Indian independence movement: Difference between revisions

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{{Colonial India}}

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The first nationalistic [[revolutionary movement for Indian independence]] emerged from [[Bengal]]. It later took root in the newly formed [[Indian National Congress]] with prominent moderate leaders seeking the right to appear for [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|Indian Civil Service examinations in British India]], as well as more economic rights for natives. The first half of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards self-rule by the [[Lal Bal Pal|Lal Bal Pal triumvirate]], [[Aurobindo Ghosh]] and [[V. O. Chidambaram Pillai]].

Few leaders followed a more violent approach. This became especially popular after the [[Rowlatt Act]], which permitted [[indefinite detention]]. The Act sparked protests across India, especially in the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab province]], where they were violently suppressed in the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]].

India remained a [[Dominion|Crown Dominion]] until 26 January 1950, when the [[Constitution of India]] established the Republic of India. Pakistan remained a dominion until 1956 when it adopted its first constitution. In 1971, East Pakistan declared its own independence as [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Remembering the war of 1971 in East Pakistan|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/remembering-war-1971-east-pakistan-191216054546348.html|last=Zakaria|first=Anam|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=2020-05-18}}</ref>

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In [[East India|Eastern India]] and across the country, Indigenous communities organized numerous rebellions against the British and their fellow members, especially [[Zamindar|landlords]] and moneylenders.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Horo|first=Albert|date=2013|title=Jharkhand Movement|url=http://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v2(4)/version-2/A240106.pdf|journal=International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention|volume= 2| issue = 4|pages=1–6|via=Google Scholar}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Sanjukta Das|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VDGIpkJ9BgwC|title=Narratives from the Margins: Aspects of Adivasi History in India|last2=Basu|first2=Raj Sekhar|date=2012|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-10-8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-03-20|title=Summary of the Tribal Rebellions during British rule in India|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/summary-of-the-tribal-rebellions-during-british-rule-in-india-1521541943-1|access-date=2021-11-21|website=Jagranjosh.com}}</ref> One of the earliest of these on record was led by Binsu Manki around 1771 over the transfer of [[Jharkhand]] to the [[East India Company]].<ref name=":0" /> The Rangpur Dhing took place from 1782 to 1783 in nearby [[Rangpur, Bangladesh|Rangpur, Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LEES|first=JAMES|date=2015|title='A Character to lose': Richard Goodlad, the Rangpur dhing, and the priorities of the East India Company's early colonial administrators|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43307694|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=25|issue=2|pages=301–315|jstor=43307694|issn=1356-1863}}</ref> Following the Binsu Manki's revolt in Jharkhand, numerous rebellions across the region took place including the [[Bhumij rebellion|Bhumij Revolt]] of [[Manbhum]] from 1798 to 1799; the [[Chero]] Uprising of [[Palamu district|Palamu]] in 1800 under the leadership of Bhukan Singh, and two uprising of the [[Munda people|Munda]] community in Tamar region, during 1807 led by Dukan Mank, and 1819-20 under the leadership Bundu and Konta.<ref name=":0" /> The Ho Rebellion took place when the [[Ho people|Ho community]] first came in contact with the British, from 1820 to 1821 near [[Chaibasa]] on the Roro River in [[West Singhbhum district|West Singhbhum]], but were defeated by the technologically enhanced colonial cavalry.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Sanjukta Das|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8McrAwEACAAJ|title=Adivasis and the Raj: Socio-economic Transition of the Hos, 1820-1932|date=2011|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-4198-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kumar|first=Akshay|date=2021-06-18|title=Ho Rebellion & Kol Rebellion {{!}} Jharkhand|url=https://edvnce.com/blog/ho-rebellion-kol-rebellion/|access-date=2021-11-21|website=Edvnce|language=en-US}}</ref> A larger [[Bhumij rebellion|Bhumij Revolt]] occurred near [[Midnapore|Midnapur]] in Bengal, under the leadership of [[Ganga Narayan Singh|Ganga Narain Singh]] who had previously also been involved in co-leading the [[Chuar rebellion|Chuar Rebellions]] in these regions from 1771 to 1809.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jha|first=Jagdish Chandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPjNAQAACAAJ|title=The Bhumij Revolt (1832-33): (ganga Narain's Hangama Or Turmoil)|date=1967-01-01|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-215-0353-2|language=en}}</ref> [[Syed Mir Nisar Ali Titumir]] was an Islamic preacher who led a peasant uprising against the [[Zamindars of Bengal|Hindu Zamindars of Bengal]] and the British during the 19th century. Along with his followers, he built a bamboo fort (''Bansher Kella'' in Bengali) in Narkelberia Village, which gained a prominent place into Bengali folk legend. After the storming of the fort by British soldiers, Titumir died of his wounds on 19 November 1831.<ref>Khan, Muazzam Hussain. "Titu Mir". Banglapedia. Bangladesh Asiatic Society. Retrieved 4 March 2014.</ref> These rebellions lead to larger regional movements in Jharkhand and beyond such as the [[Kol uprising|Kol Insurrection]] led by Singhray and Binray Manki, where the [[Kol people|Kol]] ([[Munda people|Munda]], [[Kurukh people|Oraon]], [[Bhumij people|Bhumij]] and [[Ho people|Ho]] communities) united to rebel against the "outsiders" from 1830 -1833.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jha|first=Jagdish Chandra|date=1958|title=THE KOL RISING OF CHOTANAGPUR (1831-33)—ITS CAUSES|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145239|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=21|pages=440–446|jstor=44145239|issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

The toughest resistance the Company experienced was offered by Mysore. The [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] were a series of wars fought in over the last three decades of the 18th century between the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] on the one hand, and the British East India Company (represented chiefly by the [[Madras Presidency]]), and [[Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] on the other. [[Hyder Ali]] and his successor [[Tipu Sultan]] fought a war on four fronts with the British attacking from the west, south, and east, while the Marathas and the Nizam's forces attacked from the north. The fourth war resulted in the overthrow of the house of Hyder Ali and Tipu (who was killed in the final war, in 1799), and the dismantlement of Mysore to the benefit of the East India Company, which won and took control of much of India.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-India-Company|title=East India Company – Definition, History, & Facts|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> [[Pazhassi Raja]] was the prince regent of the princely state of [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Cotiote]] in North Malabar, near [[Kannur]], India between 1774 and 1805. He fought a guerrilla war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was captured by the British and his fort was razed to the ground.

The indifference of the British towards native Indian rulers and the annexation of [[Oudh]] furthered dissent. The [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Marquess of Dalhousie]]'s policy of annexation, the [[doctrine of lapse]] and the projected removal of the Mughals from their ancestral palace at [[Red Fort]] also led to popular anger.

[[Mangal Pandey]] was sepoy who played a key part in the events immediately preceding the outbreak of the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]]. His defiance to his British superiors and later his execution ignited the fire for [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|1857 Indian Rebellion]].

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a turning point. While affirming the military and political power of the British,<ref>{{Harvnb|Heehs|1998|p=32}}</ref> it led to a significant change in how India was to be controlled by them. Under the [[Government of India Act 1858]], the East India Company's territory was transferred to the British government.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |title = Official, India |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1890–1923 |access-date = 30 May 2013 }}</ref> At the apex of the new system was a [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet minister]], the [[Secretary of State for India]], who was to be formally advised by a [[Council of India|statutory council]];<ref>{{Harvnb|Heehs|1998|pp=47–48}}</ref> the [[Governor-General of India]] (Viceroy) was made responsible to him, while he in turn was responsible to the government.

In 1876 the British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] proclaimed Queen Victoria the [[Empress of India]]. The British Liberals objected as the title was foreign to British traditions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robert P. O'Kell|title=Disraeli: The Romance of Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DyWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT443|year=2014|publisher=U of Toronto Press|pages=443–44|isbn=9781442661042}}</ref>

The decades following the Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, the manifestation of Indian public opinion and the emergence of Indian leadership at both national and provincial levels. [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] formed the East India Association in 1867 and [[Surendranath Banerjee]] founded the [[Indian National Association]] in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by [[Allan Octavian Hume|A.O. Hume]], a retired Scottish civil servant, seventy-two Indian delegates met in [[Mumbai|Bombay]] in 1885 and founded the Indian National Congress.<ref name="Marshall2001"/> They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, [[teaching]] and journalism. At its inception, Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organization. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government (especially in the civil service). These resolutions were submitted to the Indian government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were slight. "Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites;<ref name="Marshall2001"/> the number of participants from other social and economic backgrounds remained negligible.<ref name="Marshall2001"/> However, this period of history is still crucial because it represented the first political mobilization of Indians, coming from all parts of the subcontinent and the first articulation of the idea of India as one nation, rather than a collection of independent princely states.<ref name="Marshall2001"/>

The triumvirate also is known as [[Lal Bal Pal]] ([[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], [[Bipin Chandra Pal]], [[Lala Lajpat Rai]]), along with [[V. O. Chidambaram Pillai]], [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Surendranath Banerjee]], and [[Rabindranath Tagore]] were some of the prominent leaders of movements in the early 20th century. The [[Swadeshi movement]] was the most successful. The name of Lokmanya began spreading around and people started following him in all parts of the country.

==Movements==

===Partition of Bengal, 1905===

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File:Khudiram Bose 1905 cropped.jpg|[[Khudiram Bose]] was one of the youngest Indian revolutionaries tried and executed by the British.<ref name=Guha/>

In July 1905, [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]], the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of the province of Bengal]]. The stated aim was to improve administration.<ref>John R. McLane, "The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905" ''Indian Economic and Social History Review,'' July 1965, 2#3, pp 221–237</ref> However, this was seen as an attempt to quench nationalistic sentiment through [[divide and rule]].  The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of ''[[swadeshi]]'', or indigenous industries. A growing movement emerged, focussing on indigenous Indian industries, finance, and education, which saw the founding of [[National Council of Education]], the birth of Indian financial institutions and banks, as well as an interest in Indian culture and achievements in science and literature. Hindus showed unity by tying [[Raksha Bandhan|Rakhi]] on each other's wrists and observing ''Arandhan'' (not cooking any food). During this time, Bengali Hindu nationalists like [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Bhupendranath Datta]], and [[Bipin Chandra Pal]] began writing virulent newspaper articles challenging the legitimacy of British rule in India in publications such as ''Jugantar'' and ''Sandhya'', and were charged with sedition.

The British newspaper, ''The Empire'', wrote:<ref name=Patel2008>{{Harvnb|Patel|2008|p=56}}</ref>

|File:Indian Army QF 3.7 inch gun battery Jerusalem 1917.jpg|Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with [[3.7-inch mountain howitzer]]s, Jerusalem 1917.

|File:Rash Behari Bose 02.jpg|[[Rash Behari Bose]], was one of the key organisers of the [[Ghadar Mutiny]] and later the [[Indian National Army]].

}}

The First World War began with an unprecedented outpouring of support towards Britain from within the mainstream political leadership.  Contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt, Indians contributed considerably to the British war effort by providing men and resources.  About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. Nonetheless, Bengal and [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] remained hotbeds of [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|anti-colonial activities]]. Nationalism in Bengal, increasingly associated with the [[Ghadar Mutiny|unrest in Punjab]], was of significant ferocity to almost complete the paralysis of the regional administration. Meanwhile, [[Hindu-German Conspiracy|failed conspiracies]] were triggered by revolutionaries lack of preparedness to organise a nationalist revolt.<ref name=Gupta12>{{Harvnb|Gupta|1997|p=12}}</ref><ref name="Popplewell 1995 p=201">{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=201}}</ref>

Sir Sidney Arthur Taylor Rowlatt (cropped).jpg|[[Sidney Rowlatt]], best remembered for his controversial presidency of the [[Rowlatt Committee]], a [[sedition]] committee appointed in 1918 by the [[British Raj|British Indian]] Government to evaluate the links between [[political terrorism]] in [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|India]], the actions indirectly led to the infamous [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] of 1919.

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Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initially entered the political fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for.  Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought were long required to alleviate many of India's chronic problems. [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]], a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor.  Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent [[civil disobedience]] initially appeared impractical to some Indians and their Congress leaders.  In the Mahatma's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of immoral statutory enactments."  It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing co-operation with the corrupt state.  Gandhi had great respect for [[Lokmanya Tilak]]. His programmes were all inspired by Tilak's "Chatusutri" programme.

===First non-co-operation movement===

From 1920 to 1922, Gandhi started the Non-Cooperation Movement.  At the Kolkata session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-co-operation movement in support of [[Khilafat movement|Khilafat]] as well as for dominion status. The first satyagraha movement urged the use of [[khadi]] and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts, resign from government employment, refuse to pay taxes, and forsake British titles and honors. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new ''[[Government of India Act 1919]]'', the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented a serious challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement because he was scared after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]], which saw the death of twenty-two policemen at the hands of an angry mob that India would descend into anarchy.

===Result of movements by Gandhi===

The mass movements sparked nationalist sentiment with the Indian populace and figures like Mahatma Gandhi united a nation behind his non-violence movement; philosophy and undoubtedly put crucial pressure on the British occupation. The movements failed in their primary objective, achieving independence for India, as they were often called off before they naturally concluded due to laws and punishment. While in the later years of the Raj economic factors like the reversing trade fortunes between Britain and India and the cost of fielding the Indian armed forces abroad lumped on the British taxpayer by the 1935 Government of India act, had mounting implications for British administration, united resistance further drew light on the growing disparity of the British failures to achieve solidarity over India.

Chauri chaura new photo.jpg|Chauri Chaura Shahid Samarak, which is a memorial to the [[Chauri Chaura incident]], when a large group of protesters, participating in the Non-cooperation movement, clashed with police, who opened fire.

Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari.jpg|[[C. Rajagopalachari]], was an Indian nationalist who participated in the agitations against the [[Rowlatt Act]], joining the [[Non-cooperation movement]], the [[Vaikom Satyagraha]], and the [[Civil disobedience movement]].

Sardar patel (cropped).jpg|[[Vallabhbhai Patel]] was appointed as the 49th [[List of Presidents of the Indian National Congress|President of Indian National Congress]], organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937 while promoting the [[Quit India Movement]].

1931 Flag of India.svg|The flag adopted, during the Purna Swaraj movement, in 1931 and used by [[Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind|Provisional Government during the subsequent years of Second World War]].

==Elections and the Lahore resolution==

{{Main|1937 Indian provincial elections}}

The [[Government of India Act 1935]], the voluminous and final constitutional effort at governing [[British India]], articulated three major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite [[princely state]]s and British India at the centre, were not implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the Muslim League performed poorly.

Apart from a few stray incidents, armed rebellions against the British rulers did not occur before the beginning of the 20th century. The Indian revolutionary underground began gathering momentum through the first decade of the 20th century, with groups arising in Bengal, [[Maharashtra]], [[Odisha]], Bihar, [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], and the [[Madras Presidency]] including what is now called [[South India]]. More groups were scattered around India. Particularly notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|Partition of Bengal]] in 1905, and in [[1907 Punjab unrest|Punjab after 1907]].<ref name=Fraser257>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1977|p=257}}</ref> In the former case, it was the educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban middle class ''[[Bhadralok]]'' community that came to form the "classic" Indian revolutionary,<ref name="Fraser257"/> while the latter had an immense support base in the rural and military society of Punjab.

Indian nationalism made headway through Indian societies as far as Paris and London. In London [[India House]] under the patronage of [[Shyamji Krishna Verma]] came under increasing scrutiny for championing and justifying violence in the cause of Indian nationalism, which found in Indian students in Britain and from Indian expatriates in [[Paris Indian Society]] avid followers. By 1907, through Indian nationalist [[Madame Bhikaji Rustom Cama]]'s links to Russian revolutionary Nicholas Safranski, Indian groups including Bengal revolutionaries as well as India House under [[V.D. Savarkar]] were able to obtain manuals for manufacturing bombs. India House was also a source of arms and seditious literature that was rapidly distributed in India. In addition to ''The Indian Sociologist'', pamphlets like ''Bande Mataram'' and ''Oh Martyrs!'' by Savarkar extolled revolutionary violence. Direct influences and incitement from India House were noted in several incidents of political violence, including assassinations, in India at the time.<ref name="Yadav4"/><ref name=Hopkirk46>{{Harvnb|Hopkirk|1994|p=46}} [By 1909] India House was beginning to come under suspicion ... too late to save Sir William Curzon Wyllie from the assassin's pistol ... Savarkar could see that London was rapidly becoming too hot for him ... In early January 1910, therefore, he slipped quietly over to Paris, determined to make it his new revolutionary headquarters ... [police] managed to obtain evidence linking him with the smuggling of firearms into India.</ref><ref name=Majumdar1966p>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1966|p=147}} Savarkar's ''Bande Mataram'' contained exhortations [advocating terrorism] ... This sort of propaganda produced a natural effect. A. M. T. Jackson, the Magistrate ... was shot dead on 21 December 1909 ... charges against him [Savarkar] included the sending of pistols and seditious pamphlets to India. Another charge was that in 1908 he with the help of residents in the India House manifolded in type a number of copies of a work describing minutely the manner of preparing explosives and bombs. He despatched these copies to various addresses in India.</ref> One of the two charges against Savarkar during his trial in Bombay was for abetting the murder of the District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson, by [[Anant Kanhere]] in December 1909. The arms used were directly traced through an Italian courier to India House. Ex-India House residents M.P.T. Acharya and V.V.S. Aiyar were noted in the [[Rowlatt report]] to have aided and influenced political assassinations, including the murder of Robert D'Escourt Ashe.<ref name="Yadav4"/> The Paris-Safranski link was strongly suggested by French police to be involved in a 1907 attempt in Bengal to derail the train carrying the Lieutenant-Governor [[Sir Andrew Fraser]].<ref name=Popplewell135>{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=135}}</ref>

The HSRA had strong influences from leftist ideologies. [[Hindustan Socialist Republican Association]] (HSRA) was formed under the leadership of [[Chandrasekhar Azad]]. [[Kakori train robbery]] was done largely by the members of HSRA. A number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially [[Subhash Chandra Bose]], were accused by the British Government of having links with and allowing patronage to the revolutionary organisations during this time. The violence and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when revolutionaries of the ''Samiti'' and the HSRA were involved in the [[Chittagong armoury raid]] and the [[Kakori conspiracy]] and other attempts against the administration in British India and Raj officials. [[Sachindra Nath Sanyal]] mentored revolutionaries in the [[Hindustan Socialist Republican Army]] (HSRA), including Bhagat Singh and [[Jatindra Nath Das]], among others; including arms training and how to make bombs.<ref name="Chatterji">{{cite book |title=Filming Reality: The Independent Documentary Movement in India |first=Shoma A. |last=Chatterji |publisher=SAGE Publications India |year=2015 |isbn=978-9-35150-543-3 |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xV0lDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT36}}</ref> [[Bhagat Singh]] and [[Batukeshwar Dutt]] threw a bomb inside the [[Central Legislative Assembly]] on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of "[[Inquilab Zindabad]]", though no one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Bhagat Singh surrendered after the bombing incident and a trial was conducted. Sukhdev and Rajguru were also arrested by police during search operations after the bombing incident. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, [[Sukhdev]] and [[Shivaram Rajguru|Rajguru]] were hanged in 1931. [[Allama Mashriqi]] founded [[Khaksars|Khaksar Tehreek]] in order to direct particularly the Muslims towards the self-rule movement.<ref>Khaksar Tehrik Ki Jiddo Juhad Volume 1. Author Khaksar Sher Zaman</ref> Some of its members left for the Indian National Congress then led by Subhas Chandra Bose, while others identified more closely with [[Communism]]. The ''Jugantar'' branch formally dissolved in 1938. On 13 March 1940, [[Udham Singh]] shot [[Michael O'Dwyer]] (the last political murder outside India), generally held responsible for the [[Amritsar Massacre]], in London. However, the revolutionary movement gradually disseminated into the Gandhian movement. As the political scenario changed in the late 1930s&nbsp;— with the mainstream leaders considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics coming into play&nbsp;— revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] and other parties, especially [[Communist involvement in Indian Independence movement|communist ones]], while many of the activists were kept under hold in different jails across the country. Indians who were based in the UK, joined [[India League|the India League]] and the [[Indian Workers' Association|Indian Workers Association]], partaking in revolutionary activities in Britain.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Nasta |editor-first=Susheila |year=2013 |title=India in Britain : South Asian networks and connections, 1858-1950 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-39271-7|location=New York|oclc=802321049}}</ref>

In the 1920s, [[Alluri Sitarama Raju]] led the ill-fated [[Rampa Rebellion of 1922]]–24, during which a band of tribal leaders and other sympathisers fought against the British Raj.  Local people referred to him as "Manyam Veerudu" ("Hero of the Jungles").  After the passage of the 1882 Madras Forest Act, its restrictions on the free movement of tribal peoples in the forest prevented them from engaging in their traditional ''[[Podu (agriculture)|podu]]'' ([[Slash-and-burn]]) agricultural system, which involved [[shifting cultivation]]. Raju started a protest movement in the border areas of the Godavari Agency part of [[Madras Presidency]] (present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]).  Inspired by the patriotic zeal of revolutionaries in Bengal, Raju raided police stations in and around [[Chintapalle, Visakhapatnam|Chintapalle]], [[Rampachodavaram]], [[Dammanapalli]], Krishna Devi Peta, [[Rajavommangi]], [[Addateegala]], [[Narsipatnam]] and [[Annavaram]]. Raju and his followers stole guns and ammunition and killed several [[British Indian Army]] officers, including Scott Coward near [[Dammanapalli]].<ref name="Balakrishna">{{cite web|last=Balakrishna|first=V.G.|title=Freedom Movement in Andhra Pradesh|url=http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr98/fe0798/PIBF0707982.html|publisher=Government of India Press Information Bureau|access-date=28 March 2011}}</ref> The British campaign lasted for nearly a year from December 1922. Raju was eventually trapped by the British in the forests of Chintapalli then tied to a tree and shot dead with a rifle.<ref name="Balakrishna"/>

The self-rule movement included the [[Kakori conspiracy]] (9 August 1925) led by Indian youth under the leadership of [[Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil]] and masterminded by [[Rajendra Lahiri]]; and the [[Azad Hind]] movement, whose main protagonist [[Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose]] was a former leader of Congress. From its earliest wartime inception, Bose joined the [[Axis Powers]] to fight Britain.

===Quit India Movement===

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[[Image:RIN HMIS Hindustan.jpg|thumb|250px|[[HMIS Hindustan (L80)|HMIS ''Hindustan'']] at Bombay Harbour after the war, was occupied by mutineers during the [[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]].]]

The [[Royal Indian Navy Mutiny]] was a failed insurrection which encompassed a [[strike action|total strike]] and subsequent [[mutiny]] by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay ([[Mumbai]]) harbour on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout [[British India]], from [[Karachi]] to [[Calcutta]] and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-ipOZf7y_B4C Notes on India]'' By Robert Bohm.pp213</ref>

== External links ==

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