arabs.{{sfnp|Majumdar|1951b|p=512}}

[[File:Maratha ships scroll.jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|A painted scroll depicting different types of ships of the Maratha Navy including some captured English ships.}}]]

Some historians have credited the [[Maratha Navy]] for laying the foundation of the [[Indian Navy]] and bringing significant changes in naval warfare. A series of sea forts and battleships were built in the 17th century during the reign of [[Shivaji]]. It has been noted that vessels built in the dockyards of [[Konkan]] were mostly indigenous and constructed without foreign aid.{{sfnp|Bhave|2000|p=28}} Further, in the 18th century, during the reign of Admiral [[Kanhoji Angre]], a host of dockyard facilities were built along the entire western coastline of present-day [[Maharashtra]]. The Marathas fortified the entire coastline with sea fortresses with navigational facilities.{{sfnp|Sridharan|2000|p=43}} Nearly all the hill forts, which dot the landscape of present-day western Maharashtra were built by the Marathas. The renovation of [[Gingee Fort]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], has been particularly applauded, according to the contemporary European accounts, the defence fortifications matched the European ones.{{sfnp|Kantak|1993|p=10}}

 

[[File:Maratha-Grabs-and-Gallivats-attacking-an-English-Ship.jpg|thumb|Maratha Gurab ships attacking a British East India Company ship]]

The Maratha Army, especially its [[infantry]], was praised by almost all the enemies of the Maratha Empire, ranging from the [[Duke of Wellington]] to [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]].{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} After the Third Battle of Panipat, Abdali was relieved as the Maratha Army in the initial stages were almost in the position of destroying the Afghan armies and their Indian Allies, the Nawab of Oudh and Rohillas. The grand [[Vizier|wazir]] of the [[Durrani Empire]], [[Sardar Shah Wali Khan]] was shocked when Maratha commander-in-chief [[Sadashivrao Bhau]] launched a fierce assault on the centre of the Durrani Army, over 10,000 Durrani soldiers were killed alongside Haji Atai Khan, one of the chief commander of the Durrani Army and nephew of wazir Shah Wali Khan. Such was the fierce assault of the Maratha infantry in hand-to-hand combat that Afghan armies started to flee and the wazir in desperation and rage shouted, "Comrades Whither do you fly, our country is far off".{{sfnp|Sarkar|1950|p=245}} Post battle, Ahmad Shah Abdali in a letter to one Indian ruler claimed that Afghans were able to defeat the Marathas only because of the blessings of almighty and any other army would have been destroyed by the Maratha army on that particular day even though the Maratha Army was numerically inferior to the Durrani Army and its Indian allies.{{sfnp|Singh|2011|p=213}} Though Abdali won the battle, he also had heavy casualties on his side. Hence, he sought immediate peace with the Marathas. Abdali wrote in his letter to Peshwa on 10 February 1761:

[[File:Arms of Maratha History of India 1906.jpg|thumb|Maratha arms]]

Similarly, [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]], after defeating the Marathas, noted that the Marathas, though poorly led by their generals, had regular infantry and artillery that matched the level of that of the Europeans and warned other British officers from underestimating the Marathas on the battlefield. He cautioned one British general: "You must never allow Maratha infantry to attack head on or in close hand-to-hand combat as in that your army will cover itself with utter disgrace".{{sfnp|Lee|2011|p=85}}{{fact|date=July 2023}}

 

 

 

[[Norman Gash]] says that the Maratha infantry was equal to that of British infantry.<ref name="Gash 1990 p." /> After the [[Third Anglo-Maratha war]] in 1818, Britain listed the Marathas as one of the [[martial race]]s to serve in the British Indian Army. The 19th-century diplomat Sir [[Justin Sheil]] commented about the British East India Company copying the French Indian Army in raising an army of Indians:

=== Imperial houses ===

*[[Bhoite Saranjam|Bhoites]] of Jalgaon, [[Bhoite|Aradgaon]]

* {{cite book|last=Chaturvedi|first=R. P. |title=Great Personalities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UBSlBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197|year=2010|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7482-061-7}}

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[[Category:Hindu states]]