Caste system in India: Difference between revisions

The '''caste system in India''' is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of [[caste]]s. It has its origins in [[Outline of ancient India|ancient India]], and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the [[Mughal Empire]] and the [[British Raj]].{{sfnp|de Zwart|2000}}{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|pp=25–27, 392}}{{sfnp|St. John|2012|p=103}}{{sfnp|Sathaye|2015|p=214}} It is today the basis of [[Reservation in India|affirmative action programmes]] in India as enforced through [[constitution of India|its constitution]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616|title=What is India's caste system?|date=25 February 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=27 May 2017|language=en-GB|quote=Independent India's constitution banned discrimination on the basis of caste, and, in an attempt to correct historical injustices and provide a level playing field to the traditionally disadvantaged, the authorities announced quotas in government jobs and educational institutions for scheduled castes and tribes, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, in 1950.}}</ref> The caste system consists of two different concepts, ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' and ''[[Jāti|jati]]'', which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system.

The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and the rise of the [[British Raj|British colonial government]] in India.{{sfnp|de Zwart|2000}}{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|p=392}} The collapse of the Mughal era saw the rise of powerful men who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming the regal and martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless social groups into differentiated caste communities.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|pp=26–27|ps=:What happened in the initial phase of this two-stage sequence was the rise of the royal man of prowess. In this period, both kings and the priests and ascetics with whom men of power were able to associate their rule became a growing focus for the affirmation of a martial and regal form of caste ideal. (...) The other key feature of this period was the reshaping of many apparently casteless forms of devotional faith in a direction which further affirmed these differentiations of rank and community.}} The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|p=392}} Between 1860 and 1920, the British incorporated the Indian caste system into their system of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to [[Christianity in India|Christians]] and people belonging to certain castes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The discovery of India|last=Nehru |first=Jawaharlal |date=2004|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0-670-05801-7|location=New Delhi|oclc=57764885}}</ref> Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy.{{sfnp|Dirks|2001b|pp=215–229}} From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of [[positive discrimination]] by [[Reservation in India|reserving]] a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. In 1948, negative discrimination on the basis of caste was banned by law and further enshrined in the [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]] in 1950;<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-28/struggle-to-challenge-indias-caste-system/101185772 | title='I would tell the other girls at school that I was Brahmin': The struggle to challenge India's caste system | newspaper=ABC News | date=27 June 2022 }}</ref> however, the system continues to be practiced in parts of India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616|title=What is India's caste system?|date=25 February 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=27 May 2017|language=en-GB|quote=Independent India's constitution banned discrimination on the basis of caste, and, in an attempt to correct historical injustices and provide a level playing field to the traditionally disadvantaged, the authorities announced quotas in government jobs and educational institutions for scheduled castes and tribes, the lowest in the caste hierarchy, in 1950.}}</ref>  There are 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes in India, each related to a specific occupation.<ref>{{cite news |title=What is India's caste system? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616 |work=BBC News |date=19 June 2019}}</ref>

Caste-based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the [[Indian subcontinent]], like Nepalese Buddhism,<ref name="LeVine">{{cite book|title=Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9C1iF3MAYgC |first=Sarah|last=LeVine|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-02554-7|page=21}}</ref> [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]] and [[Sikhism]].{{sfnp|Cohen|2001|p=21}} It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements,{{sfnp|Dirks|2001a|p=3}} Sikhism, Christianity,{{sfnp|Cohen|2001|p=21}} by present-day [[Navayana|Indian Buddhism]].<ref name="Omvedt1">{{cite book|title=Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvmHAwAAQBAJ |first=Gail|last=Omvedt|publisher=Sage Classics|year=2014|isbn=978-81-321-1028-6|page=252}}</ref> With Indian influences, the caste system is also practiced in [[Bali]] and parts of [[Southeast Asia]] such as [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{cite book|author= Geoffrey Robinson|title= The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m3Gfir3Ju70C |year=1995| publisher= Cornell University Press|isbn= 0-8014-8172-4|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/304118/caste-system-fosters-hate|title='Caste system' fosters hate|website=Bangkok Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newmandala.org/thai-elitism-and-hierarchy/|title=Thai elitism and hierarchy|website=New Mandala}}</ref>

''[[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]]'' literally means ''type, order, colour or class''{{Hairspace}}<ref name="Doniger 1999 186">{{cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |location=Springfield, MA |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/186 186] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/186 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Andrea |title=An Encyclopedia of Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa |publisher=Sage Publications |location=US |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4129-8176-7 |pages=12–13}}</ref> and was a framework for grouping people into classes, first used in [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic Indian society]]. It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts.{{sfnp|Basham, Wonder that was India|1954|p=148}} The four classes were the [[Brahmin]]s (priestly people), the [[Kshatriya]]s (rulers, administrators and warriors; also called Rajanyas), the [[Vaishya]]s (artisans, merchants, tradesmen and farmers), and [[Shudra]]s (labouring classes).{{sfnp|Fowler, Hinduism|1997|pp=19–20}} The ''varna'' categorisation implicitly had a fifth element, being those people deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as [[adivasi|tribal]] people and the [[Dalit|untouchables (Dalits)]].{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|p=9}} India is home to over 200 million Dalits.<ref>{{cite news |title=India top court recalls controversial caste order |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49889815 |work=BBC News |date=1 October 2019}}</ref>

''Jati'', meaning ''birth'',{{sfnp|Fowler, Hinduism|1997|p=23}} is mentioned much less often in ancient texts, where it is clearly distinguished from ''varna''. There are four ''varnas'' but thousands of ''jatis''.{{sfnp|Basham, Wonder that was India|1954|p=148}} The ''jatis'' are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definition or characteristic, and have been more flexible and diverse than was previously often assumed.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|p=9}}

Certain scholars{{Which|date=May 2019}} of caste have considered ''jati'' to have its basis in religion, assuming that in India the sacred elements of life envelop the secular aspects; for example, the anthropologist [[Louis Dumont]] described the ritual rankings that exist within the ''jati'' system as being based on the concepts of religious purity and pollution. This view has been disputed by other scholars, who believe it to be a secular social phenomenon driven by the necessities of economics, politics, and sometimes also geography.{{sfnp|Fowler, Hinduism|1997|p=23}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Harrington |first=Austin |title=Encyclopedia of social theory |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-29046-3 |page=49}}</ref>{{sfnp|Dirks|2001a|pp=57–60}}{{sfnp|Samuel, Origins of Yoga and Tantra|2008|pp=87–88}} Jeaneane Fowler says that although some people consider ''jati'' to be occupational segregation, in reality the ''jati'' framework does not preclude or prevent a member of one caste from working in another occupation.{{sfnp|Fowler, Hinduism|1997|p=23}} A feature of ''jatis'' has been [[endogamy]], in [[Susan Bayly]]'s words, that "both in the past and for many though not all Indians in more modern times, those born into a given caste would normally expect to find marriage partner" within his or her ''jati''.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|p=10}}{{sfnp|Samuel, Origins of Yoga and Tantra|2008|p=87}}

''Jatis'' have existed in India among Hindus, Muslims, Christians and tribal people, and there is no clear linear order among them.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingold |first=Tim |title=Companion encyclopedia of anthropology |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-415-28604-6 |pages=1026–1027}}</ref>

The term ''caste'' is not originally an Indian word, though it is now widely used, both in English and in [[Languages of India|Indian languages]]. According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', it is derived from the Portuguese ''casta'', meaning "race, lineage, breed" and, originally, "'pure or unmixed (stock or breed)".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oed.com|title=Caste, n.|date=1989|website=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref> There is no exact translation in Indian languages, but ''varna'' and ''jati'' are the two most approximate terms.{{sfnp|Corbridge|Harriss|Jeffrey|2013|p=239}}

[[Ronald Inden]], the [[Indology|Indologist]], agrees that there has been no universally accepted definition. For example, for some early European documenters it was thought to correspond with the endogamous ''varnas'' referred to in ancient Indian scripts, and its meaning corresponds in the sense of ''[[Estates of the realm|estates]]''. To later Europeans of the Raj era it was endogamous ''jatis'', rather than ''varnas'', that represented ''caste'', such as the 2378 ''jatis'' that colonial administrators classified by occupation in the early 20th century.{{sfnp|Inden|2001|p=59}}

* The first school focuses on the ideological factors which are claimed to drive the caste system and holds that caste is rooted in the four ''varnas''. This perspective was particularly common among scholars during the British colonial era and was articulated by Dumont, who concluded that the system was ideologically perfected several thousand years ago and has remained the primary social reality ever since. This school justifies its theory primarily by citing the ancient law book ''[[Manusmriti]]'' and disregards economic, political or historical evidence.{{sfnp|Dirks|2001a|pp=55–58}}{{sfnp|Gupta|2000|p=181}}

* The second school of thought focuses on socioeconomic factors and claims that those factors drive the caste system. It believes caste to be rooted in the economic, political and material history of India.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|pp=19–24}} This school, which is common among scholars of the post-colonial era such as [[Gerald Berreman|Berreman]], Marriott, and Dirks, describes the caste system as an ever-evolving social reality that can only be properly understood by the study of historical evidence of actual practice and the examination of verifiable circumstances in the economic, political and material history of India.{{sfnp|Gupta|2000|pp=180–183}}{{sfnp|Dirks|2001a|pp=56–57}} This school has focused on the historical evidence from ancient and medieval society in India, during the [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|Muslim rule between the 12th and 18th centuries]], and the policies of the British colonial government from 18th century to the mid-20th century.{{sfnp|Dirks|2001a|pp=38–43}}{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|pp=38–43}}

The first school has focused on religious anthropology and disregarded other historical evidence as secondary to or derivative of this tradition.{{sfnp|Gupta|2000|p=184}} The second school has focused on sociological evidence and sought to understand the historical circumstances.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|pp=5–7}} The latter has criticised the former for its caste origin theory, claiming that it has dehistoricised and decontextualised Indian society.{{sfnp|Dirks|2001a|p=59}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Ganguly | first=Debjani | title=Caste, colonialism and counter-modernity: notes on a postcolonial hermeneutics of caste | publisher=Routledge | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-415-54435-1 | pages=5–10}}</ref>

Jeaneane Fowler, a professor of philosophy and religious studies, states that it is impossible to determine how and why the ''jatis'' came into existence.{{sfnp|Fowler, Hinduism|1997|pp=23–24}} Susan Bayly, on the other hand, states that ''jati'' system emerged because it offered a source of advantage in an era of pre-Independence poverty, lack of institutional human rights, volatile political environment, and economic insecurity.{{sfnp|Bayly|2001|pp=263–264}}{{Clarify|reason=The sentence says that the jatis emerged only in the modern period!|date=December 2016}}

The existence of ''jati'' and the precursor of caste has been found in [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (3300 BCE - 1700 BCE). Sociologist S C. Malik writes Indus Valley Civilization saw "perpetuation of caste status by birth" and "caste-class patterns" were found in Indian society since this period.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Indian Civilization: A Framework of Enquiry|page=76|author=Subhash Chandra Malik|publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Eltsov | first=P.A. | title=From Harappa to Hastinapura: A Study of the Earliest South Asian City and Civilization | publisher=Brill | series=American School of Prehistoric Research monograph series | year=2008 | isbn=978-90-04-16060-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pn0MAQAAMAAJ | page=14}}</ref> Charles Maisels finds caste stratification to have arisen from occupational groups upon the devolution from urban Indus Valley society.<ref>{{cite book | last=Maisels | first=C.K. | title=Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-134-83730-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2dgI2ijww8C|page=252}}</ref> [[Romila Thapar]] finds possibility of a caste as pre-Vedic element, and notes that Jati pre-dated Vedic varna. Thapar further notes that ''Jatis'' were derived from clans of Indus Valley Civilisation which saw emergence of  different occupations that were inherited and became hierarchically organised with unequal access to resources with stringent marriage regulations and rituals becoming rigid system over a period of time.<ref>{{cite book | last=Bandhu | first=P. | last2=Jacob | first2=T.G. | title=Encountering The Adivasi Question: South Indian Narratives | publisher=Studera Press | year=2019 | isbn=978-93-85883-92-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDfnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA254| page=254}}</ref> Archaeologist [[Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar|M.K. Dhavalikar]] has also supported existence of caste system in Indus Valley Civilisation.<ref>{{cite book | last=Dhavalikar | first=M.K. | title=Indian Protohistory | publisher=Books & Books | year=1997 | isbn=978-81-85016-52-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DQFuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2022-11-01 | page=68-70|authorlink=Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar}}</ref>

The Mahabharata, whose final version is estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century, discusses the ''varna'' system in section 12.181, presenting two models. The first model describes ''varna'' as a colour-based system, through a character named Bhrigu, "Brahmins ''varna'' was white, Kshatriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black". This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the ''varnas'', that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the ''varnas'', he asks. The Mahabharata then declares, "There is no distinction of ''varnas''. This whole universe is [[Brahman]]. It was created formerly by [[Brahma]], came to be classified by acts."{{sfnp|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=529–531}} The epic then recites a behavioural model for ''varna'', that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya ''varna''; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishya ''varna''; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudra ''varna''. The Brahmin class is modeled in the epic as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct.{{sfnp|Hiltebeitel|2011|p=532}} In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognise, in theory, ''varna'' is nongenealogical. The four ''varnas'' are not lineages, but categories".{{sfnp|Hiltebeitel|2011|p=594}}

''Varna'' is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of [[Andhra Pradesh]], for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of History and Asian Studies, to question whether ''varna'' was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. Most mentions of ''varna'' in the Andhra inscriptions come from Brahmins. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest.{{sfnp|Talbot, Precolonial India|2001|pp=50–51}} Richard Eaton, a professor of History, writes, "anyone could become warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the ''jati''—another pillar of alleged traditional Indian society—appear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid." Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited" in the Hindu [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya]] population in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region between the 11th and 14th centuries.<ref>{{cite book | last=Eaton | first=Richard | title=A social history of the Deccan, 1300–1761 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-521-51442-2 | pages=15–16}}</ref>

The [[Government of the United Kingdom]] ran a public consultation on ways to ensure legal protection against caste discrimination from March 2017 to September 2017. Based on the consultation the government decided that "the best way to provide the necessary protection against unlawful discrimination because of caste is by relying on emerging case law as developed by courts and tribunals".<ref>{{cite web|title=UK decides against separate law to counter caste discrimination in Indian community|publisher=[[Scroll.in]]|url=https://scroll.in/latest/887758/uk-decides-against-separate-law-to-counter-caste-discrimination-in-indian-community|date=2018-07-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Britain backs off anti-caste discrimination legislation|publisher=[[The Hindu Business Line]]|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/world/britain-backs-off-anti-caste-discrimination-legislation/article24497401.ece|date=2018-07-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/caste-in-great-britain-and-equality-law-a-public-consulation|title=Caste in Great Britain and equality law: a public consultation|website=GOV.UK}}</ref>

The Sikh literature mentions ''Varna'' as ''Varan'', and ''Jati'' as ''Zat'' or ''Zat-biradari''. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and author of books on Sikhism, states that the ''Varan'' is described as a class system, while ''Zat'' has some caste system features in Sikh literature.<ref name="Nesbitt2005b">{{cite book |last=Nesbitt |first=Eleanor |title=Sikhism a very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280601-7 |location=Oxford; New York |pages=116–117}}</ref> In theory, Sikh literature does not recognise caste hierarchy or differences, but, in practice, states Nesbitt, widespread endogamy practices among Sikhs haeve been prevalent in modern times, and poorer Sikhs of disadvantaged castes continue to gather in their own places of worship. Most Sikh families, writes Nesbitt, continue to check the caste of any prospective marriage partner for their children. She notes that all Gurus of Sikhs married within their ''Zat'', and they did not condemn or break with the convention of endogamous marriages for their own children or Sikhs in general.<ref name="Nesbitt2005c" />

Caste system in [[Jainism]] has existed for centuries, primarily in terms of endogamy, although, per Paul Dundas, in modern times the system does not play a significant role.<ref name="Dundas 2002 p.">{{cite book | last=Dundas | first=Paul | title=The Jains | publisher=Routledge | location=London; New York | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-415-26606-2 | pages=147–149}}</ref> This is contradicted by Carrithers and Humphreys who describe the major Jain castes in [[Rajasthan]] with their social rank.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Carrithers|first1=M|last2=Humphrey|first2=C|title=The assembly of listeners: Jains in society|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge UK|isbn=978-0-521-36505-5|page=46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LW8czr_HzzwC&q=jainism+caste+endogamy&pg=PR11}}</ref>

Table 1 is the distribution of population of each Religion by Caste Categories, obtained from merged sample of Schedule 1 and Schedule 10 of available data from the [[Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation|National Sample Survey Organisation]] 55th (1999–2000) and 61st Rounds (2004–05) Round Survey.<ref name="Sachar 2006"/> The [[Other Backward Class]] (OBCs) were found{{By whom|date=May 2019}} to comprise 52% of the country's population by the [[Mandal Commission]] report of 1980, a figure which had shrunk to 41% by 2006 when the National Sample Survey Organisation's survey took place.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/obcs-form-41-of-population-survey/articleshow/2328117.cms|title=OBCs form 41% of population: Survey &#124; India News - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

Many political parties in India have indulged in caste-based [[votebank]] politics. Parties such as [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] (BSP), the [[Samajwadi Party]] and the [[Janata Dal]] claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support, to win elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/india/116.htm|title=Caste-Based Parties|publisher=Country Studies US|access-date=12 December 2006}}</ref> On the other hand, the Hindu right has also at times courted controversy over its own caste-based appeals, for example in 2020 when [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] MP (Member of Parliament) [[Pragya Singh Thakur]] came under fire for comments she made about Shudras during an address to a caste body called the 'Kshatriya Mahasabha'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thewire.in/caste/pragya-singh-thakur-shudras-ignorant|title=Shudras 'Feel Bad' About Being Called Shudras Because They Are 'Ignorant': BJP's Pragya Thakur|publisher=The Wire|access-date=7 January 2023}}</ref>

[[Mulk Raj Anand]]'s debut novel, ''[[Untouchable (novel)|Untouchable]]'' (1935), is based on the theme of untouchability. The Hindi film ''[[Achhut Kannya]]'' (''Untouchable Maiden'', 1936), starring [[Ashok Kumar]] and [[Devika Rani]], was an early reformist film.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chaudhuri |first1=Diptakirti |title=The Bollywood pocketbook of iconic dates |date=2022 |publisher=Hachette India |location=Gurgaon |isbn=9789391028343 |pages=Chapter 5 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Bollywood_Pocketbook_of_Iconic_Dates/QbNVEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref> The debut novel of [[Arundhati Roy]], ''[[The God of Small Things]]'' (1997), also has themes surrounding the caste system across religions. A lawyer named Sabu Thomas filed a petition to have the book published without the last chapter, which had graphic description of sexual acts between members of different castes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gradesaver.com/the-god-of-small-things|title=The God of Small Things Study Guide {{!}} GradeSaver|last=GradeSaver|website=www.gradesaver.com|language=en|access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=May 2019}} Thomas claimed the alleged obscenity in the last chapter deeply hurts the Syrian Christian community, the basis of the novel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/aug/07arun.htm|title=Obscenity case slammed against Arundhati Roy|last=Iype|first=George|website=www.rediff.com|access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref>