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{{short description|Earthquake and subsequent tsunami in the Indian Ocean}} | {{short description|Earthquake and subsequent tsunami in the Indian Ocean}} | ||
{{Use British English|date=March 2017}} | {{Use British English|date=March 2017}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} | ||
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| title = {{Unbulleted list|2004 Indian Ocean|earthquake and tsunami}} | | title = {{Unbulleted list|2004 Indian Ocean|earthquake and tsunami}} | ||
| image = {{Photomontage | | image = {{Photomontage | ||
| photo1a = | | photo1a = US Navy 050102-N-9593M-040 A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia.jpg | ||
| photo2a = | | photo2a = 041231중앙119구조본부 서남아시아 지진해일 출동3.jpg | ||
| photo2b = | | photo2b= Man searching through rubble in Meulaboh after 2004 tsunami DM-SD-06-11957.JPEG | ||
| photo3a = | | photo3a = 2004-tsunami balanced.jpg | ||
| photo3b = | | photo3b = Tsunami Memoral Alappadu.jpg | ||
| position = center | | position = center | ||
| color_border = white | | color_border = white | ||
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| size = 250 | | size = 250 | ||
}} | }} | ||
| caption = | | caption = '''Clockwise from top:''' [[Banda Aceh]], [[Indonesia]], after the tsunami, [[South Korea|Korean]] rescue workers recovering a body under debris, a man searching through rubble in [[Meulaboh]], people running away from the tsunami, and a tsunami memorial in [[Kerala]], [[India]] | ||
| isc-event = 7453151 | | isc-event = 7453151 | ||
| anss-url = official20041226005853450_30 | | anss-url = official20041226005853450_30 | ||
| local-date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2004|12|26}}<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|title= | | local-date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2004|12|26}}<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|title=M 9.1 - 2004 Sumatra - Andaman Islands Earthquake|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20041226005853450_30/executive|author=National Earthquake Information Center|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|access-date=24 April 2023|date=26 December 2004}}</ref> | ||
| timestamp = 2004-12-26 00:58:53 | | timestamp = 2004-12-26 00:58:53 | ||
| local-time = {{Unbulleted list|07:28:53 [[UTC+06:30]]|07:58:53 [[UTC+07:00]]|08:58:53 [[UTC+08:00]]}} | | local-time = {{Unbulleted list|07:28:53 [[UTC+06:30]]|07:58:53 [[UTC+07:00]]|08:58:53 [[UTC+08:00]]}} | ||
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A massive [[tsunami]] with waves up to {{cvt|30|m|sigfig=1}} high, known in some countries as the '''Boxing Day Tsunami''' after the [[Boxing Day]] holiday, devastated communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries in one of the [[List of natural disasters by death toll#Ten deadliest natural disasters since 1900 excluding epidemics and famines|deadliest natural disasters in recorded history]]. The direct results caused major disruptions to living conditions and commerce in coastal provinces of surrounded countries, including [[Aceh]] (Indonesia), [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] ([[India]]) and [[Khao Lak]] (Thailand). [[Banda Aceh]] reported the largest number of deaths. | A massive [[tsunami]] with waves up to {{cvt|30|m|sigfig=1}} high, known in some countries as the '''Boxing Day Tsunami''' after the [[Boxing Day]] holiday, devastated communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries in one of the [[List of natural disasters by death toll#Ten deadliest natural disasters since 1900 excluding epidemics and famines|deadliest natural disasters in recorded history]]. The direct results caused major disruptions to living conditions and commerce in coastal provinces of surrounded countries, including [[Aceh]] (Indonesia), [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] ([[India]]) and [[Khao Lak]] (Thailand). [[Banda Aceh]] reported the largest number of deaths. | ||
It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Asia, the most powerful earthquake in the 21st century, and the [[Largest earthquakes by magnitude#Largest earthquakes by magnitude|third most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the world]] since modern seismography began in 1900. It had the longest duration of [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] ever observed, between eight and ten minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104179|title=Analysis of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Reveals Longest Fault Rupture Ever|date=19 May 2005|publisher=National Science Foundation|access-date=15 December 2016|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812205404/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104179|url-status=live}}</ref> It caused the planet to vibrate as much as {{cvt|10|mm|1}},<ref>{{cite web|last=Walton|first=Marsha|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html|title=Scientists: Sumatra quake longest ever recorded|work=[[CNN]]|date=20 May 2005|access-date=15 December 2016|archive-date=14 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214073430/http://edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and also [[remotely triggered earthquakes]] as far away as [[Alaska]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael|last2=Sanches|first2=John J.|last3=McNutt|first3=Stephen R.|s2cid=27869948|title=Periodically Triggered Seismicity at Mount Wrangell, Alaska, After the Sumatra Earthquake|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=20 May 2005 |volume=308 |issue=5725 |pages=1144–1146 |pmid=15905395 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1144W |doi=10.1126/science.1112462}}</ref> Its epicentre was between [[Simeulue]] and mainland Sumatra.<ref name="Archived">{{cite journal|last1=Nalbant |first1=Suleyman S. |last2=Steacy |first2=Sandy |last3=Sieh |first3=Kerry |last4=Natawidjaja |first4=Danny |author4-link=Danny Hilman Natawidjaja |last5=McCloskey |first5=John |title=Seismology: Earthquake risk on the Sunda trench |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=9 June 2005 |volume=435 |issue=7043 |pages=756–757 |doi=10.1038/nature435756a |pmid=15944691 |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/pubs_docs/papers/P05b.pdf |access-date=16 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604092608/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/pubs_docs/papers/P05b.pdf |archive-date=4 June 2010 |url-status = dead|bibcode=2005Natur.435..756N |hdl=10220/8668 |s2cid=4321796}}</ref> The plight of the [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|affected people and countries]] prompted a worldwide [[Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|humanitarian response]], with donations totalling more than US$14 billion<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jayasuriya|first1=Sisira|last2=McCawley|first2=Peter|url=http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668|title=The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster|location=Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA |publisher=Edward Elgar|date=2010|isbn=978-1-84844-692-2|access-date=6 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722005138/http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668|archive-date=22 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> (equivalent to US${{Inflation|USD|14|2004}} billion in {{Inflation/year|index=USD}} currency). | |||
==Earthquake== | ==Earthquake== | ||
{{2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami}} | {{2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami}} | ||
[[File:Image=2004acehearthquake.jpg|thumb|left|[[USGS]] Shakemap for the event]] | |||
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a [[Moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 8.8. In February 2005, scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0.<ref>{{cite web |last=McKee |first=Maggie |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991|title=Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated|work=[[New Scientist]]|date=9 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050227152442/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991 |archive-date=27 February 2005}}</ref> Although the [[Pacific Tsunami Warning Center]] has accepted these new numbers, the [[United States Geological Survey]] has, as of 2022, so far not changed its estimate of 9.1.<ref name="usgs-2022">{{cite web |title=Long-term ocean observing for international capacity development around tsunami early warning {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/publications/long-term-ocean-observing-international-capacity-development-around-tsunami-early |website=www.usgs.gov |access-date=18 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref> A 2006 study estimated a magnitude of {{M|w|link=y}} 9.1–9.3; [[Hiroo Kanamori]] of the [[California Institute of Technology]] estimates that {{M|w}}9.2 is representative of the earthquake's size.<ref>EERI Publication 2006–06, page 14.</ref> | The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a [[Moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 8.8. In February 2005, scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0.<ref>{{cite web |last=McKee |first=Maggie |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991|title=Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated|work=[[New Scientist]]|date=9 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050227152442/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991 |archive-date=27 February 2005}}</ref> Although the [[Pacific Tsunami Warning Center]] has accepted these new numbers, the [[United States Geological Survey]] has, as of 2022, so far not changed its estimate of 9.1.<ref name="usgs-2022">{{cite web |title=Long-term ocean observing for international capacity development around tsunami early warning {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/publications/long-term-ocean-observing-international-capacity-development-around-tsunami-early |website=www.usgs.gov |access-date=18 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref> A 2006 study estimated a magnitude of {{M|w|link=y}} 9.1–9.3; [[Hiroo Kanamori]] of the [[California Institute of Technology]] estimates that {{M|w}}9.2 is representative of the earthquake's size.<ref>EERI Publication 2006–06, page 14.</ref> | ||
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Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake]] (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Alaska earthquake in [[Prince William Sound]] (magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off [[Kamchatka Peninsula|Kamchatka]], Russia, on [[1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake|4 November 1952]] (magnitude 9.0) and [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011]]. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes and tsunamis was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas.<ref name=":1" /> | Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake]] (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Alaska earthquake in [[Prince William Sound]] (magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off [[Kamchatka Peninsula|Kamchatka]], Russia, on [[1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake|4 November 1952]] (magnitude 9.0) and [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011]]. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes and tsunamis was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
Comparisons with earlier earthquakes are difficult, as earthquake strength | Comparisons with earlier earthquakes are difficult, as earthquake strength didn't begin to be measured systematically until the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How do you determine the magnitude for an earthquake that occurred prior to the creation of the magnitude scale? |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-do-you-determine-magnitude-earthquake-occurred-prior-creation-magnitude-scale |access-date=2022-12-10 |website=[[U.S. Geological Survey]]}}</ref> However, historical earthquake strength can sometimes be estimated by examining historical descriptions of the damage caused, and the geological records of the areas where they occurred.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Palmer |first=Brian |date=2010-01-14 |title=How do they measure earthquakes from 250 years ago? |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2010/01/how-do-they-measure-earthquakes-from-250-years-ago.html |access-date=2022-12-10 |website=Slate Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Some examples of significant historical megathrust earthquakes are the [[1868 Arica earthquake]] in Peru and the [[1700 Cascadia earthquake]] in western North America. | ||
===Tectonic plates=== | ===Tectonic plates=== | ||
{{Main|Plate tectonics}} | {{Main|Plate tectonics}} | ||
[[File:Seisme Sumatra CADRE.jpg|thumb|left| | [[File:Seisme Sumatra CADRE.jpg|thumb|left|Epicentre and associated aftershocks]] | ||
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} of [[Fault (geology)|fault surface]] slipped (or ruptured) about {{cvt|15|m|-1}} along the [[subduction]] zone where the [[Indian Plate]] slides under (or subducts) the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: | The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} of [[Fault (geology)|fault surface]] slipped (or ruptured) about {{cvt|15|m|-1}} along the [[subduction]] zone where the [[Indian Plate]] slides under (or subducts) the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: | ||
Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about {{cvt|400|km|-1}} long and {{cvt|100|km|-1}} wide, {{cvt|30|km}} beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about {{cvt|2.8|km/s|mi/s km/h mph|sigfig=3}}, beginning off the coast of [[Aceh]] and proceeding north-westerly over about 100 seconds. | Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about {{cvt|400|km|-1}} long and {{cvt|100|km|-1}} wide, {{cvt|30|km}} beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about {{cvt|2.8|km/s|mi/s km/h mph|sigfig=3}}, beginning off the coast of [[Aceh]] and proceeding north-westerly over about 100 seconds. | ||
After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the [[Andaman Islands|Andaman]] and [[Nicobar Islands]]. The northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about {{cvt|2.1|km/s|mi/s km/h mph}}, continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to [[Strike-slip fault|strike-slip]] (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions). | After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the [[Andaman Islands|Andaman]] and [[Nicobar Islands]]. The northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about {{cvt|2.1|km/s|mi/s km/h mph}}, continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to [[Strike-slip fault|strike-slip]] (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions). | ||
The Indian Plate is part of the great [[Indo-Australian Plate]], which underlies the Indian Ocean and [[Bay of Bengal]], and is moving north-east at an average of {{cvt|60|mm/yr}}. The India Plate meets the [[Burma Plate]] (which is considered a portion of the great [[Eurasian Plate]]) at the [[Sunda Trench]]. At this point, the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive [[volatiles]] out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a [[volcanic arc]]. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the [[Sunda Arc]]. | The Indian Plate is part of the great [[Indo-Australian Plate]], which underlies the Indian Ocean and [[Bay of Bengal]], and is moving north-east at an average of {{cvt|60|mm/yr}}. The India Plate meets the [[Burma Plate]] (which is considered a portion of the great [[Eurasian Plate]]) at the [[Sunda Trench]]. At this point, the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]] out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a [[volcanic arc]]. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the [[Sunda Arc]]. | ||
As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake resulted in a rise of the seafloor by several metres, displacing an estimated {{cvt|30|km3}} of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves radiated outwards along the entire {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} length of the rupture (acting as a [[line source]]). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the seafloor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated {{cvt|0.1|mm|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bilham|first1=Roger|title=A Flying Start, Then a Slow Slip|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1126–1127|doi=10.1126/science.1113363|pmid=15905391|bibcode=2005Sci...308.1126B|s2cid=30721065}}</ref> | As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake resulted in a rise of the seafloor by several metres, displacing an estimated {{cvt|30|km3}} of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves radiated outwards along the entire {{cvt|1600|km|-2}} length of the rupture (acting as a [[line source]]). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the seafloor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated {{cvt|0.1|mm|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bilham|first1=Roger|title=A Flying Start, Then a Slow Slip|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1126–1127|doi=10.1126/science.1113363|pmid=15905391|bibcode=2005Sci...308.1126B|s2cid=30721065}}</ref> | ||
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[[File:PLTD Apong Ie Beuna.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|left|''[[Apung 1]]'', a 2,600-ton vessel, was flung some {{cvt|2|km}} to {{cvt|3|km}} inland. In the years following the disaster, it became a local tourist attraction and has remained where it came to rest.]] | [[File:PLTD Apong Ie Beuna.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|left|''[[Apung 1]]'', a 2,600-ton vessel, was flung some {{cvt|2|km}} to {{cvt|3|km}} inland. In the years following the disaster, it became a local tourist attraction and has remained where it came to rest.]] | ||
The level of destruction was extreme on the northwestern areas of the city, immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds, and directly facing the Indian Ocean. The tsunami height was reduced from {{cvt|12|m}} at Ulee Lheue to {{cvt|6|m}} a further {{cvt|8|km}} to the north-east. The inundation was observed to extend {{cvt|3|-|4|km|1}} inland throughout the city. Within {{cvt|2|-|3|km}} of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami.<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|title=Chapter 2 Earthquake, Tsunami and Damage in Banda Aceh and Northern Sumatra|work=tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215154931/http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Borreroetal2006">{{cite journal|last1=Borrero|first1=Jose C.|last2=Synolakis|first2=Costas E.|last3=Fritz|first3=Hermann|title=Northern Sumatra Field Survey after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|publisher=Earthquake Engineering Research Institute|date=June 2006|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=93–104|doi=10.1193/1.2206793|s2cid=109582188|url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927005937/http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | The level of destruction was extreme on the northwestern areas of the city, immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds, and directly facing the Indian Ocean. The tsunami height was reduced from {{cvt|12|m}} at Ulee Lheue to {{cvt|6|m}} a further {{cvt|8|km}} to the north-east. The inundation was observed to extend {{cvt|3|-|4|km|1}} inland throughout the city. Within {{cvt|2|-|3|km}} of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami.<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|title=Chapter 2 Earthquake, Tsunami and Damage in Banda Aceh and Northern Sumatra|work=tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215154931/http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Borreroetal2006">{{cite journal|last1=Borrero|first1=Jose C.|last2=Synolakis|first2=Costas E.|last3=Fritz|first3=Hermann|title=Northern Sumatra Field Survey after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|publisher=Earthquake Engineering Research Institute|date=June 2006|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=93–104|doi=10.1193/1.2206793|bibcode=2006EarSp..22...93B |s2cid=109582188|url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927005937/http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river, dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth at the city was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. In the seaside section of Ulee Lheue, the flow depths were over {{cvt|9|m}}. Footage showed evidence of back-flowing of the [[Aceh River]], carrying debris and people from destroyed villages at the coast and transporting them up to {{cvt|40|km}} inland.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borrero|first=Jose C.|date=10 June 2005|title=Field Data and Satellite Imagery of Tsunami Effects in Banda Aceh|journal=Science|volume=308|issue=5728|pages=1596|doi=10.1126/science.1110957|issn=0036-8075|pmid=15947180|s2cid=9702107}}</ref> | The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river, dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth at the city was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. In the seaside section of Ulee Lheue, the flow depths were over {{cvt|9|m}}. Footage showed evidence of back-flowing of the [[Aceh River]], carrying debris and people from destroyed villages at the coast and transporting them up to {{cvt|40|km}} inland.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borrero|first=Jose C.|date=10 June 2005|title=Field Data and Satellite Imagery of Tsunami Effects in Banda Aceh|journal=Science|volume=308|issue=5728|pages=1596|doi=10.1126/science.1110957|issn=0036-8075|pmid=15947180|s2cid=9702107}}</ref> | ||
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The island country of Sri Lanka, located about {{cvt|1700|km}} from Sumatra, was ravaged by the tsunami around 2 hours after the earthquake. The tsunami first struck the eastern coastline and subsequently refracted around the southern point of [[Sri Lanka]] (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves then inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy was reflected from impact with the Maldives.<ref name="nzsee.org.nz">{{cite journal |last1=Goff |first1=James |title=Survey of the December 26th 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Sri Lanka |journal=Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering |date=December 2005 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=235–244 |doi=10.5459/bnzsee.38.4.235-244 |url=http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=3 April 2016 |archive-date=27 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127111126/http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in Indonesia, with approximately 35,000 killed. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka were the hardest hit since it faced the epicentre of the earthquake, while the southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists and fishing.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|title=Tsunami Disaster in Sri Lanka|last=Helgeson|first=T.J.|work=Waves of Devastation|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire|date=Spring 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617101155/http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> The [[Environmental degradation|degradation of the natural environment]] in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. Approximately 90,000 buildings and many wooden houses were destroyed.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> | The island country of Sri Lanka, located about {{cvt|1700|km}} from Sumatra, was ravaged by the tsunami around 2 hours after the earthquake. The tsunami first struck the eastern coastline and subsequently refracted around the southern point of [[Sri Lanka]] (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves then inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy was reflected from impact with the Maldives.<ref name="nzsee.org.nz">{{cite journal |last1=Goff |first1=James |title=Survey of the December 26th 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Sri Lanka |journal=Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering |date=December 2005 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=235–244 |doi=10.5459/bnzsee.38.4.235-244 |url=http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=3 April 2016 |archive-date=27 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127111126/http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in Indonesia, with approximately 35,000 killed. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka were the hardest hit since it faced the epicentre of the earthquake, while the southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists and fishing.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|title=Tsunami Disaster in Sri Lanka|last=Helgeson|first=T.J.|work=Waves of Devastation|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire|date=Spring 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617101155/http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> The [[Environmental degradation|degradation of the natural environment]] in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. Approximately 90,000 buildings and many wooden houses were destroyed.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> | ||
The tsunami arrived on the island as a small brown-orange- | The tsunami arrived on the island as a small brown-orange-coloured flood. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed as much as {{cvt|1|km}} in places, which was followed by massive second and third waves. Amateur video recorded at the city of [[Galle]] showed a large deluge flooding the city, carrying debris and sweeping away people while in the coastal resort town of [[Beruwala]], the tsunami appeared as a huge brown-orange-coloured bore which reached the first level of a hotel, causing destruction and taking people unaware. Other videos recorded showed that the tsunami appeared like a flood raging inland. The construction of seawalls and breakwaters reduced the power of waves at some locations. | ||
The largest run-up measured was at {{cvt|12.5|m}} with inundation distance of {{cvt|390|-|1500|m}} in [[Yala National Park|Yala]].<ref name="earthquakespectra.org">{{cite journal|title=Sri Lanka Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|first1=James|last1=Goff|first2=Philip L-F.|last2=Liu|first3=Bretwood|last3=Higman|first4=Robert|last4=Morton|first5=Bruce E.|last5=Jaffe|first6=Harindra|last6=Fernando|first7=Patrick|last7=Lynett|first8=Hermann|last8=Fritz|first9=Costas|last9=Synolakis|first10=Starin|last10=Fernando|display-authors=1|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=155–172|doi=10.1193/1.2205897|year=2006|s2cid=220297852}}</ref> In [[Hambantota]], run-ups measured {{cvt|11|m}} with the greatest inundation distance of {{cvt|2|km}}. Run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at {{cvt|2.4|-|4.11|m}}.<ref name="earthquakespectra.org"/><ref name="nzsee.org.nz"/> Waves measured on the east coast ranged from {{cvt|4.5|-|9|m}} at Pottuvill to [[Batticaloa]] at {{cvt|2.6|-|5|m}} in the north-east around [[Trincomalee]] and {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda. | The largest run-up measured was at {{cvt|12.5|m}} with inundation distance of {{cvt|390|-|1500|m}} in [[Yala National Park|Yala]].<ref name="earthquakespectra.org">{{cite journal|title=Sri Lanka Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|first1=James|last1=Goff|first2=Philip L-F.|last2=Liu|first3=Bretwood|last3=Higman|first4=Robert|last4=Morton|first5=Bruce E.|last5=Jaffe|first6=Harindra|last6=Fernando|first7=Patrick|last7=Lynett|first8=Hermann|last8=Fritz|first9=Costas|last9=Synolakis|first10=Starin|last10=Fernando|display-authors=1|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=155–172|doi=10.1193/1.2205897|year=2006|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..155G |s2cid=220297852}}</ref> In [[Hambantota]], run-ups measured {{cvt|11|m}} with the greatest inundation distance of {{cvt|2|km}}. Run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at {{cvt|2.4|-|4.11|m}}.<ref name="earthquakespectra.org"/><ref name="nzsee.org.nz"/> Waves measured on the east coast ranged from {{cvt|4.5|-|9|m}} at Pottuvill to [[Batticaloa]] at {{cvt|2.6|-|5|m}} in the north-east around [[Trincomalee]] and {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda. | ||
Sri Lanka tsunami height survey: | Sri Lanka tsunami height survey: | ||
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===India=== | ===India=== | ||
[[File:Tree stumps and debris remain on Karaikal beach after the 2004 tsunami.jpg|thumb|Tree stumps and debris remain on Karaikal beach several years after the 2004 tsunami]] | [[File:Tree stumps and debris remain on Karaikal beach after the 2004 tsunami.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Tree stumps and debris remain on Karaikal beach several years after the 2004 tsunami]] | ||
The tsunami reached the states of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Tamil Nadu]] along the southeastern coastline of the Indian mainland about 2 hours after the earthquake. At the same time, it arrived in the state of [[Kerala]], on the southwestern coast. There were two to five tsunamis that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.<ref name="mapsofindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|title=Tsunami Affected Areas in India 2004|publisher=Maps of India|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=7 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207184649/http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/%3E|title=Zoltán Grossman – Member of the Faculty in Geography & Native Studies|publisher=The Evergreen State College|location=Olympia, Washington|website=academic.evergreen.edu|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230015452/https://sites.evergreen.edu/zoltan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com.my">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation|first=M.K.|last=Jha|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|via=Google Books|isbn=9789048124985|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=3 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203153914/https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="iitk.ac.in">{{cite journal |url=http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf |title=Effects of the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the Indian Mainland |first1=Alpa |last1=Sheth |first2=Snigdha |last2=Sanyal |first3=Arvind |last3=Jaiswal |first4=Prathibha |last4=Gandhi |display-authors=1 |journal=Earthquake Spectra |volume=22 |issue=S3 |pages=S435–S473 |date=June 2006 |doi=10.1193/1.2208562 |s2cid=110385551 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170856/http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | The tsunami reached the states of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Tamil Nadu]] along the southeastern coastline of the Indian mainland about 2 hours after the earthquake. At the same time, it arrived in the state of [[Kerala]], on the southwestern coast. There were two to five tsunamis that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.<ref name="mapsofindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|title=Tsunami Affected Areas in India 2004|publisher=Maps of India|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=7 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207184649/http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/%3E|title=Zoltán Grossman – Member of the Faculty in Geography & Native Studies|publisher=The Evergreen State College|location=Olympia, Washington|website=academic.evergreen.edu|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230015452/https://sites.evergreen.edu/zoltan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com.my">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation|first=M.K.|last=Jha|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|via=Google Books|isbn=9789048124985|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=3 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203153914/https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="iitk.ac.in">{{cite journal |url=http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf |title=Effects of the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on the Indian Mainland |first1=Alpa |last1=Sheth |first2=Snigdha |last2=Sanyal |first3=Arvind |last3=Jaiswal |first4=Prathibha |last4=Gandhi |display-authors=1 |journal=Earthquake Spectra |volume=22 |issue=S3 |pages=S435–S473 |date=June 2006 |doi=10.1193/1.2208562 |bibcode=2006EarSp..22..435S |s2cid=110385551 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170856/http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs includes:<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs includes:<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | ||
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The state of [[Kerala]] experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern densely populated districts, [[Ernakulam]], [[Alappuzha]], and Kollam, due to diffraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The southernmost district of [[Thiruvananthapuram]], however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the [[Arabian Sea]] and on the east by the [[Kerala backwaters]]. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a {{cvt|4|m}} tsunami.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> A video recorded by locals showed the tsunami flooding the beach and villages, causing despair amongst the villagers. | The state of [[Kerala]] experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern densely populated districts, [[Ernakulam]], [[Alappuzha]], and Kollam, due to diffraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The southernmost district of [[Thiruvananthapuram]], however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the [[Arabian Sea]] and on the east by the [[Kerala backwaters]]. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a {{cvt|4|m}} tsunami.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> A video recorded by locals showed the tsunami flooding the beach and villages, causing despair amongst the villagers. | ||
[[File:Chennai damage 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A car deposited on top of a fence and various pieces of debris in [[Chennai]]]] | |||
Many villages in the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]] were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | Many villages in the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]] were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | ||
The tsunami run-up was only {{cvt|1.6|m|ft}} in areas in the state of Tamil Nadu shielded by the island of Sri Lanka but was {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} in coastal districts such as [[Nagapattinam]] in Tamil Nadu directly across from [[Sumatra]]. On the western coast, the runup elevations were {{cvt|4.5|m}} at [[Kanyakumari District]] in Tamil Nadu and {{cvt|3.4|m}} each at [[Kollam]] and [[Ernakulam]] districts in [[Kerala]]. The time between the waves ranged from about 15 minutes to 90 minutes.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208140737/http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/ |archive-date=8 February 2008 |title=Tsunami's Impact on India |first=Brandon |last=Cramer |publisher=[[Evergreen College]] |access-date=22 December 2018 }}</ref> The tsunami varied in height from {{Cvt|2|m|ft}} to {{Cvt|10|m|ft}} based on survivors' accounts.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The tsunami travelled {{cvt|2.5|km}} at its maximum inland at [[Karaikal]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]].<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The [[inundation]] distance varied between {{cvt|1006|-|500|m}} in most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more than {{cvt|1|km}}. Areas with dense coconut groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw larger inundation distances.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Presence of seawalls at the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts reduced the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu"/> | The tsunami run-up was only {{cvt|1.6|m|ft}} in areas in the state of Tamil Nadu shielded by the island of Sri Lanka but was {{cvt|4|-|5|m}} in coastal districts such as [[Nagapattinam]] in Tamil Nadu directly across from [[Sumatra]]. On the western coast, the runup elevations were {{cvt|4.5|m}} at [[Kanyakumari District]] in Tamil Nadu and {{cvt|3.4|m}} each at [[Kollam]] and [[Ernakulam]] districts in [[Kerala]]. The time between the waves ranged from about 15 minutes to 90 minutes.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208140737/http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/ |archive-date=8 February 2008 |title=Tsunami's Impact on India |first=Brandon |last=Cramer |publisher=[[Evergreen College]] |access-date=22 December 2018 }}</ref> The tsunami varied in height from {{Cvt|2|m|ft}} to {{Cvt|10|m|ft}} based on survivors' accounts.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The tsunami travelled {{cvt|2.5|km}} at its maximum inland at [[Karaikal]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]].<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The [[inundation]] distance varied between {{cvt|1006|-|500|m}} in most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more than {{cvt|1|km}}. Areas with dense coconut groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw larger inundation distances.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Presence of seawalls at the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts reduced the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu"/> | ||
====Andaman and Nicobar Islands==== | ====Andaman and Nicobar Islands==== | ||
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===Myanmar=== | ===Myanmar=== | ||
In [[Myanmar]], the tsunami caused only moderate damage, which arrived between 2 and 5.5 hours after the earthquake. Although the country's western [[Andaman Sea]] coastline lies at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were smaller tsunamis than the neighbouring Thai coast, because the main tsunami source did not extend to the Andaman Islands. Another factor is that some coasts of [[Taninthayi Division]] were protected by the [[Myeik Archipelago]]. Based on scientific surveys from | In [[Myanmar]], the tsunami caused only moderate damage, which arrived between 2 and 5.5 hours after the earthquake. Although the country's western [[Andaman Sea]] coastline lies at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were smaller tsunamis than the neighbouring Thai coast, because the main tsunami source did not extend to the Andaman Islands. Another factor is that some coasts of [[Taninthayi Division]] were protected by the [[Myeik Archipelago]]. Based on scientific surveys from Ayeyarwady Delta through Taninthayi Division, it was revealed that tsunami heights along the Myanmar coast were between {{cvt|0.4|-|2.9|m}}. Eyewitnesses compared the tsunami with the "rainy-season high tide"; although at most locations, the tsunami height was similar or smaller than the "rainy-season high tide" level.<ref name="terrapub.co.jp">{{cite journal |url=https://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/2006/5802/58020243.pdf |first1=Kenji |last1=Satake |first2=Than Tin |last2=Aung |first3=Yuki |last3=Sawai |first4=Yukinobu |last4=Okamura |display-authors=1 |title=Tsunami heights and damage along the Myanmar coast from the December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake |journal=Earth Planets Space |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=243–252 |year=2006 |access-date=22 December 2018 |doi=10.1186/BF03353384 |bibcode=2006EP&S...58..243S |s2cid=129597697 |doi-access=free |archive-date=4 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004032411/https://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/2006/5802/58020243.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
Tsunami survey heights:{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} | Tsunami survey heights:{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} | ||
| Line 303: | Line 304: | ||
* {{cvt|0.4|-|2.6|m}} around [[Kawthaung]] | * {{cvt|0.4|-|2.6|m}} around [[Kawthaung]] | ||
Interviews with local people indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in [[Taninthayi Division]] or | Interviews with local people indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in [[Taninthayi Division]] or Ayeyarwady Delta. The 71 casualties can be attributed to poor housing infrastructure and additionally, the fact that the coastal residents in the surveyed areas live on flat land along the coast, especially in the Ayeyarwady Delta, and that there is no higher ground to which to evacuate. The tsunami heights from the 2004 December earthquake were not more than {{cvt|3|m}} along the Myanmar coast, the amplitudes were slightly large off the Ayeyarwady Delta, probably because the shallow delta caused a concentration in tsunami energy.<ref name="terrapub.co.jp"/> | ||
===Somalia=== | ===Somalia=== | ||
The tsunami travelled {{cvt|5000|km}} west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of [[Somalia]]. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the [[Horn of Africa]], drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest-hit was a {{cvt|650|km}} stretch of the Somalia coastline between [[Garacad, Mudug|Garacad]] ([[Mudug]] region) and [[Hafun|Xaafuun]] ([[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region), which forms part of the [[Puntland]] province. Most of the victims were reported along the low-lying [[Ras Hafun|Xaafuun Peninsula]].<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu">{{cite journal |url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf |title=Somalia Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami |first1=Hermann M. |last1=Fritz |first2=Jose C. |last2=Borrero |doi=10.1193/1.2201972 |journal=Earthquake Spectra |volume=22 |issue=S3 |pages=S219–S233 |date=June 2006 |s2cid=220297402 |access-date=22 December 2018 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224013252/http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu"/> | The tsunami travelled {{cvt|5000|km}} west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of [[Somalia]]. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the [[Horn of Africa]], drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest-hit was a {{cvt|650|km}} stretch of the Somalia coastline between [[Garacad, Mudug|Garacad]] ([[Mudug]] region) and [[Hafun|Xaafuun]] ([[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region), which forms part of the [[Puntland]] province. Most of the victims were reported along the low-lying [[Ras Hafun|Xaafuun Peninsula]].<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu">{{cite journal |url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf |title=Somalia Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami |first1=Hermann M. |last1=Fritz |first2=Jose C. |last2=Borrero |doi=10.1193/1.2201972 |journal=Earthquake Spectra |volume=22 |issue=S3 |pages=S219–S233 |date=June 2006 |bibcode=2006EarSp..22..219F |s2cid=220297402 |access-date=22 December 2018 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224013252/http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu"/> | ||
Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from {{cvt|5|m}} to {{cvt|9|m}} with inundation distances varying from {{cvt|44|m}} to {{cvt|704|m}}. The maximum runup height of almost {{cvt|9|m}} was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account. | Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from {{cvt|5|m}} to {{cvt|9|m}} with inundation distances varying from {{cvt|44|m}} to {{cvt|704|m}}. The maximum runup height of almost {{cvt|9|m}} was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account. | ||
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Bangladesh escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the [[strike-slip fault]] was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In [[Yemen]], the tsunami killed two people with a maximum runup of {{cvt|2|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|title=International Tsunami Information Center - International Tsunami Information Center|website=itic.ioc-unesco.org|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=19 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419214841/http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|url-status=live}}</ref> | Bangladesh escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the [[strike-slip fault]] was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In [[Yemen]], the tsunami killed two people with a maximum runup of {{cvt|2|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|title=International Tsunami Information Center - International Tsunami Information Center|website=itic.ioc-unesco.org|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=19 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419214841/http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. A few other African countries also recorded fatalities; one in Kenya, three in [[Seychelles]], ten in Tanzania, and South Africa, where two were killed as a direct result of the tsunami—the furthest from the epicentre.<ref>{{cite | The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. A few other African countries also recorded fatalities; one in Kenya, three in [[Seychelles]], ten in Tanzania, and South Africa, where two were killed as a direct result of the tsunami—the furthest from the epicentre.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241273975|title=Field Surveys of 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami From Sumatra to East Africa|first1=Hermann M.|last1=Fritz|first2=Jose C.|last2=Borrero|first3=Costas E.|last3=Synolakis|first4=Emile A.|last4=Okal|date=1 January 2006|journal=|access-date=29 January 2018|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230015407/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241273975_FIELD_SURVEYS_OF_2004_INDIAN_OCEAN_TSUNAMI_FROM_SUMATRA_TO_EAST_AFRICA|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/42307/103954_Unesco_Yemen_Tsunami_FzOk3.pdf?sequence=1|title=Unesco Yemen Tsunami|work=smartech.gatech.edu|access-date=13 November 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152811/https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/42307/103954_Unesco_Yemen_Tsunami_FzOk3.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
Tidal surges also occurred along the [[Western Australian]] coast that lasted for several hours, resulting in boats losing their moorings and two people needing to be rescued.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/wa-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples-20041229-gdke6z.html|title=WA feels the tsunami's ripples|date=28 December 2004|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=22 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922000416/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/wa-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples-20041229-gdke6z.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | Tidal surges also occurred along the [[Western Australian]] coast that lasted for several hours, resulting in boats losing their moorings and two people needing to be rescued.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/wa-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples-20041229-gdke6z.html|title=WA feels the tsunami's ripples|date=28 December 2004|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=22 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922000416/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/wa-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples-20041229-gdke6z.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|37,063}} | |style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|37,063}} | ||
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|500,000}}+ | |style=padding-left:1em;|{{nts|500,000}}+ | ||
|style=text-align:center;|<ref name="Meisl">{{cite journal|last=Meisl|first=C.S.|author2=Safaie S. |author3=Elwood K.J. |author4=Gupta R. |author5=Kowsari R.|year=2006|title=Housing Reconstruction in Northern Sumatra after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|doi=10.1193/1.2201668|volume=22|issue=3_suppl|pages=777–802|s2cid=110185015}}</ref> | |style=text-align:center;|<ref name="Meisl">{{cite journal|last=Meisl|first=C.S.|author2=Safaie S. |author3=Elwood K.J. |author4=Gupta R. |author5=Kowsari R.|year=2006|title=Housing Reconstruction in Northern Sumatra after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|doi=10.1193/1.2201668|volume=22|issue=3_suppl|pages=777–802|bibcode=2006EarSp..22..777M |s2cid=110185015}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Sri Lanka}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] | |style=padding-left:1em;|{{flagdeco|Sri Lanka}} [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] | ||
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===Environmental impact=== | ===Environmental impact=== | ||
[[File:TsunamiAftermathNorthofPhuket NASA.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Tsunami inundation in [[Khao Lak]], Thailand]] | [[File:TsunamiAftermathNorthofPhuket NASA.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Tsunami inundation in [[Khao Lak]], Thailand]] | ||
Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake | Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake caused an enormous environmental impact that affected the region for many years. Severe damage was inflicted on [[ecosystem]]s such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant [[biodiversity]] and [[groundwater]]. Also, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of [[sewage]] collectors and treatment plants threatened the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact took a long time and significant resources to assess.<ref>{{cite web|title=Impact of Tsunamis on Ecosystems|work=United Nations Atlas of the Oceans|date=10 March 2005|url=http://www.oceansatlas.org/id/71687|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820112413/http://www.oceansatlas.org/id/71687|url-status = dead|archive-date=20 August 2008}}</ref> | ||
The main effect was caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil by saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. In the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and [[aquifer]]s were invaded through porous rock. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water.<ref name="IWMI"/> | The main effect was caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil by saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. In the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and [[aquifer]]s were invaded through porous rock. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water.<ref name="IWMI"/> | ||
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* ''[[Dasavathaaram]]'' (2008), a Tamil thriller film involving the tsunami | * ''[[Dasavathaaram]]'' (2008), a Tamil thriller film involving the tsunami | ||
* ''[[Hereafter (film)|Hereafter]]'' (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation | * ''[[Hereafter (film)|Hereafter]]'' (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation | ||
* ''[[Hafalan Shalat Delisa]]'' (2011), an Indonesian movie | * ''[[Hafalan Shalat Delisa]]'' (2011), an Indonesian movie with the tsunami as the inticing incident. | ||
* ''[[The Impossible (2012 film)|The Impossible]]'' (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of [[María Belón]] and her family | * ''[[The Impossible (2012 film)|The Impossible]]'' (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of [[María Belón]] and her family | ||
* ''[[Kayal (film)|Kayal]]'' (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the tsunami | * ''[[Kayal (film)|Kayal]]'' (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the tsunami | ||
===Literature=== | ===Literature=== | ||
* Paint the Sky with Stars | * ''Paint the Sky with Stars: Selected Poetry in Remembrance of the Boxing Day Tsunami 2004'' (2005) edited by [[Stephen Robert Kuta]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l21lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5|title=Paint the sky with Stars|last=Kuta|first=Stephen|publisher=Re-invention UK|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9549899-0-3|location=Rayne, Essex, England|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724140700/https://books.google.com/books?id=l21lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
*''The Killing Sea'' (2006), two teenagers struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-12-01|title=Book Review: The Killing Sea by Richard Lewis|url=https://www.thetcj.org/books/book-review-the-killing-sea-by-richard-lewis|access-date=2020-12-15|website=The Therapeutic Care Journal|language=en-GB|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126034824/https://www.thetcj.org/books/book-review-the-killing-sea-by-richard-lewis|url-status=live}}</ref> | *''The Killing Sea'' (2006), two teenagers struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-12-01|title=Book Review: The Killing Sea by Richard Lewis|url=https://www.thetcj.org/books/book-review-the-killing-sea-by-richard-lewis|access-date=2020-12-15|website=The Therapeutic Care Journal|language=en-GB|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126034824/https://www.thetcj.org/books/book-review-the-killing-sea-by-richard-lewis|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
*''[[Wave (Deraniyagala book)|Wave]]'' (2013), a memoir by [[Sonali Deraniyagala]] | *''[[Wave (Deraniyagala book)|Wave]]'' (2013), a memoir by [[Sonali Deraniyagala]] | ||
*''On the Island'' (2012), two people stranded on a Maldives uninhabited island are rescued because of the tsunami. | |||
===Music=== | ===Music=== | ||
* "12/26" by [[Kimya Dawson]], about the event and the humanitarian efforts, from the perspective of a victim whose family died in the disaster | * "12/26" by [[Kimya Dawson]], about the event and the humanitarian efforts, from the perspective of a victim whose family died in the disaster. | ||
* "Where the Wave Broke" by [[Burst (band)|Burst]], written in memory of [[Mieszko Talarczyk]], frontman of Swedish grindcore band [[Nasum]] (whom Burst bassist Jesper Liveröd also performed with), who died in the disaster, which led to Nasum's subsequent disbandment. | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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{{Portal bar|Asia|Indonesia|Sri Lanka|Thailand|India|Myanmar|Somalia|Earth sciences|2000s}} | {{Portal bar|Asia|Indonesia|Sri Lanka|Thailand|India|Myanmar|Somalia|Earth sciences|2000s}} | ||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami| ]] | [[Category:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami| ]] | ||
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[[Category:Earthquakes in Sumatra]] | [[Category:Earthquakes in Sumatra]] | ||
[[Category:2004 earthquakes]] | [[Category:2004 earthquakes]] | ||
[[Category:2004 in Indonesia]] | [[Category:2004 in Indonesia]] | ||
[[Category:2004 in Sri Lanka]] | [[Category:2004 in Sri Lanka]] | ||