.svg)
1,326
edits
Gender equality: Difference between revisions
m
robot, dating maintenance tag modified: {{Clarify}}, {{Which}} and more
(Established a new page structure.) |
m (robot, dating maintenance tag modified: {{Clarify}}, {{Which}} and more) |
||
| Line 7: | Line 7: | ||
'''Gender equality''', also known as '''sexual equality''' or '''equality of the sexes''', is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gender Equality, what does it mean ? – Egalité Femmes/Hommes |url=http://gender-equality.essec.edu/home/gender-equality-what-does-it-mean#:~:text=Gender%20equality,%20also%20known%20as,needs%20equally,%20regardless%20of%20gender. |access-date=2022-10-14 |website=gender-equality.essec.edu}}</ref> | '''Gender equality''', also known as '''sexual equality''' or '''equality of the sexes''', is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gender Equality, what does it mean ? – Egalité Femmes/Hommes |url=http://gender-equality.essec.edu/home/gender-equality-what-does-it-mean#:~:text=Gender%20equality,%20also%20known%20as,needs%20equally,%20regardless%20of%20gender. |access-date=2022-10-14 |website=gender-equality.essec.edu}}</ref> | ||
Gender equality is the goal, while gender neutrality and gender equity are practices and ways of thinking that help in achieving the goal. [[Gender parity]], which is used to measure gender balance in a given situation, can aid in achieving gender equality but is not the goal in and of itself. Gender equality is more than just equal representation, it is strongly tied to [[women's rights]], and often requires policy changes. {{As of|2017}}, the global movement{{Which}} for gender equality has not incorporated the proposition of [[Third gender|genders besides women and men]], or [[Gender identity|gender identities]] outside of the [[gender binary]]. | Gender equality is the goal, while gender neutrality and gender equity are practices and ways of thinking that help in achieving the goal. [[Gender parity]], which is used to measure gender balance in a given situation, can aid in achieving gender equality but is not the goal in and of itself. Gender equality is more than just equal representation, it is strongly tied to [[women's rights]], and often requires policy changes. {{As of|2017}}, the global movement{{Which|date= June 2023}} for gender equality has not incorporated the proposition of [[Third gender|genders besides women and men]], or [[Gender identity|gender identities]] outside of the [[gender binary]]. | ||
[[UNICEF]] says gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."<ref name="UNICEF">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf|title=Promoting Gender Equality: An Equity-based Approach to Programming|first=Roger|website=Operational Guidance Overview in Brief|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=2011-01-28|last=LeMoyne|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020152744/https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The [[ILO]] similarly defines gender equality as "the enjoyment of equal rights, opportunities and treatment by men and women and by boys and girls in all spheres of life"</ref> | [[UNICEF]] says gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."<ref name="UNICEF">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf|title=Promoting Gender Equality: An Equity-based Approach to Programming|first=Roger|website=Operational Guidance Overview in Brief|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=2011-01-28|last=LeMoyne|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020152744/https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The [[ILO]] similarly defines gender equality as "the enjoyment of equal rights, opportunities and treatment by men and women and by boys and girls in all spheres of life"</ref> | ||
| Line 193: | Line 193: | ||
In 2009, United States data showed that transgender people are likely to experience a broad range of violence in the entirety of their lifetime. Violence against trans women in Puerto Rico started to make headlines after being treated as "An Invisible Problem" decades before. It was reported at the 58th Convention of the Puerto Rican Association that many transgender women face institutional, emotional, and structural obstacles. Most trans women do not have access to health care for [[STD prevention]] and are not educated on violence prevention, mental health, and social services that could benefit them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Madera|first1=Sheilla L.|last2=Padilla|first2=Mark|last3=Varas-Díaz|first3=Nelson|last4=Neilands|first4=Torsten|last5=Guzzi|first5=Ana C. Vasques|last6=Florenciani|first6=Ericka J.|last7=Ramos-Pibernus|first7=Alíxida|title=Experiences of Violence Among Transgender Women in Puerto Rico: An Underestimated Problem|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=64|issue=2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1174026|issn=0091-8369|pmc=5546874|pmid=27054395}}</ref> | In 2009, United States data showed that transgender people are likely to experience a broad range of violence in the entirety of their lifetime. Violence against trans women in Puerto Rico started to make headlines after being treated as "An Invisible Problem" decades before. It was reported at the 58th Convention of the Puerto Rican Association that many transgender women face institutional, emotional, and structural obstacles. Most trans women do not have access to health care for [[STD prevention]] and are not educated on violence prevention, mental health, and social services that could benefit them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Madera|first1=Sheilla L.|last2=Padilla|first2=Mark|last3=Varas-Díaz|first3=Nelson|last4=Neilands|first4=Torsten|last5=Guzzi|first5=Ana C. Vasques|last6=Florenciani|first6=Ericka J.|last7=Ramos-Pibernus|first7=Alíxida|title=Experiences of Violence Among Transgender Women in Puerto Rico: An Underestimated Problem|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=64|issue=2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1174026|issn=0091-8369|pmc=5546874|pmid=27054395}}</ref> | ||
[[Trans woman|Trans women]] in the United States have encountered the subject of anti-trans stigma, which includes criminalization, dehumanization, and violence against those who identify as transgender. From a societal standpoint, a trans person can be victim to the stigma due to lack of family support, issues with health care and social services, [[police brutality]], discrimination in the work place, cultural marginalisation, poverty, sexual assault, assault, bullying, and mental trauma. The [[Human Rights Campaign]] tracked over 128 cases{{Clarify|reason=so it was 129 cases? or...?}} that ended in fatality against transgender people in the US from 2013 to 2018, of which eighty percent included a trans woman of color. In the US, high rates of [[Intimate partner violence|Intimate Partner violence]] impact trans women differently because they are facing discrimination from police and health providers, and alienation from family. In 2018, it was reported that 77 percent of transgender people who were linked to sex work and 72 percent of transgender people who were homeless, were victims of intimate partner violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018/|title=A National Epidemic: Fatal Anti-Transgender Violence in America|last=Campaign|first=Human Rights|website=Human Rights Campaign|language=en|access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301202408/https://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | [[Trans woman|Trans women]] in the United States have encountered the subject of anti-trans stigma, which includes criminalization, dehumanization, and violence against those who identify as transgender. From a societal standpoint, a trans person can be victim to the stigma due to lack of family support, issues with health care and social services, [[police brutality]], discrimination in the work place, cultural marginalisation, poverty, sexual assault, assault, bullying, and mental trauma. The [[Human Rights Campaign]] tracked over 128 cases{{Clarify|date= June 2023|reason=so it was 129 cases? or...?}} that ended in fatality against transgender people in the US from 2013 to 2018, of which eighty percent included a trans woman of color. In the US, high rates of [[Intimate partner violence|Intimate Partner violence]] impact trans women differently because they are facing discrimination from police and health providers, and alienation from family. In 2018, it was reported that 77 percent of transgender people who were linked to sex work and 72 percent of transgender people who were homeless, were victims of intimate partner violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018/|title=A National Epidemic: Fatal Anti-Transgender Violence in America|last=Campaign|first=Human Rights|website=Human Rights Campaign|language=en|access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301202408/https://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
====Reproductive and sexual health and rights==== | ====Reproductive and sexual health and rights==== | ||
| Line 278: | Line 278: | ||
In addition, gender wage gap is a phenomenon of gender biases. That means women do the same job or work with their male counterpart, but they could not receive the same salary or opportunity at workforce.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Across the [[European Union]], for example, since women continue to hold lower-paying jobs, they earn 13% less than men on average. According to European Quality of Life Survey and European Working Conditions Survey data, women in the European Union work more hours but for less pay. Adult men (including the retired) work an average of 23 hours per week, compared to 15 hours for women. | In addition, gender wage gap is a phenomenon of gender biases. That means women do the same job or work with their male counterpart, but they could not receive the same salary or opportunity at workforce.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Across the [[European Union]], for example, since women continue to hold lower-paying jobs, they earn 13% less than men on average. According to European Quality of Life Survey and European Working Conditions Survey data, women in the European Union work more hours but for less pay. Adult men (including the retired) work an average of 23 hours per week, compared to 15 hours for women. | ||
Women continue to earn around 25% less than males. Almost a billion women are unable to obtain loans to establish a company or create a bank account in order to save money.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Bridging the Gender Gap in Access to Finance |url=https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/NEWS_EXT_CONTENT/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/News+and+Events/News/Bridging+the+Gender+Gap+in+Access+to+Finance |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=www.ifc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Expanding Women's Access to Financial Services |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/01/banking-on-women-extending-womens-access-to-financial-services |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Increasing women's equality in banking and the workplace might boost the global economy by up to $28 trillion by 2025.<ref | Women continue to earn around 25% less than males. Almost a billion women are unable to obtain loans to establish a company or create a bank account in order to save money.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Bridging the Gender Gap in Access to Finance |url=https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/NEWS_EXT_CONTENT/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/News+and+Events/News/Bridging+the+Gender+Gap+in+Access+to+Finance |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=www.ifc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Expanding Women's Access to Financial Services |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/01/banking-on-women-extending-womens-access-to-financial-services |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Increasing women's equality in banking and the workplace might boost the global economy by up to $28 trillion by 2025.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":03"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Feloni |first=Richard |title=If we closed the gender gap by 2025, the global economy could see a $28 trillion windfall |url=https://www.businessinsider.nl/closing-gender-gap-could-add-as-much-as-28-trillion-to-global-economy-2019-3/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Business Insider Nederland |language=nl}}</ref> Funding is becoming more available for this, for example with the European Investment Bank establishing the SheInvest program in 2020 with the goal of raising €1 billion in investments to assist women in obtaining loans and running enterprises across Africa.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |title=Women's solutions stories create a world where everyone thrives |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/women-solutions-stories |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: EIB expands SheInvest initiative and strengthens cooperation with Development Bank of Rwanda |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-411-boosting-gender-equality-around-the-world-eib-expands-sheinvest-initiative-and-strengthens-cooperation-with-development-bank-of-rwanda |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> | ||
The European Investment Bank funded an additional €2 billion in gender-lens investment in Africa, Asia, and Latin America at the Finance in Common Summit at the end of 2022.<ref name=":03" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: European Investment Bank expands SheInvest initiative.... |url=https://www.businessghana.com/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=BusinessGhana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Finance in Common FICS Progress Report |url=https://financeincommon.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/Finance%20in%20Common%20Progress%20Report%202022.pdf}}</ref> | The European Investment Bank funded an additional €2 billion in gender-lens investment in Africa, Asia, and Latin America at the Finance in Common Summit at the end of 2022.<ref name=":03" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: European Investment Bank expands SheInvest initiative.... |url=https://www.businessghana.com/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=BusinessGhana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Finance in Common FICS Progress Report |url=https://financeincommon.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/Finance%20in%20Common%20Progress%20Report%202022.pdf}}</ref> | ||
| Line 334: | Line 334: | ||
Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property/land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has called for the end of discriminatory [[family law]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|title=Equality in family relations: recognizing women's rights to property|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113353/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, UN Women stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge".<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|title = Women's land rights are human rights, says new UN report|date = 11 November 2013|website = UN Women|access-date = 2 March 2018|archive-date = 22 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222072443/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|url-status = live}}</ref> | Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property/land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has called for the end of discriminatory [[family law]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|title=Equality in family relations: recognizing women's rights to property|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113353/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, UN Women stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge".<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|title = Women's land rights are human rights, says new UN report|date = 11 November 2013|website = UN Women|access-date = 2 March 2018|archive-date = 22 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222072443/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|url-status = live}}</ref> | ||
The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards.{{Refn|[[John Stuart Mill]], in ''[[The Subjection of Women]]'' (1869) compared marriage to [[slavery]] and wrote that: "The law of servitude in marriage is a monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world, and to all the experience through which those principles have been slowly and painfully worked out."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|title=The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill|website=Marxists.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918233515/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women".<ref name=Oireachtas group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url= http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |title= Married Women's Status Bill, 1956—Second Stage: Minister for Justice (Mr. Everett) |website= [[Houses of the Oireachtas|Oireachtas]] |date= 16 January 1957 |access-date= 6 September 2015 |archive-date= 26 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926014352/http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |url-status= live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through [[marriage laws]] giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through [[marriage bar]]s.{{Refn|In France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965;<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |title=Modern & Contemporary France: Women in France |website=Routledge |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|title=National Report: France|website=Ceflonline.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811145534/http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In [[Austria]], the marriage law was overhauled between 1975 and 1983, abolishing the restrictions on married women's right to work outside the home, providing for equality between spouses, and for joint ownership of property and assets.<ref group=upper-roman>''Women and Politics in Contemporary Ireland: From the Margins to the Mainstream'', by Yvonne Galligan, pp.90</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In 1978, the [[Council of Europe]] passed the ''Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law''.<ref>{{cite web|title=RESOLUTION (78) 37 ON EQUALITY OF SPOUSES IN CIVIL LAW|url=https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|publisher=Council of Europe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121025014/https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|archive-date=21 January 2016}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a [[Voting in Switzerland|referendum]], who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|title=SWISS GRANT WOMEN EQUAL MARRIAGE RIGHTS|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Times|first1=Special to the New York|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111232657/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|title=Switzerland Profile: Timeline|website=BBC News|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617053429/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|author=Markus G. Jud, Lucerne, Switzerland|website=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|url-status=live}}</ref | The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards.{{Refn|[[John Stuart Mill]], in ''[[The Subjection of Women]]'' (1869) compared marriage to [[slavery]] and wrote that: "The law of servitude in marriage is a monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world, and to all the experience through which those principles have been slowly and painfully worked out."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|title=The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill|website=Marxists.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918233515/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women".<ref name=Oireachtas group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url= http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |title= Married Women's Status Bill, 1956—Second Stage: Minister for Justice (Mr. Everett) |website= [[Houses of the Oireachtas|Oireachtas]] |date= 16 January 1957 |access-date= 6 September 2015 |archive-date= 26 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926014352/http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |url-status= live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through [[marriage laws]] giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through [[marriage bar]]s.{{Refn|In France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965;<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |title=Modern & Contemporary France: Women in France |website=Routledge |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|title=National Report: France|website=Ceflonline.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811145534/http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In [[Austria]], the marriage law was overhauled between 1975 and 1983, abolishing the restrictions on married women's right to work outside the home, providing for equality between spouses, and for joint ownership of property and assets.<ref group=upper-roman>''Women and Politics in Contemporary Ireland: From the Margins to the Mainstream'', by Yvonne Galligan, pp.90</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In 1978, the [[Council of Europe]] passed the ''Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law''.<ref>{{cite web|title=RESOLUTION (78) 37 ON EQUALITY OF SPOUSES IN CIVIL LAW|url=https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|publisher=Council of Europe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121025014/https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|archive-date=21 January 2016}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a [[Voting in Switzerland|referendum]], who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|title=SWISS GRANT WOMEN EQUAL MARRIAGE RIGHTS|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Times|first1=Special to the New York|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111232657/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|title=Switzerland Profile: Timeline|website=BBC News|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617053429/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|author=Markus G. Jud, Lucerne, Switzerland|website=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[Netherlands]], it was only in 1984 that full legal equality between husband and wife was achieved: prior to 1984 the law stipulated that the husband's opinion prevailed over the wife's regarding issues such as decisions on children's education and the domicile of the family.<ref>''The Economics of Imperfect Labor Markets: Second Edition'', by Tito Boeri, Jan van Ours, pp. 105</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170906070337/https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e |archive-date = 6 September 2017| title = Dutch gender and LGBT-equality policy 2013–2016|url = https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|title=2015 Review Report of the Netherlands Government in the context of the twentieth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women and the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action|website=Unece.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005144755/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
In the [[United States]], a wife's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of ''[[Kirchberg v. Feenstra]]'', {{Ussc|450|455|1981|el=no}}, a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which the Court held a [[Louisiana]] [[Head and Master law]], which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|title=Kirchberg v. Feenstra :: 450 U.S. 455 (1981) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center|website=Justia Law|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130159/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|url-status=live}}</ref> | In the [[United States]], a wife's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of ''[[Kirchberg v. Feenstra]]'', {{Ussc|450|455|1981|el=no}}, a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which the Court held a [[Louisiana]] [[Head and Master law]], which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|title=Kirchberg v. Feenstra :: 450 U.S. 455 (1981) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center|website=Justia Law|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130159/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||