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{{Infobox Settlement
{{Short description|State in northeastern India}}
<!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage-->
{{Other uses|Assam (disambiguation)}}
<!-- Basic info  ---------------->
{{pp|small=yes}}
|official_name          = Assam
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
|other_name            =
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
|native_name            = অসম<!-- for cities whose native name is not in English -->
{{Infobox Indian state or territory
|nickname              =  
| name = Assam
|settlement_type        = State of [[India]]
| type = State
|motto                  =  
| image_seal = Seal of Assam.svg
<!-- images and maps  ----------->
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
|image_skyline          =  
| border                  = infobox
|imagesize              =  
| align                    = center
|image_caption          =  
| total_width              = 250
|image_flag            =  
| image_style              =
|flag_size              =  
| perrow                  = 1/2/2/2
|flag_link              =  
| image1                  =  Indian Rhino of Assam, Kaziranga National Park.jpg
|image_seal            = Seal of Assam.png
| alt1                    =
|seal_size              =  
| image2                  =
|seal_link              =  
| alt2                    =
|image_shield          =  
| image3                  = Sivadol Sivasagar.JPG
|shield_size            =  
| alt3                    =
|shield_link            =  
| image4                  = Kamakhya Guwahati.JPG
|city_logo              =  
| alt4                    =
|citylogo_size          =  
| image5                  = Lachit Borphukan and his army.jpg
|logo_link              =  
| alt5                    =
|image_map              = IN-AS.svg
| image6                  = Assam Cotton College.jpg
|mapsize                =  
| alt6                    =
|map_caption            = Location of Assam in the Republic of India
| image7                  = IIT Guwahati.jpg
|image_map1            = India Assam location map.svg
| alt7                    =
|mapsize1              =  
| image8                  = Rang Ghar front view 1.jpg
|map_caption1          = Map of Assam
| alt8                    =
|image_dot_map          =  
| image9                  =Tea gardens of Kaziranga National Park, Assam.jpg
|dot_mapsize            =  
| alt9                    =
|dot_map_caption        =  
}}
|dot_x = |dot_y =  
| imagesize =
|pushpin_map            = <!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map -->
| image_alt =
|pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none -->
| image_caption = From top, left to right:[[Indian rhinoceros]] in [[Kaziranga National Park]], [[Sivasagar Sivadol]], [[Kamakhya Temple]], [[Lachit Borphukan]] statue, [[Cotton University]], [[IIT Guwahati]], [[Rang Ghar]], Assam [[Tea garden]]
|pushpin_map_caption    =  
| motto = Joi Aai Axom <br/> (Hail mother Assam)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assam.gov.in/about-us/389 |title=State Symbols &#124; Assam State Portal |publisher=Assam.gov.in |date=2020-12-01 |access-date=2022-08-24 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704080747/https://assam.gov.in/about-us/389 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|pushpin_mapsize        =  
| anthem = "O Mur Apunar Desh" <br/>
<!-- Location ------------------>
(O my Dearest Country)
| subdivision_type        = Country
| image_map = IN-AS.svg
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|India}}
| region = Northeast India
| subdivision_type1      = [[Regions of India|Region]]
| before_was = [[Undivided Assam|
| subdivision_name1      = [[North-east India]]
State of Assam]]
|subdivision_type3      =  
| formation_date2 = formation1
|subdivision_name3      =  
| formation_date3 = 21 Jan 1972
|subdivision_type4      =  
| formation_date4 = 26 January 1950<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steinberg |first1=S. |title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1964–65: The One-Volume ENCYCLOPAEDIA of all nations |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-27093-0 |page=412 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O43LDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA412 |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230333/https://books.google.com/books?id=O43LDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA412 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|subdivision_name4      =  
| capital = Dispur
<!-- Politics ----------------->
| largestcity = Guwahati
|government_footnotes  =  
| districts = [[List of districts of Assam|31 (5 divisions)]]
|government_type        =  
| Governor = [[Gulab Chand Kataria]]
| leader_title            = [[Governors of Assam|Governor]]
| Chief_Minister = [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]]
| leader_name            =  
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| leader_title1          = [[Chief Ministers of Assam|Chief&nbsp;Minister]]
| judiciary = [[Gauhati High Court]]
| leader_name1            =  
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| leader_title2          = [[Legislature of Assam|Legislature]]
| assembly = [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]
| leader_name2            = [[Unicameral]] ({{ref|leg|*}} seats)
| assembly_seats = 126 seats
|leader_title3          =  
| rajya_sabha_seats = 7 seats
|leader_name3          =  
| lok_sabha_seats = 14 seats
|leader_title4          =  
| area_total_km2 = 78438
|leader_name4          =  
| area_rank = 16th
| established_title      = Established
| elevation_m = 45−1,960
| established_date        =  
| elevation_ft = 148−6,430
|established_title2    = <!-- Incorporated (town) -->
| population_total = 31,169,272
|established_date2      =  
| population_as_of = 2011
|established_title3    = <!-- Incorporated (city) -->
| population_rank = 15th
|established_date3      =  
| population_urban = 14.1%
<!-- Area    --------------------->
| population_rural = 85.9%
|area_magnitude        =  
| population_density = 397
|unit_pref              = <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired-->
| population_density_rank = 15th
|area_footnotes        =  
| 0fficial_Langs = [[Assamese language|Assamese]] • [[Boro language (India)|Boro]]<ref name=nclmanurep2010>{{cite web |archive-date = 28 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171523/http://www.nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |url=http://www.nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 52nd report (July 2014 to June 2015) |pages=58–59 |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date = 16 February 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>|[[Boro language (India)|Boro]]<ref name="BodoOff">{{cite news |last1=PTI |title=Assam Assembly Accords Associate Official Language Status To Bodo |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-assembly-accords-associate-official-language-status-to-bodo-2345750 |access-date=21 February 2022 |work=NDTV |date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221093623/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-assembly-accords-associate-official-language-status-to-bodo-2345750 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|area_total_km2        = 78438 <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion-->
| additional_official = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] ([[Barak Valley]])<ref name="BnOff">{{Cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/govt-withdraws-assamese-as-official-language-from-barak-valley-114090901180_1.html |title=Govt withdraws Assamese as official language from Barak valley |agency=Press Trust of India |date=9 September 2014 |work=Business Standard India |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=29 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129195116/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/govt-withdraws-assamese-as-official-language-from-barak-valley-114090901180_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|area_land_km2          = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion-->
| GDP_footnotes = <ref name="Assam Budget 2021">{{cite web |url=https://finance.assam.gov.in/portlets/assam-budget-2021-22 |title=Assam Budget 2021 |date=16 July 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=17 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717122909/https://finance.assam.gov.in/portlets/assam-budget-2021-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|area_water_km2        =  
| GDP_total = {{INRConvert|3.74|lc|lk=r}}
|area_total_sq_mi      =  
| GDP_year = 2019-2020
|area_land_sq_mi        =  
| GDP_rank = 18th
|area_water_sq_mi      =  
| GDP_per_capita = {{INRConvert|109069|lk=r}}
|area_water_percent    =  
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 18th
|area_urban_km2        =  
| Growth_rate = 9.20
|area_urban_sq_mi      =  
| Growth_year = 2016-2017
|area_metro_km2        =  
| HDI_year = 2018
|area_metro_sq_mi      =  
| HDI = 0.614<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab |website=hdi.globaldatalab.org|access-date=13 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923120638/https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/|archive-date=23 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
|area_blank1_title      =  
| HDI_rank = 30th
|area_blank1_km2        =  
| literacy = 72.19%<ref name="pc-census2011">{{cite web |title=Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban) |url=http://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India |access-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127163347/http://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|area_blank1_sq_mi      =  
| literacy_year = 2011
<!-- Population  ----------------------->
| sex_ratio = 958
|population_as_of                = 2011
| sexratio_year = 2011
|population_footnotes            =
| iso_code = IN-AS
|population_note                =
| registration_plate = AS
|population_total                = 31,169,272
| website = assam.gov.in
| footnotes = • First recognised as an administrative division on 1 April 1911, and led to the establishment of [[Assam Province]] by partitioning [[Eastern Bengal and Assam|Province of East Bengal and Assam]]. <br />  • Assam was one of the original provincial divisions of British India. <br /> • Assam has had a legislature since 1937.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamassembly.gov.in/history.html |title=Assam Legislative Assembly - History |access-date=14 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913195856/http://www.assamassembly.gov.in/history.html |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| mammal = [[Indian rhinoceros]]
| bird = [[White-winged duck]]
| flower = [[Foxtail orchid]]
| tree = [[Hollong]]
}}
 
'''Assam''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|'|s|æ|m|,_|æ|-}};<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Assam|access-date=3 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Assam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107235127/https://www.lexico.com/definition/assam |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 January 2020 |title=Assam |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> {{IPA-as|ˈɔxɔm|3=As-অসম-2.oga|lang}}) is a state in [[Northeast India|northeastern]] [[India]], south of the eastern [[Himalayas]] along the [[Brahmaputra Valley|Brahmaputra]] and [[Barak River]] valleys. Assam covers an area of {{convert|78438|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}. The state is bordered by [[Bhutan]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] to the north; [[Nagaland]] and [[Manipur]] to the east; [[Meghalaya]], [[Tripura]], [[Mizoram]] and [[Bangladesh]] to the south; and [[West Bengal]] to the west via the [[Siliguri Corridor]], a {{convert|22|km}} wide strip of land that connects the state to the rest of India. [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and [[Boro language (India)|Boro]] are the official languages of Assam, while [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is an additional official language in the [[Barak Valley]].
 
Assam is known for [[Assam tea]] and [[Assam silk]]. The state was the first site for [[Oil well|oil drilling]] in [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/here-is-indias-oil-story/1153719/ |title=Here is India's oil story |date=3 May 2018 |website=The Financial Express |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=21 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721050940/https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/here-is-indias-oil-story/1153719/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Assam is home to the one-horned [[Indian rhinoceros]], along with the [[wild water buffalo]], [[pygmy hog]], [[tiger]] and various species of Asiatic birds, and provides one of the last wild habitats for the [[Asian elephant]]. The [[Economy of Assam|Assamese economy]] is aided by [[wildlife tourism]] to [[Kaziranga National Park]] and [[Manas National Park]], which are [[World Heritage Site]]s. [[Dibru-Saikhowa National Park]] is famed for its [[feral horse]]s. [[Shorea robusta|Sal tree]] forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, look green all year round. Assam receives more rainfall than most parts of India; this rain feeds the [[Brahmaputra River]], whose [[Tributary|tributaries]] and [[oxbow lake]]s provide the region with a distinctive hydro-[[geomorphic]] environment.
 
== Etymology ==
{{main|Etymology of Assam}}
The first dated mention of the region comes from ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century) and [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]] (2nd century), which calls the region ''Kirrhadia'', apparently after the [[Kirata]] population.<ref>''Besatia'' in the Schoff translation and also sometimes used by Ptolemy, they are a people similar to Kirradai and they lived in the region between "Assam and Sichuan" {{harv|Casson|1989|pp=241–243}}</ref><ref>"The ''Periplus of the Erythraen Sea'' (last quarter of the first century A.D) and Ptolemy's ''Geography'' (middle of the second century A.D) appear to call the land including Assam Kirrhadia after its Kirata population." {{harvcol|Sircar|1990|pp=60–61}}</ref> In the classical period and up to the 12th century, the region east of the [[Karatoya river]], largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called [[Kamarupa]], and alternatively, [[Pragjyotisha]].<ref>"Prior to the thirteenth century the present region was called Kāmarūpa or, alternatively, Prāgjyotiṣapur", Lahiri, Nayanjot., ''Pre-Ahom Assam'' (Delhi 1991) p. 14</ref> Though a western portion of Assam as a region continued to be called [[Kamrup region|Kamrup]], the [[Ahom kingdom]] that emerged in the east, and which came to dominate the entire [[Brahmaputra valley]], was called Assam (e.g. Mughals used ''Asham''); and the [[Colonial Assam|British province]] too was called Assam.  Though the precise [[etymology of Assam]] is not clear, the name Assam is associated with the [[Ahom people]], originally called ''Shyam'' ([[Shan people|Shan]]).<ref>"Ahoms also gave Assam and its language their name (''Ahom'' and the modern ''ɒχɒm'' 'Assam' come from an attested earlier form ''asam'', ''acam'', probably from a Burmese corruption of the word ''Shan/Shyam'', cf. ''Siam'': Kakati 1962; 1-4)." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=50}}</ref>
 
== History ==
{{Main|History of Assam}}
 
=== Pre-history ===
{{further|People of Assam}}
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the [[Stone Age]]. The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615&nbsp;m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">{{Citation |last=Sircar |first=D C |contribution=Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa |year=1990 |title=The Comprehensive History of Assam| editor-last = Barpujari| editor-first = H K |volume=I |pages=59–78 |place=Guwahati |publisher=Publication Board, Assam}}</ref>
[[Ambari]] site in Guwahati has revealed [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]]-[[Kushana]] era artefacts including flight of stairs and a water tank which may date from 1st century BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at Ambari is [[Roman era]] [[Roman pottery|Roman roulette pottery]] from the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jan2316/at055 |title=The Assam Tribune Online |website=www.assamtribune.com|access-date=3 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127024137/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jan2316%2Fat055|archive-date=27 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/relics-hold-clue-to-missing-history-sunga-kushana-era-terracotta-artefacts-may-say-if-guwahati-existed-before-7th-century-ad/cid/345105 |title=Relics hold clue to missing history – Sunga-Kushana era terracotta artefacts may say if Guwahati existed before 7th century AD |website=www.telegraphindia.com|access-date=3 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104021630/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/relics-hold-clue-to-missing-history-sunga-kushana-era-terracotta-artefacts-may-say-if-guwahati-existed-before-7th-century-ad/cid/345105|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
=== Legend ===
{{further|Danava dynasty|Bhauma dynasty|Asura Kingdom}}
According to a late text, [[Kalika Purana]] (c. 9th–10th century [[Common Era|CE]]), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the [[Danava dynasty]], which was removed by [[Narakasura|Naraka]] of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] and established the [[Bhauma dynasty]]. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by [[Krishna]]. Naraka's son [[Bhagadatta]] became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the [[Kaurava]]s in the [[Kurukshetra War|battle of Kurukshetra]] with an army of [[kiratas]], [[chinas]] and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam, [[Asura Kingdom]] was ruled by another line of kings.<ref>India History Association. Session (2001), ''Proceedings of North East India History Association North East'' he came under the 'bad' influence of Banasura, ruler of Sonitapura (identified with Tezpur now under Sonitpur district in central Assam), and ended up sidelining Kamakhya in favour of Siva. Thereafter Naraka forsook the guidance</ref>


|population_density_km2          =
=== Ancient era ===
|population_density_sq_mi        =
{{multiple image
|population_metro                =
| align             = right
|population_density_metro_km2    =
| image1           = Kamarupa map (cropped).png
|population_density_metro_sq_mi  =  
| width1           = 185
|population_urban                =  
| caption1          = [[Kamarupa]] kingdom at its height
|population_density_urban_km2    =  
| image2           = DEOPAHAR NUMALIGARH ASSAM INDIA .jpg
|population_density_urban_sq_mi  =  
| width2           = 185
|population_blank1_title        =
| caption2          = {{center|[[Deopahar]] ruins}}
|population_blank1              =  
|population_density_blank1_km2  =
|population_density_blank1_sq_mi =
|population_demonym              =       
<!-- General information  --------------->
|timezone                = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|utc_offset              = +05:30
|timezone_DST            =
|utc_offset_DST          =  
|coordinates            = {{coord|26.244156|92.537842|type:city|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates_footnotes  =
|elevation_footnotes    =  <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags-->
|elevation_m             =  
|elevation_ft           =  
<!-- Area/postal codes & others -------->
|postal_code_type      =  <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... -->
|postal_code           =  
|area_code              =
|blank_name            = Official languages
|blank_info            = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]{{,}}[[English language|English]]
|blank1_name           =  
|blank1_info           =  
|website                =
|footnotes              = {{note|leg|*}}  
}}
}}


'''Assam''' ({{lang-as|অসম}}) is a [[States of India|state]] in the [[North-east India|north eastern region]] of [[India]]. It has an area of 78,438 [[km²]] (30,285 [[square mile|mi²]]). It is bigger than [[Panama]] but smaller than the [[Czech Republic]]. There is one major river ([[Brahmaputra River|Brahamputra]]) that flows through the length of the state. The state lies on the foothills of the [[Himalayas]]. There are two international borders touched by Assam: [[Bhutan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the [[North-east India]]n zone.
{{further|Kamarupa}}
Evidence indicates presence of civilization in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock cut stupa at [[Sri Surya Pahar]] has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock cut [[Karla Caves|Karle]] and [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja]] caves of Maharashtra.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barman |first=Bratatee |title=Archaeology of BCE 200 -CE 1200 Assam (Northeast India): Pre-literary to Historical and Early Medieval Periods |url=https://www.academia.edu/45688900 |journal=Archaeology in Northeast India Recent Trends and Future Prospects Essays Celebrating 150 Years of Research |date=January 2020 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427104437/https://www.academia.edu/45688900 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Samudragupta]]'s 4th-century-CE [[Prayaga prashasti|Allahabad pillar inscription]] mentions [[Kamarupa]]<ref>Tej Ram Sharma,1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", Page 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</ref> and [[Davaka]] (Central Assam)<ref>Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005,"Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", Page 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</ref> as frontier kingdoms of the [[Gupta Empire]]. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present [[Sadiya]] and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, [[North Bengal]], parts of [[Bangladesh]] and, at times [[Purnea]] and parts of [[West Bengal]].<ref>The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in [[Kalika Purana]]) near present-day Sadiya.  "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" {{harv|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}.</ref> The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka; the [[Varman dynasty|Varmanas]] (c. 350–650 CE), the [[Mlechchha dynasty]] (c.655–900 CE) and the [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Kamarupa-Palas]] (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day [[Guwahati]] ([[Pragjyotishpura]]), Tezpur ([[Haruppeswara]]) and [[North Gauhati]] ([[Durjaya]]) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from [[Narakasura]]. In the reign of the Varman king, [[Bhaskaravarman]] (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] visited the [[Kamrup region|region]] and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
 
=== Medieval era ===
{{further|Kamata kingdom|Koch dynasty|Ahom kingdom|Chutia kingdom|Kachari kingdom|Baro-Bhuyan}}
The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]] in the early part of the 13th century and covers their entire rule of 600 years till 1826. The medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers under [[Turko-Afghan]] and [[Mughals]], finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the [[Burmese invasions of Assam|Burmese invasions]], which led to its annexation.<ref>{{harvcol|Baruah|1986|p=36}}</ref>
 
[[Chutia kingdom|Chutia]], a [[Bodo-Kachari people|Bodo-Kachari]] group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from [[Biswanath Chariali|Vishwanath]] (north bank) and [[Dihing River|Buridihing]] (south bank), in [[Upper Assam]] and in the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. It was  annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century.


== Demography ==
The [[Kachari Kingdom|Dimasa]], another [[Bodo-Kachari people|Bodo-Kachari]] dynasty, (13th century–1854) ruled from [[Dikhow River]] to central and southern Assam and had their capital at [[Dimapur]]. With the expansion of Ahom kingdom, by the early 17th century, the Chutia areas were annexed and since c. 1536 the Kacharis remained only in [[Cachar]] and [[North Cachar]], and more as an Ahom ally than a competing force.
{{Pie chart
 
|thumb = right
=== Ahom kingdom ===
|caption = Religion in Assam (2021 survey)<ref name="Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam?  - India Today Insight News">{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/can-bjp-survive-the-demographic-disadvantage-in-assam-1784851-2021-03-29 | title=Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam? }}</ref>
 
|label1 = [[Hinduism]]
=== Early Period ===
|value1 = 55
{{Main|Sukaphaa}}
|color1 = orange
The [[Ahom people|Ahoms]], a [[Tai peoples|Tai]] group, ruled [[Upper Assam]].<ref>Banikanta Kakati, ''Assamese:Its formation and development''</ref> In 1228 the Ahoms came to the [[Brahmaputra Valley]] under the leadership of [[Sukaphaa|Sukapha]] accompanied with 9,000 men from Mong-Mao,  a Tai state, situated in South-Western Yunnan of China, and established his kingdom upper Assam. In 1253 he founded the capital city in a hillock and named it [[Charaideo]]. At that time of Sukapha advent, the area was inhabited by Morans and Barahis, to the north and the north-east was the [[Chutia Kingdom|Chutia kingdom]] and on the south was the  [[Kachari kingdom]] and on the west on the plains were the Bhuyans.
|label2 = [[Islam]]
 
|value2 = 40
For more than two and a half centuries, the Sukapha and his successors, although mainly concentrated on the organization of the kingdom, they maintained their military superiority in the valley.<ref>{{Harvcol|Baruah|1986|pp=220–224}}</ref>
|color2 = green
 
|label3 = [[Christianity]]
==== Expansion ====
|value3 = 4
{{Main|Suhungmung|Dimasa Kingdom}}
|color3 = blue
[[File:Sketch map illustrating the extent of the Assamese kingdom in their zenith.png|thumb|Assamese kingdoms in their greatest territorial heights. [[Kachari kingdom]] (1230) in red dotted lines, [[Koch dynasty]] (1560) in blue lines, [[Ahom kingdom]] (1700) in red lines.]]
|label4 = others
The reign of [[Suhungmung]] was marked with the first massive expansion of [[Ahom kingdom]]. Besides sending a punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis,  Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522-23 the [[Chutia Kingdom]] was annexed and the captured tract was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhunmung than expanded his kingdom westwards through wars and extended till Marangi to the west of the Dhansiri and when the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory but were defeated and their capital [[Dimapur]] was sacked. Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung was placed as a tributary, but Detsung was not loyal and revolted, and he was killed. Later some time, a new king was sat on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then the Kachari kings were regarded as ‘thapita sanchita’ meaning - established and maintained by the Ahom rulers.
|value4 = 1
 
|color4 = yellow}}
Suhunmung reign also witnessed the first Muslim-invasions. After a series of battle, the invaders were defeated and were chased up to [[Karatoya River]]. The Sultan of Bengal, terrified, made peace by offering his two daughters and five paraganas, along with other articles as dowry. That's when the rising Koch king [[Biswa Singha]] offered submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham gave him all the territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute.<ref>{{Harvcol|Baruah|1986|pp=224–234}}</ref>
 
The successors of Suhunmung, [[Suklenmung]] and [[Sukhaamphaa]], send many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas. But were significant with the wars with the Koch. During the reign of [[Sukhaamphaa]], the Ahoms lost to koch army led by [[Chilarai]] and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the tracts of north of Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with several stern steps.<ref>{{Harvcol|Gogoi|2017|pp=1–17}}</ref>
 
=== Later Period ===
 
==== War with Mughals ====
{{Main|Ahom kingdom|Bengal Subah|Koch dynasty|Ahom–Mughal conflicts}}
[[File:Cannon of Gadadhar Singha 2.jpg|thumb|233x233px|Cannon captured from the [[Mughals]] ]]
Soon after the death of [[Nara Narayan]] his kingdom, got divided between the sons of Nara Narayan and [[Chilarai]] as [[Koch Hajo]] and [[Koch Bihar]]. In 1609, Laxmi Narayan king of [[Cooch Behar]] accepted the vassalage of [[Mughals]], and the [[Koch Hajo]] king Raghudev and later his son Parikshit sought assistance from Ahoms. In 1612, the [[Mughals]] attacked [[Koch Hajo]] and his territory upto [[Barnadi River]] were annexed in the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals with direct contact with Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with Ahoms, but got captured, and died on his way to his kingdom. Later [[Balinarayan]], a brother of Parikshit who had taken refugee under the Ahoms was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king [[Susenghphaa|Pratap Singha]]. From 1616, onwards many battles were fought the Mughal without any tangible result, with the first [[Battle of Samdhara]] till after the last battle where the treaty was concluded in 1639  which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two.
Pratap Singha had also enacted the [[Paik system]] and created a number of army and civil administration posts such as the [[Borbarua]] and [[Borphukan]].
[[File:Garh Garhchuck.jpg|thumb|213x213px|[[Garchuk Lachit Garh]] an 17th century mud fort ruins|left]]
[[Jayadhwaj Singha]] taking the advantage of [[War of succession]] between the sons of [[Shah Jahan]], occupied the impeial territories upto [[Dhaka]].  [[Aurangzeb]] after becoming the emperor, appointed [[Mir Jumla II]], to recover the lost territory. After fail negotiations. In november 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to invade Ahom kingdom. Here the Ahoms, lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital [[Garhgaon]]. During the rainy season Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic condition of the valley in addition the guerilla fighting resorted against the invaders. And at last no noticeable gain, negotiation started and in January, 1663,  [[Treaty of Ghilajharighat]] was concluded. According to the treaty, the Ahoms had to acknowledging Mughal supremacy, ceded the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank along with a huge amount of war indemnity and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostage and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem.
 
Soon after the departure of [[Mir Jumla II|Mir Jumla]], [[Jayadhwaj Singha]] died and the new king [[Chakradhwaj Singha]] began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, finally after the [[Battle of Saraighat]] the Mughals were forced to retreat.
 
The peiord after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to arrest their own political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince in the throne. In 1679, [[Laluksola Borphukan]], in hopes of becoming king with the help of Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after the accesion of [[Gadadhar Singha]], fought the final [[Battle of Itakhuli]] where the Mughals were badly defeated. And the since than the border was fixed at Manah on the north bank and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its  annexation by the [[East India Company]] in 1826.<ref>"In the Battle of Itakhuli in September 1682, the Ahom forces chased the defeated Mughals nearly one hundred kilometers back to the Manas river. The Manas then became the Ahom-Mughal boundary until the British occupation." {{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0521566037 |location=Cambridge |page=247 |access-date=26 January 2013 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230334/https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvcol|Gogoi|2017|pp=17–20}}</ref>
 
=== 18th Century ===
{{see also|Rudra Singha|Siva Singha|Moamoria rebellion}}
[[File:Siva dol, Sivasagar, Assam (1).jpg|thumb|213x213px|[[Sivadol|Siva dol]], Devi dol and Vishnu dol on the banks [[Sivasagar Tank (Borpukhuri)|Sivasagar tank]], the largest temple constructed during Ahom era]]
[[Rudra Singha]] succeeded [[Gadadhar Singha]], his reign is notable because of his military achivements and his socio-culture contributions. He had both subjugated the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714.
 
After [[Rudra Singha]], the Ahoms achieved no notable military achievement. During this period from, [[Siva Singha]] to [[Rajeswar Singha]], the kingdom witnessed peace and prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In the field of religion also, [[Ekasarana Dharma]] spread all over the kingdom and started to influence all aspects of people's life. The religious heads of Vaisnavite monastery exalted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous [[Satras]] and most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by [[Phuleshwari]] and the persecutions of unfavored Satras, embroiled the situation more along with the pressure of [[Paik system]] in the 18th century.<ref>{{Harvcol|Gogoi|2017|pp=20–26}}</ref>
 
This finally resulted in the [[Moamoria rebellion]] starting from 1769 to 1805, which greatly weakened the [[Ahom kingdom]] where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganized. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for the Burmese to invade and weakened it more and finally leading to its annexation.<gallery mode="nolines" widths="240">
File:King Siva Singha and Queen Ambika riding in procession.jpg|Ahom Maharaja [[Siva Singha]] and Maharani Ambika on royal procession
File:Rudra Singha Jayata in court.jpg|Ahom King [[Rudra Singha]] receiving the homage of Tamadhvaj ([[Dimasa Kingdom|Kachari Raja]]) and Ram Singh ([[Jaintia Kingdom|Jaintia Raja]])
File:Queen Ambika with the heir-apparent.jpg|Ahom Queen Ambika with the hier-apparent Tipam Raja Ugra Singha
File:Siva Singha1.jpg|King [[Siva Singha]] depicted in a folio of [[Hastividyarnava]]
</gallery>
 
=== Colonial era ===
[[File:Bengal gazetteer 1907-9.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|{{center|Map of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] during 1907–1909}}]]
[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|<div class="center">A map of the [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), showing British India in two shades of pink ([[Coral pink|coral]] and pale) and the [[princely state]]s in yellow. The ''Assam Province'' (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.</div>]]
{{further|Colonial Assam|Assam Province}}
 
The discovery of ''[[Camellia sinensis]]'' in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London. The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam,<ref name=Roy>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |title=India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00910-3 |page=202}}</ref> where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local ''[[Camellia assamica]]'' as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.
 
Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the [[Indian Tea Association]] in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little.<ref>{{Citation |last1=MacFarlane |first1=Alan |last2=MacFarlane |first2=Iris |title=Green Gold, The Empire of Tea, Ch. 6–11 |publisher=Random House, London |year=2003}}</ref>
 
In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the [[Moamoria rebellion]] (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda [[Burhagohain]] and Badan Chandra [[Borphukan]], the [[Ahom people|Ahom]] Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter,<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 225</ref><ref>Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 199</ref><ref>Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 299</ref><ref>Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page 108</ref> in turn leading to three successive [[Burmese invasions of Assam]]. The reigning monarch [[Sudingphaa|Chandrakanta Singha]] tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance. And Ahom occupied Assam was captured by the Burmese.<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 230</ref><ref>Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 206</ref><ref>Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 320</ref>
 
A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 231</ref><ref>Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 207</ref><ref>Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 318</ref><ref>Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page 116-117</ref> who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled [[Bengal]].<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 232</ref><ref>Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page117</ref> The Burmese reached the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]'s borders, and the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] ensued in 1824. The war ended under the [[Treaty of Yandabo]]<ref>{{Citation|editor-first=C. U.|editor-last=Aitchison |title=The Treaty of Yandaboo, (A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads: Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. Vol. XII.) |place=Calcutta |pages=230–233 |url=http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Burma/002.htm |publisher=Projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu |year=1931 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202003039/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Burma/002.htm |archive-date=2 December 2008}}</ref> in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing [[Purandar Singha]] as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made [[Bengali language|Bengali]], instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the [[People of Assam]] and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth.<ref>{{Cite book |title=North-East India, Problem Prospect and Politics |last=Barpujari |first=H.K. |publisher=Spectrum Publishers. |year=1998 |location=Guwahati |page=41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Social History of Assam |last=Bose |first=M.L. |publisher=Ashok Kumar Mittal Concept Publishing Company |year=1989 |location=New Delhi |page=91}}</ref>
[[File:Kanaklata Udyan, Tezpur.jpg|thumb|Showing a historical incident at Kanaklata Udyan, [[Tezpur]]]]
 
Initially, Assam was made a part of the [[Bengal Presidency]], then in 1906 it was made a part of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.
 
The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' [[non-regulation province]], also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as [[Assam Province]].<ref>[[William Cooke Taylor]], ''A Popular History of British India.'' p. 505</ref>
 
After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the [[Indian National Congress]] against the British from the early 20th century, with [[Gopinath Bordoloi]] emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric [[Maulana Bhasani]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume13/Article2.htm |title=The Secessionist Insurgency and the Freedom of Minds |last1=Nath |first1=Sunil |year=2001 |website=www.satp.org |publisher=Institute for Conflict Management|access-date= 24 January 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180417020155/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume13/Article2.htm|archive-date= 17 April 2018|url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
The ''Assam Postage Circle'' was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.<ref>{{cite web |author=Indian Philatelists Forum |url=http://modernindianphilately.blogspot.in/2011/06/indian-postal-circles.html |title=Glimpses of Modern Indian Philately: INDIAN POSTAL CIRCLES |publisher=Modernindianphilately.blogspot.in |date=4 June 2011 |access-date=11 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223652/http://modernindianphilately.blogspot.in/2011/06/indian-postal-circles.html |archive-date=8 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India. The table below shows the major original provinces during British India covering the Assam Province under the Administrative Office of the Chief Commissioner.
 
With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The [[Sylhet District]] of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.
 
=== Modern history ===
{{See also|Assam separatist movements}}
[[File:Assam in 1950s.png|thumb|upright=1.25|{{center|Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, now a part of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.}}]]
 
The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states beginning in 1970 within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of [[Nagaland]]. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the [[Karbi-Meghalaya plateau|Meghalaya Plateau]], the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the [[North East Frontier Agency]]) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.<ref name="Bhattacharyya1995">{{cite book |author=Bhubaneswar Bhattacharyya |title=The troubled border: some facts about boundary disputes between Assam-Nagaland, Assam-Arunachal Pradesh, Assam-Meghalaya, and Assam-Mizoram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sktuAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |isbn=9788173310997}}</ref>
 
Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain. [[Assam separatist movements|Separatist groups]] began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the [[Assamese language]] compulsory. It was withdrawn later [[Bengali Language Movement (Barak Valley)|under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar]]. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year [[Assam Agitation]]<ref name="Hazarika">{{Citation |first=Sanjoy |last=Hazarika |title=Strangers of the Mist |publisher=Penguin Books Australia Ltd. |year=2003 |isbn=0-14-024052-7}}</ref> triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring [[Bangladesh]] and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.<ref name="SinhaSKillmig">{{cite web |author=Governor of Assam |title=Report on Illegal Migration into Assam |date=8 November 1998 |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm| access-date =26 May 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609170339/http://satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm| archive-date= 9 June 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>
 
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the [[United Liberation Front of Asom]] (ULFA)<ref name="Hazarika" /> and the [[National Democratic Front of Bodoland]] (NDFB). In November 1990, the [[Government of India]] deployed the [[Indian army]], after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups have grown. The [[Panchayati Raj]] Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}
 
Deadly floods hit the state in [[2020 Assam floods|2020]] and [[2022 Assam floods|2022]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-24 |title=Floods kill 25 in India's Assam, displace thousands |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/floods-kill-25-indias-assam-displace-thousands-2022-05-24/ |access-date=2022-06-03 |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603053816/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/floods-kill-25-indias-assam-displace-thousands-2022-05-24/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
== Geography ==
[[File:Assam Valley.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|{{center|Environs: Assam, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.}}]]
{{Main|Physical geography of Assam}}
{{See also|Tourism in North East India}}
 
A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam, is an [[antecedent river]] older than the Himalayas, which has [[Entrenched river|entrenched itself]] since they started rising. The river with steep [[Canyon|gorges]] and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a [[braided river]] (at times 10&nbsp;mi/16&nbsp;km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60&nbsp;mi/80–100&nbsp;km wide, 600&nbsp;mi/1000&nbsp;km long).<ref name="RLSinghIndia">{{Citation |first=R. L. |last=Singh |title=India, A Regional Geography |place=Varanasi, India |publisher=National Geographical Society of India |year=1993}}</ref> The hills of [[Karbi Anglong]], [[North Cachar]] and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.<ref name="RLSinghIndia" /> In the south, the [[Barak river|Barak]] originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the [[Cachar district]] with a 25–30&nbsp;miles (40–50&nbsp;km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name [[Surma River]].
 
Urban centres include [[Guwahati]], one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guwahati's landscape to change with satellite towns, BRT systems |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jun1610/at036|access-date=4 August 2013 |newspaper=The Assam Tribune|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103180934/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jun1610%2Fat036|archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref> Guwahati is also referred to as the "Gateway to the North-East India". [[Silchar]], (in the Barak valley) is the second most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business. Other large cities include [[Dibrugarh]], an oil and natural gas industry centre,<ref>{{cite web |title=Dibrugarh – Roing – Mayudia – Anini Tourist Circuit |url=http://www.arunachaltourism.com/top5.php |publisher=Arunachal Tourism |access-date=4 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406132625/http://www.arunachaltourism.com/top5.php |archive-date=6 April 2013}}</ref>
 
=== Climate ===
With the [[tropical monsoon climate]], Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100&nbsp;°F or 35–38&nbsp;°C and winter min. at 43–46&nbsp;°F or 6–8&nbsp;°C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.<ref name="RLSinghIndia" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Purdue University |title=The Köppen Classification of Climates |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_04/lec_04.html |access-date  = 25 May 2007|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070605020325/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_04/lec_04.html |archive-date = 5 June 2007|url-status = dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during the afternoons. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.
 
==== Flooding ====
{{See also|Brahmaputra floods}}
<!---can move to economy, if not here--->
Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers such as Barak River etc. deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks, and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the State.<ref name="Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13">{{cite web |url=http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |title=Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13 |publisher=NDTV |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824155525/http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |archive-date=24 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Flood situation in Assam worsens">{{cite news |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/top-headlines/assam-flood-situation-worsens/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121174112/https://www.sentinelassam.com/top-headlines/assam-flood-situation-worsens/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 January 2022 |title=Flood situation in Assam worsens |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
 
=== Fauna ===
{{See also|Biodiversity of Assam}}
 
{{multiple image
  | align = right
  | image1 = Rhinoceros unicornis, Kaziranga (2006).jpg
  | width1 = 185
  | caption1 = An [[Indian rhinoceros|Indian rhino]] at [[Kaziranga National Park]]
  | alt1 = Rhinoceros unicornis
  | image2 = Golden Langur.jpg
  | width2 = 185
  | caption2  =An endangered [[golden langur]]
  | alt2 = Golden langur
}}
 
Assam is one of the richest [[biodiversity]] zones in the world and consists of tropical [[rainforest]]s,<ref>{{Citation |last=Borthakur |first=Ahir Bhairab |title=Call of the wild |url=http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20020115&filename=gra&sec_id=11&sid=1 |journal=Down to Earth |date=15 January 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928003319/http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20020115&filename=gra&sec_id=11&sid=1 |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> deciduous forests, riverine [[grasslands]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Birdlife International, UK |url=http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf |title=Indo-Gangetic Grasslands | access-date = 31 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070615001747/http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf | archive-date = 15 June 2007 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[bamboo]]<ref>National Mission on Bamboo Applications 2004</ref> orchards and numerous [[wetland]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sharma |first=Pradip |title=An Overview on Wetlands in Assam |url=http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf |journal=ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council |volume=2 |page=7 |date=April–June 2003 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060520204718/http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf |archive-date=20 May 2006}}</ref> ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests.
 
Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]]<ref>{{cite web |last=World Heritage Centre |first=UNESCO |title=World Heritage List |url=https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31 | access-date = 30 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070606091740/https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31 | archive-date = 6 June 2007 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>-the [[Kaziranga National Park]], on the bank of the [[Brahmaputra River]], and the [[Manas Wildlife Sanctuary]], near the border with Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and threatened species including the [[white-winged wood duck]] or ''deohanh'', [[Bengal florican]], [[black-breasted parrotbill]], [[red-headed vulture]], [[white-rumped vulture]], [[greater adjutant]], [[Jerdon's babbler]], [[rufous-necked hornbill]], [[Bengal tiger]], [[Asian elephant]], [[pygmy hog]], [[gaur]], [[wild water buffalo]], [[Indian hog deer]], [[hoolock gibbon]], [[golden langur]], [[capped langur]], [[barasingha]], [[South Asian river dolphin|Ganges river dolphin]], [[Channa barca|Barca snakehead]], [[Ganges shark]], [[Burmese python]], [[brahminy river turtle]], [[black pond turtle]], [[Asian forest tortoise]], and [[Assam roofed turtle]]. Threatened species that are extinct in Assam include the [[gharial]], a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian, and the [[pink-headed duck]] (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area.{{clarify|reason=why? Is it threatened or something? What does "globally important" signify?|date=August 2014}}<ref>Choudhury, A.U.(1996) Survey of the white-winged wood duck and the Bengal florican in Tinsukia district & adjacent areas of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India, Guwahati, India. 82pp+</ref> In addition to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park.
 
Assam has conserved the one-horned [[Indian rhinoceros]] from near extinction, along with the [[pygmy hog]], tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the [[Asian elephant]]. [[Kaziranga]] and [[Manas National Park|Manas]] are both [[World Heritage Sites]]. The state contains [[Shorea robusta|Sal tree]] forests and forest products, much depleted from earlier times.<!---maybe should be in history---> A land of high rainfall, Assam displays greenery. The Brahmaputra River tributaries and [[oxbow lake]]s provide the region with hydro-[[geomorphic]] environment.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}
 
The state has the largest population of the [[wild water buffalo]] in the world.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2010)The vanishing herds : the wild water buffalo. Gibbon Books, Rhino Foundation, CEPF & COA, Taiwan, Guwahati, India</ref>
The state has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2000)The birds of Assam. Gibbon Books & WWF-India, Guwahati, India</ref> With subspecies the number is as high as 946.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (1990). Checklist of the birds of Assam. Sofia Press & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Guwahati, India. 72 pp+</ref>
The mammal diversity in the state is around 190 species.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (1997)The check list of the mammals of Assam. Gibbon Books & ASTEC, Guwahati, India</ref>
[[File:Kopou Orchid Assam India.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Blooming of [[Rhynchostylis retusa|Kopou Orchid]] marks the beginning of the festive season of ''[[Bihu]]'' in Assam.]]
 
=== Flora ===
Assam is remarkably rich in [[Orchidaceae|Orchid]] species and the [[Rhynchostylis retusa|Foxtail orchid]] is the state flower of Assam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=ENVIS Assam |title=Endemic Orchids of Assam |url=http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf |journal=ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council |volume=2 |page=8 |date=April–June 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060520204718/http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf|archive-date=20 May 2006}}</ref> The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity Park boasts more than 500 of the estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India.
 
=== Geology ===
Assam has [[petroleum]], natural gas, coal, [[limestone]] and other minor minerals such as [[Quartzite|magnetic quartzite]], [[kaolin]], [[sillimanite]]s, [[clay]] and [[feldspar]].<ref name="NEDFiNICminerals">{{cite web |last=NEDFi & NIC-Assam |title=North East India Databank |url=http://nerdatabank.nic.in/as_minerals.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418204719/http://www.nerdatabank.nic.in/as_minerals.htm |archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref> A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.<ref name="NEDFiNICminerals" /> Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent [[USGS]] estimate shows {{convert|399|Moilbbl|m3}} of oil, {{convert|1178|Gcuft|m3}} of gas and {{convert|67|Moilbbl|m3}} of natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic Province.<ref>Wandrey 2004, p. 17</ref>{{citation needed|reason=USGS is stated as source, but secondary source given here, which is "okay" but should probably be enhanced with primary one as well|date=August 2014}}
 
The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, [[1897 Assam earthquake|1897]], and [[1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake|1950]].
 
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Assamese people|People of Assam}}
 
=== Population ===
[[File:Assam Demography 1.png|thumb|upright=1.7|{{center|District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001}}]]
{{Historical population
| source = [[Census of India]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html |title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2020 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808131957/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 1901 | 3289680
| 1911 | 3848617
| 1921 | 4636980
| 1931 | 5560371
| 1941 | 6694790
| 1951 | 8028856
| 1961 | 10837329
| 1971 | 14625152
| 1981 | 18041248
| 1991 | 22414322
| 2001 | 26655528
| 2011 | 31205576
}}
[[File:Ambubachi Mela at Kamakhya Temple by Vikramjit Kakati.jpg|thumb|left|People gathered at [[Kamakhya Temple]] for the [[Ambubachi Mela]]]]
The total population of Assam was 26.66&nbsp;million with 4.91&nbsp;million households in 2001.<ref name="GoAStats">{{cite web |last=Government of Assam 2002–03 |title=Statistics of Assam |url=http://www.assamgov.org/generalinformation/assamstatistics.html |access-date  = 3 June 2007|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070607170354/http://assamgov.org/generalinformation/assamstatistics.html |archive-date = 7 June 2007|url-status  = dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of [[Kamrup district|Kamrup]], [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]], [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]], [[Darrang district|Darrang]], and [[Cachar district|Cachar]]. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67&nbsp;million in 2006 and at 30.57&nbsp;million in 2011
and is expected to reach 34.18&nbsp; million by 2021 and 35.60&nbsp;million by 2026.<ref>{{cite web |author=National Commission on Population, Census of India |title=Population Projections for India and States 2001–2026 |year=2006 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in| access-date =15 May 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/| archive-date= 14 May 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>
 
As per the 2011 census, the total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten years with a growth rate of 16.93%.<ref name="AsCensus">{{cite web |last=Government of Assam Census 2011 |title=onlineassam |url=http://online.assam.gov.in/web/population-census/| access-date = 6 June 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120621011519/http://online.assam.gov.in/web/population-census| archive-date = 21 June 2012| url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
Of the 33 districts, eight districts registered a rise in the decadal population growth rate. Religious minority-dominated districts like [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]], [[Goalpara district|Goalpara]], [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]], [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], and [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]], recorded growth rates ranging from 20 per cent to 24 per cent during the last decade. Eastern Assamese districts, including [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]] and [[Jorhat district|Jorhat]], registered around 9 per cent population growth. These districts do not have any international border.<ref>{{cite web |last=cdpsindia |title=centre for development and peace studies |url=http://cdpsindia.org/point-of-view60.asp| access-date = 6 June 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121021210551/http://cdpsindia.org/point-of-view60.asp| archive-date = 21 October 2012| url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
In 2011, the [[literacy]] rate in the state was 73.18%. The male literacy rate was 78.81% and the female literacy rate was 67.27%.<ref name="AsCensus" /> In 2001, the census had recorded literacy in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. The urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.<ref>Director of Census Operations, Census of India 2001</ref>
 
The growth of population in Assam has increased since the middle decades of the 20th century. The population grew from 3.29&nbsp;million in 1901 to 6.70&nbsp;million in 1941. It increased to 14.63&nbsp;million in 1971 and 22.41&nbsp;million in 1991.<ref name="GoAStats" /> The growth in the [[Lower Assam|Western districts]] and [[Barak Valley|Southern districts]] was high primarily due to the influx of people from [[East Pakistan]], now Bangladesh.<ref name="SinhaSKillmig" />
 
The mistrust and clashes between indigenous Assamese people and [[Bengali Muslims]] started as early as 1952,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Muslim-Bodo-mistrust-exists-for-many-decades/articleshow/15115081.cms?referral=PM |title=Muslim-Bodo mistrust exists for many decades |work=The Times of India |date=24 July 2012 |access-date=11 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017031311/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Muslim-Bodo-mistrust-exists-for-many-decades/articleshow/15115081.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=17 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Assam-govt-mulls-arming-Muslims-in-Bodo-areas/articleshow/34650259.cms |title=Assam govt mulls arming Muslims in Bodo areas |work=The Times of India |date=5 May 2014 |access-date=11 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505021416/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Assam-govt-mulls-arming-Muslims-in-Bodo-areas/articleshow/34650259.cms |archive-date=5 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> but is rooted in [[Anti-Bengali sentiment in India#Assam|anti Bengali sentiments]] of the 1940s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Andre |first1=Aletta |last2=Kumar |first2=Abhimanyu |title=Protest poetry: Assam's Bengali Muslims take a stand |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/12/protest-poetry-assam-bengali-muslims-stand-161219094434005.html|access-date=26 January 2017 |agency=[[Aljazeera]] |publisher=[[Aljazeera]] |date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202060836/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/12/protest-poetry-assam-bengali-muslims-stand-161219094434005.html|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> At least 77 people died<ref name=IBNLive>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/assam-violence-four-more-bodies-found-toll-rises-to-77/1038364.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126114936/http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/assam-violence-four-more-bodies-found-toll-rises-to-77/1038364.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2013 |title=Assam violence: Four more bodies found, toll rises to 77 |date=8 August 2012 |work=IBN  |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> and 400,000 people were displaced in the [[2012 Assam violence]] between indigenous [[Bodo people|Bodos]] and [[Bengali Muslims]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/29/world/asia/after-tensions-in-indias-east-turn-deadly-claims-officials-turned-a-blind-eye.html?_r=1 |title=As Tensions in India Turn Deadly, Some Say Officials Ignored Warning Signs |newspaper=The New York Times |date=28 July 2012 |first=Gardiner |last=Harris | access-date=26 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301183316/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/29/world/asia/after-tensions-in-indias-east-turn-deadly-claims-officials-turned-a-blind-eye.html?_r=1 | archive-date=1 March 2017 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
The People of India project has studied 115 of the ethnic groups in Assam. 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were [[Austroasiatic]], [[Dravidians|Dravidian]] followed by [[Tibeto-Burman]], [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], and [[Tai–Kadai]] people.<ref>Taher, Mohammad (1993) ''The Peopling of Assam and contemporary social structure'' in Ahmad, Aijazuddin (ed) Social Structure and Regional Development, Rawat Publications, New Delhi</ref> Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] (24) and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of [[bilingualism]].{{citation needed|reason="high" is essentially a meaningless word. 90%? 15%?|date=November 2015}}
 
=== Religions ===
[[File:Kamakhya Guwahati.JPG|thumb|right|[[Kamakhya Temple]]]]
{{See also|Hinduism in Assam|Islam in Assam|Christianity in Assam|Ahom religion}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Assam (2011)<ref name="census2011">{{cite web |title=Population by religion community – 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=Census of India, 2012 |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Hinduism]]|color1 =darkorange
|value1 = 61.47
|label2 = [[Islam]]|color2 = Green
|value2 = 34.22
|label3 = [[Christianity]]|color3 = blue
|value3 = 3.74
|label4 = [[Buddhism]]|color4 = yellow
|value4 = 0.18
|label7 = [[Jainism]]|color7 = Pink
|value7 = 0.08
|label8 = [[Sikhism]]|color8 = DarkKhaki
|value8 = 0.07
|label6 = [[Animism|Tribal Religion]]|color6 = red
|value6 = 0.09
|label5 = [[Atheist|No religious]]|color5 = Black
|value5 = 0.16
|value9 =0.03 atheist | colour9 = violet
}}
[[File:Basistha mandir.JPG|thumb|[[Basistha Temple]] in [[Guwahati]].]]
According to the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], 61.47% were [[Hinduism|Hindus]], 34.22% were [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="census2011" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/census-2011-religion-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/article1-1384347.aspx |title=Census 2011 data rekindles 'demographic invasion' fear in Assam|access-date=26 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905104547/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/census-2011-religion-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/article1-1384347.aspx|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=dead |date=26 August 2015}}</ref> Christian minorities (3.7%) are found among the Scheduled Tribe and Castes population.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece |title=India's religions by numbers |date=26 August 2015|access-date=5 August 2016 |newspaper=The Hindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|archive-date=10 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The Scheduled Tribe population in Assam is around 13%, of which Bodos account for 40%.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bodo-hopes-and-minority-rights/article5998693.ece |title=Bodos and their rights|access-date=29 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201092705/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bodo-hopes-and-minority-rights/article5998693.ece|archive-date=1 December 2016|url-status=live |newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 May 2014 |last1=Deka |first1=Kaustubh}}</ref> Other religions followed include [[Jainism]] (0.1%), [[Buddhism]] (0.2%), [[Sikhism]] (0.1%) and [[Animism]] (amongst [[Khamti people|Khamti]], [[Tai Phake people|Phake]], [[Tai Aiton people|Aiton]] etc. communities).


According to a 2021 survey,<ref name="census2011">{{cite web|title=Population by religion community – 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=Census of India, 2012|publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/census-2011-religion-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/article1-1384347.aspx|title=Census 2011 data rekindles 'demographic invasion' fear in Assam|access-date=2019-04-22|archive-date=2015-09-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905104547/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/census-2011-religion-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/article1-1384347.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> about 55% of the people are [[Hinduism|Hindus]]. About 40% are [[Islam|Muslim]].<ref name="Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam?  - India Today Insight News" /><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/assamese-muslims-plan-mini-nrc/article34292248.ece | title=Assamese Muslims plan 'mini NRC' | newspaper=The Hindu | date=10 April 2021 }}</ref>  There is a small (4%) [[Christianity|Christian]] minority. Others (1%) consists of ([[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Animism]]).
The three popular sects of Hinduism namely, [[Saivisim]], [[Saktism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] are prevalent here. [[Ekasarana Dharma]] (Neo-Vaisnavite movement) under the leadership of Srimanta [[Sankardev]] and his many prominent disciples, gained wonderful momentum in Assam. Many Assamese Hindus are followers of the [[Ekasarana Dharma]] sect of [[Hinduism]], which gave rise to [[Namghar]], designed to be simpler places of worship than traditional Hindu temples.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''Assam religious diversity as per (2021 survey)''<ref name="Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam?  - India Today Insight News" />
|+ ''Assam's Religious diversity as of the 2011 census''<ref name="Census of India Website : Office of">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603015649/https://censusindia.gov.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|-
! Religion
! Religion
! Population
! Population
! Percentage
|-
|-
| [[Hindus]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| [[Hindus]] ([[File:Om.svg|15px]])
| 20,101,243 
| 19,180,759
| 55%
|-
| [[Muslims]] ([[File:Star and Crescent.svg|18px]])
| 10,679,345
|-
| [[Christians]] ([[File:Christian cross.svg|12px]])
| 1,165,867
|-
| [[Buddhists]] ([[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|18px]])
| 54,993
|-
| [[Jains]] ([[File:Jainism.svg|18px]])
| 25,949
|-
|-
| [[Muslims]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|18px]]
| [[Sikhs]] ([[File:Khanda.svg|15px]])
| 14,619,086
| 20,672
| 40%
|-
|-
| [[Christians]] [[File:ChristianitySymbol.svg|17px]]
| Other religions
| 1,461,908
| 27,118
| 4%
|-
|-
| Other's
| Not stated/available
| 365,477
| 50,873
| 1%
|-
|-
| Total
| Total  
| 36,547,715
| 31,205,576
| 100%
|}
|}
Assam has a population of 36.5 million as per the 2021 population survey.<ref name="ReferenceA">Assam Population Sex Ratio in Assam Literacy rate data 2011-2021</ref>


===Language===
Out of 32 districts of Assam, 9 are [[Muslims|Muslim]] majority according to the 2011 census of India. The districts are [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]], [[Goalpara district|Goalpara]], [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]], [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]], [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]], [[Darrang district|Darrang]] and [[Bongaigaon district|Bongaigaon]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Muslim-majority-districts-in-Assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms |title=Muslim majority districts in Assam up |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=26 August 2015 |access-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104231940/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Muslim-majority-districts-in-Assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms|archive-date=4 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/assam-muslim-growth-is-higher-in-districts-away-from-border/ |title=Assam Muslim growth is higher in districts away from border|access-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223192413/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/assam-muslim-growth-is-higher-in-districts-away-from-border/|archive-date=23 December 2015|url-status=live |date=31 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/census-2011-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/story-oZUhBaXPNupGBmGQirjV0I.html |title=Census 2011 data rekindles 'demographic invasion' fear in Assam|access-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104231940/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/census-2011-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/story-oZUhBaXPNupGBmGQirjV0I.html|archive-date=4 January 2016|url-status=live |date=26 August 2015}}</ref>
{{Pie chart
 
|thumb = right
=== Languages ===
|caption = Languages in Assam (2021 survey)<ref name="Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam?  - India Today Insight News">{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/can-bjp-survive-the-demographic-disadvantage-in-assam-1784851-2021-03-29 | title=Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam? }}</ref>
{{See also|Assamese language|Assamese literature|Bengali language|Bodo language}}
|label1 = [[Assamese]]
[[File:Charyapada.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|7th–8th century specimen of Assamese (Kamarupi) literature]]
|value1 = 46
 
|color1 = pink
{{Pie chart
|label2 = [[Bengali]]
| thumb = right
|value2 = 35
| caption = Languages of Assam (2011)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf |title=Distribution of the 22 scheduled languages-India/States/Union Territories - 2011 census |access-date=23 August 2021 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |archive-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011091053/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|color2 = orange
| label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]] | value1 = 48.38 | color1 = gold
|label3 = [[hindi]]  
| label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] | value2 = 28.92 | color2 = saddlebrown
|value3 = 7
| label3 = [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]] | value3 = 4.51 | color3 = royalblue
|color3 = yellow
| label4 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]] | value4 = 3.21 | color4 = orange
|label4 = [[Bodo]]
| label5 = [[Nagpuri language|Sadri]] | value5 = 2.29 | color5 = red
|value4 = 5
| label6 = [[Mising language|Mishing]] | value6 = 1.98 | color6 = darkorchid
|color4 = blue
| label7 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | value7 = 1.91 | color7 = pink
|label5 = [[Adivasi]]  
| label8 = [[Karbi language|Karbi]] | value8 = 1.64 | color8 = darkblue
|value5 = 4
| label9 = Others | value9 = 7.16 | color9 = Grey
|color5 = purple
|label6 = others
|value6 = 3
|color6 = red
}}
}}
[[Assamese language|Assamese]] and [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]] are the official languages of the state, while [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is official in the three districts of [[Barak Valley]],<ref name="BodoOff"/><ref name="BnOff"/> where [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]] is most commonly spoken.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/syl |title=Sylheti |publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313092352/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/syl|archive-date=13 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''Assam linguistic diversity as per (2021 survey)''<ref name="Can BJP survive the demographic disadvantage in Assam?  - India Today Insight News" />
|+ '''Assam linguistic diversity as per (2011 census)'''<ref name="Census of India Website : Office of"/>
|-
|-
! Language
! Language  
! Population
! Population
! Percentage
|-
|-
| [[Assamese]]  
| [[Assamese language|Assamese]]  
| 16,811,948 
| 15,097,257
| 46%
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| 9,024,652
|-
| [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
| 1,407,371
|-
|-
| [[Bengali]]  
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| 12,791,700
| 1,001,698
| 35%
|-
|-
| [[Hindi]]  
| [[Nagpuri language|Sadri]]
| 2,558,340
| 714,607
| 7%
|-
|-
| [[Bodo]]
| [[Mishing language|Mishing]]
| 1,827,385
| 617,870
| 5%
|-
|-
| [[Adivasi]]
| [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| 1,461,908
| 596,026
| 4%
|-
|-
| Others
| [[Karbi language|Karbi]]
| 1,096,431
| 511,771
| 3%
|-
|-
| Others
| 2,234,319
|-
| Total
| Total
| 36,547,715
| 31,205,576
| 100%
|}
|}
Assam has a population of 36.5 million as per the 2021 population survey.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
[[File:Assam manuscript painting.jpg|thumb|An early 18th century illustrated Assamese manuscript]]
According to the language census of 2011 in Assam, out of a total population of around 31 million, Assamese is spoken by more than 22 million total speakers, with more than 15 million people speaking it as their [[First language|mother tongue]] and around 7 million as [[L2 speakers]].<ref name="Government of India">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html |title=C-17 POPULATION BY BILINGUALISM AND TRILINGUALISM |first=Ministry of Home Affairs |last=Government of India |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113211224/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the number of speakers is growing, the percentage of Assam's population who have it as a mother tongue has fallen slightly. Assamese serves as ''lingua franca'' of the region<ref>"Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}</ref> as it is spoken by over 71% of the population (including the one who have listed Assamese as their [[L2 speakers|2nd language]],<ref name="Government of India"/> while 48.38% of them speak it as their [[First language|mother tongue]].<ref name=2011census>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf |title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011 |access-date=23 August 2021 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |archive-date=14 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114073426/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the 24th Edition of [[Ethnologue: Languages of the World]], Assamese is spoken by 15,327,990 persons as [[First language|mother tongue]] across the world as of 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/asm |title=Assamese |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224190334/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/asm |url-status=live }}</ref> However, [[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]] results, have found that 10 million people speaks Assamese as their mother tongue in Assam, which is significantly fewer than the census result of 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.india.com/news/india/assam-assembly-elections-2016-assamese-are-minority-muslims-are-largest-electoral-group-in-this-poll-battle-1093774/ |title=Assam Assembly Elections 2016: Assamese are minority, Muslims are largest electoral group in this poll battle! |date=8 April 2016 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=27 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627233152/https://www.india.com/news/india/assam-assembly-elections-2016-assamese-are-minority-muslims-are-largest-electoral-group-in-this-poll-battle-1093774/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, the Assamese speakers constituted 48% of the State population according to the 2011 Census, and it is predicted that by 2021 Census (currently under way) will reveal the percentage to dip lower below 40%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assamtribune.com/assamese-speakers-in-assam-an-insecure-future/ |title=Assamese speakers in Assam: An insecure future? |date=10 April 2021 |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629010339/https://assamtribune.com/assamese-speakers-in-assam-an-insecure-future/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/asam-sahitya-sabha-gives-government-two-month-ultimatum-on-use-of-assamese/articleshow/65115339.cms |title=Assamese language: Asam Sahitya Sabha gives government two-month ultimatum on use of Assamese &#124; Guwahati News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=24 July 2018 |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720160642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/asam-sahitya-sabha-gives-government-two-month-ultimatum-on-use-of-assamese/articleshow/65115339.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/asam-sahitya-sabha-ajmal-foundation-prod-on-assamese/cid/1739350 |title=Sabha, Ajmal prod on Assamese |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720160642/https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/asam-sahitya-sabha-ajmal-foundation-prod-on-assamese/cid/1739350 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/take-action-against-chalo-paltai-propagators-sabha-tells-government/articleshow/69672729.cms |title=Take action against 'Chalo Paltai' propagators, Sabha tells government &#124; Guwahati News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 June 2019 |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720160645/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/take-action-against-chalo-paltai-propagators-sabha-tells-government/articleshow/69672729.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
The various [[Bengali language|Bengali]] dialects and closely related languages are spoken by around 9 million people in Assam, and the portion of the population that speaks these languages has grown slightly as per the census. However, the number of Bengali speakers is estimated to be more than the expected census results, as out of 35% Muslim population in Assam as per 2011 census, it is being reported that 30% or say 10 million of them speaks different dialects of [[Bengali language|Bengali]] as their native language but during census enumeration, they ([[Miya people]]) have reported their mother tongue as [[Assamese language|Assamese]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indigenous-muslims-agreed-on-checking-population-assam-chief-minister-2479078 |title="Indigenous Muslims Agreed on Checking Population": Assam Chief Minister |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719141439/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indigenous-muslims-agreed-on-checking-population-assam-chief-minister-2479078 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/guwahati/declare-assamese-our-mother-tongue/articleshow/7438577.cms |title=Declare Assamese our mother tongue &#124; Guwahati News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 February 2011 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230329/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/declare-assamese-our-mother-tongue/articleshow/7438577.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Saikia |first=Arunabh |title=A new generation of 'Miya' Muslims in Assam may vote for Congress-AIUDF – but only out of compulsion |url=https://scroll.in/article/991174/a-new-generation-of-miya-muslims-in-assam-may-vote-for-congress-aiudf-but-only-out-of-compulsion |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US |archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611061950/https://scroll.in/article/991174/a-new-generation-of-miya-muslims-in-assam-may-vote-for-congress-aiudf-but-only-out-of-compulsion |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=X |first=Samrat |title=National Register of Citizens: Identity issue haunts Assam, again |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2018/01/08/national-register-of-citizens-identity-assam-immigrants |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Newslaundry |archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611061948/https://www.newslaundry.com/2018/01/08/national-register-of-citizens-identity-assam-immigrants |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alterinter.org/?The-Economic-Basis-of-Assam-s-Linguistic-Politics-and-Anti-Immigrant-Movements |title=The Economic Basis of Assam's Linguistic Politics and Anti-Immigrant Movements |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622203258/https://www.alterinter.org/?The-Economic-Basis-of-Assam-s-Linguistic-Politics-and-Anti-Immigrant-Movements |url-status=live }}</ref> Assam  also has a large number of Bengali Hindu population as according to government data, It is being reported that 7.5 million [[Bengali Hindus]] live in Assam, thus constituting 25% of the state population as per 2011 census report.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thenewsweb.in/india/bengali-speaking-voters-may-prove-crucial-in-the-second-phase-of-assam-poll/ |title=Reference at www.thenewsweb.in |date=April 2021 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603194154/https://www.thenewsweb.in/india/bengali-speaking-voters-may-prove-crucial-in-the-second-phase-of-assam-poll/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://milaap.org/fundraisers/help-hindu-bengalis-nrc |title=Help Hindu Bengalis in Assam to save them from becoming refugee again {{!}} Milaap |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=18 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618192427/https://milaap.org/fundraisers/help-hindu-bengalis-nrc |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bodo language|Bodo]] is the third most-spoken language followed by [[Hindi]] which comes under fourth position.
 
{{See also|Brahmaputra valley}}
[[File:Brahmaputra Valley image 2.png|thumb| [[Brahmaputra valley]] region of Assam]]
 
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in Brahmaputra valley (2011)<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/amp/opinion/news-battleground-assam-a-tale-of-two-valleys-and-the-caa-quandary-assam-bengal-polls-2021-685761 |title=Battleground Assam a tale of two valleys and the CAA quandary Assam bengal polls 2021 &#124; Opinion News – India TV |date=18 February 2021 |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017095308/https://www.indiatvnews.com/amp/opinion/news-battleground-assam-a-tale-of-two-valleys-and-the-caa-quandary-assam-bengal-polls-2021-685761 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]] ([[Official]])
|value1 = 55.65
|color1 = yellow
|label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|value2 = 22.1
|color2 = brown
|label3 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
|value3 = 7.6
|color3 = Orange
|label4 = [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
|value4 = 5.13
|color4 = pink
|label5 = Others
|value5 = 9.52
|color5 = red
}}
The population of the Brahmaputra Valley is 27,580,977 according to the 2011 census report by the Assam government. Assamese is the official language of the Brahmaputra Valley and is spoken by 15 million people comprising 55.65% of the valley population. Bengali is spoken by 6.09 million people representing 22.1% of the valley, Hindi is spoken by 2.1 million comprising 7.61% of the region, Bodo is spoken by 1.41 million comprising 5.13% of the valley's population and 2.98 million people speak various indigenous tribal languages of Assam, such as [[Santal people|Santali]], [[Karbi people|Karbi]], [[Tiwa (Lalung)]], [[Hmar people|Hmar]], [[Deori people|Deori]], [[Rabha people|Rabha]], [[Mising people|Mishing]], [[Koch people|Koch]], [[Rajbongshi people|Rajbangshi]], Sadri, [[Garo people|Garo]], [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]], Gondi, Savara, [[Indian Gorkha|Gorkha]], Halam, Ao and Motak.
 
Traditionally, Assamese was the language of the common folk in the ancient [[Kamarupa kingdom]] and in the medieval kingdoms of [[Kachari kingdom|Dimasa Kachari]], [[Chutiya kingdom|Chutiya Kachari]], Borahi Kachari, [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] and [[Kamata Kingdom|Kamata]] kingdoms. Traces of the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, and others, in [[Charyapada]] (c. 7th–8th century CE). Modern dialects such as [[Kamrupi dialects|Kamrupi]] and [[Goalpariya dialects|Goalpariya]] are remnants of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.
 
Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form used near [[Sivasagar]] (Xiwôxagôr) district. Assamese (''Ôxômiya'') is a rich language due to its hybrid nature and unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. The presence of [[Voiceless velar fricative]] in Assamese makes it a unique among other similar [[Indo-Aryan languages]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Ankur |last2=Deka |first2=Tusmita |title=The Allophonic Variation of the Assamese voiceless velar fricative /x/ |journal=13th Annual Conference of South Asian Languages (ICOSAL13) |url=https://www.academia.edu/35777293 |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416085609/https://www.academia.edu/35777293 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Assamese.html |title=Assamese |website=www.languagesgulper.com |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=6 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206071325/http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Assamese.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
[[Boro language (India)|Bodo]] is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the [[North-East India|North East Region]] with Bodo-Kachari words (e.g. [[Dihing]], Dibru, [[Dihong]], D/[[Teesta River|Tista]], and Dikrai) reveal that it was more widely-spoken in ancient times. Bodo is now spoken largely in the Western Assam. It is official language of the [[Bodoland Territorial Region|Bodoland]] territorial region and co-official language of the state of Assam. It is also one of twenty-two languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the [[Constitution of India]]. After years of neglect, now Bodo language is getting attention and its literature is developing. Other native languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are [[Deori language|Deori]], [[Mising language|Mising]], [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Rabha language|Rabha]], and [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
 
There are approximately 590,000 [[Nepali language|Nepali]] speakers spread all over the state forming about 1.98% of Assam's total population according to 2011 census.
 
There are speakers of [[Tai languages]] in Assam. A total of six Tai languages were spoken in Assam. Two are now extinct.<ref name="Morey">Morey, Stephen. 2005. ''The Tai languages of Assam: a grammar and texts''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref>
* [[Tai Phake language|Tai Phake]]
* [[Tai Aiton language|Tai Aiton]]
* [[Khamti language|Khamti]]
* [[Khamyang language|Khamyang]] (critically endangered)
* [[Ahom language|Ahom]] (extinct)
* [[Turung language|Turung]] (extinct)
 
== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Assam|Politics of Assam}}
Assam has Governor [[Jagdish Mukhi]] as the head of the state,<ref name="nie-Mukhi">{{cite news |title=Jagdish Mukhi: Few facts about Assam's new Governor |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/sep/30/jagdish-mukhi-few-facts-about-assams-new-governor-1664813.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=30 September 2017|access-date=30 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222521/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/sep/30/jagdish-mukhi-few-facts-about-assams-new-governor-1664813.html|archive-date=30 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[unicameral]] [[Assam Legislative Assembly]] of 126 members, and a government led by the [[List of Chief Ministers of Assam|Chief Minister of Assam]]. The state is divided into five regional [[divisions of Assam|divisions]].
 
On 19 May 2016, [[BJP]] under the leadership of [[Sarbananda Sonowal]] won the Assembly elections, thus forming the first BJP-led government in Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/bjp-win-assam-sarbananda-sonowal-elections-2016-results-2812854/ |title=North by Northeast: What explains BJP's stunning win in Assam? |date=22 May 2016|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808224823/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/bjp-win-assam-sarbananda-sonowal-elections-2016-results-2812854/|archive-date=8 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
=== Administrative districts ===
[[File:Assam Districts.png|thumb|upright=1.4| 1. [[Tinsukia district|Tinsukia]] 2. [[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]] 3. [[Dhemaji district|Dhemaji]] 4. [[Charaideo district|Charaideo]] 5. [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]] 6.[[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]] 7. [[Majuli district|Majuli]] 8. [[Jorhat district|Jorhat]] 9. [[Biswanath district|Biswanath]](merged with Sonitpur district) 10. [[Golaghat district|Golaghat]] 11. [[Karbi Anglong district|Karbi Anglong]] 12. [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]] 13. [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]] 14. [[Hojai district|Hojai]](merged with Nagaon district)15. [[West Karbi Anglong district|Karbi Anglong West]] 16. [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]] 17. [[Cachar district|Cachar]] 18. [[Hailakandi District|Hailakandi]] 19. [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]] 20. [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]] 21. [[Udalguri district|Udalguri]] 22. [[Darrang district|Darrang]] 23. [[Kamrup Metropolitan (Guwahati) district|Kamrup Metro]] 24. [[Baksa district|Baksa]] 25. [[Nalbari district|Nalbari]] 26. [[Kamrup district|Kamrup]] 27. [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]] 28. [[Chirang district|Chirang]] 29. [[Bongaigaon district|Bongaigaon]] 30. [[Goalpara district|Goalpara]] 31. [[Kokrajhar district|Kokrajhar]] 32. [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]] 33. [[South Salmara-Mankachar district|South Salmara Mankachar]] 34. [[Bajali district|Bajali]](merged with Barpeta district)]]
{{Main|List of districts of Assam}}
The [[List of districts of Assam|31 administrative districts]] of Assam are delineated based on geographic features such as rivers, hills, and forests.
 
On 15 August 2015, five new districts were formed:<ref name="new districts">{{cite news |title=Govt announces 5 new districts |url=http://www.assamtimes.org/node/14546|access-date=16 August 2015 |work=Assam Times |date=15 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817202614/http://www.assamtimes.org/node/14546|archive-date=17 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RDGoA">Revenue Department, Government of Assam</ref>
* Part of [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]] became the [[Biswanath district]] (9 in the nearby map)
* Part of [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]] became the [[Charaideo district]] (4)
* Part of [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]] became the [[Hojai district]] (14)
* Part of [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]] became the [[South Salmara-Mankachar district]] (33)
* The [[Karbi Anglong district]] was divided into East (11) and West (15) districts
 
On 27 June 2016, an island in the [[Brahmaputra River]] was removed from the [[Jorhat district]] and declared the [[Majuli district]], India's first district that is a river island.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://hindustantimes.com/indianews/assam-majuli-to-become-india-s-first-river-island-district/story-hzFoxSUxh3IpRpSeIqrhtM.html |title=Assam: Majuli becomes 1st river island district of India |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=27 June 2016| access-date=28 June 2016 |location=Guwahati| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023254/http://www.hindustantimes.com/indianews/assam-majuli-to-become-india-s-first-river-island-district/story-hzFoxSUxh3IpRpSeIqrhtM.html| archive-date=29 August 2016| url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
On 12 January 2021 [[Bajali district|Bajali]] has been curves out from [[Barpeta district]] and formally declared as a district. With the announcement made by Governor [[Jagdish Mukhi]], it has become the 34th district of Assam.<ref>{{cite web |last=Desk |first=Sentinel Digital |date=13 January 2021 |title='Bajali' Becomes the 34th Full-Fledged District of Assam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/bajali-becomes-the-34th-full-fledged-district-of-assam-520780 |access-date=16 January 2021 |website=www.sentinelassam.com |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113121804/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/bajali-becomes-the-34th-full-fledged-district-of-assam-520780 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
On 31 December 2022, existing four districts Bajali(with Barpeta), Tamulpur(with Udalguri), Biswanath (with Sonitpur) and Hojai(with Nagaon) and number of district came down to 31.
 
=== Subdivisions ===
The administrative districts are further subdivided into 54 "Subdivisions" or ''[[Mahakuma]]''.<ref name="RDGoA" /> Every district is administered from a district headquarters with the office of the [[District Collector|Deputy Commissioner]], District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a [[District Courts of India|district court]].


==Related pages==
The [[Local Governance in India|local governance]] system is organised under the ''jila-parishad'' (District Panchayat) for a district, ''[[Panchayati Raj|panchayat]]'' for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. There are now 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.<ref name="DIPRGoA">{{cite web |last=Directorate of Information and Public Relations |first=Government of Assam |title=Area of the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Assam, 2002 |url=http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |access-date=29 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006161204/http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |archive-date=6 October 2007}}</ref> The 'town-committee' or ''nagar-somiti'' for small towns, 'municipal board' or ''pouro-sobha'' for medium towns and [[municipal corporation]] or ''pouro-nigom'' for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.
* [[List of rivers of Assam]]
* [[Hinduism in Assam]]


==References==
For revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and ''mouza''s; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or ''thana''.
{{commonscat}}
{{reflist}}


{{India}}
[[Guwahati]] is the largest [[metropolitan area]] and [[urban conglomeration]] administered under the highest form of [[urban local body]] – [[Guwahati Municipal Corporation]] in Assam. The Corporation administers an area of {{cvt|216.79|km2}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/ |title=GMC Portal|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805090715/http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/|archive-date=5 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> All other urban centres are managed under [[Nagar Palika|Municipal Boards]].


{{authority control}}
A list of 9 oldest, classified and prominent, and constantly inhabited, recognised urban centres based on the earliest years of formation of the civic bodies, before the [[Indian Independence Day|Indian independence]] of 1947 is tabulated below:


{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; font-size:86%;"
! colspan="9" style="background:#A0A0F0;" | Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZmusO1pWjUC |title=Quit India Movement in Assam |first=Anil Kumar |last=Sharma |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=Mittal Publications|access-date=5 August 2016 |via=Google Books|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324090756/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZmusO1pWjUC|archive-date=24 March 2017|url-status=live |isbn=9788183242424}}</ref>
|-
! style="width: 150px;" | Urban Centres
! style="width: 250px;" | Civic Body
! style="width: 200px;" | Year
! style="width: 90px;" | Airport
! style="width: 90px;" | Railway Station
! style="width: 90px;" | Railway Junction
! style="width: 90px;" | Road Networks
! style="width: 90px;" | Category<sup>†</sup>
! style="width: 90px;" | Notes
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|[[Guwahati]]
| Guwahati Town Committee || 1853 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Gold;" | Tier – III || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Guwahati, the first township of Assam.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJroCwAAQBAJ |title=Economics of Informal Milk Producing Units in Assam |first=Dr Jugal |last=Saikia |date=8 April 2016 |publisher=Notion Press|access-date=5 August 2016 |via=Google Books|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324235245/https://books.google.com/books?id=mJroCwAAQBAJ|archive-date=24 March 2017|url-status=live |isbn=9789352069385}}</ref>}}
|-
| Guwahati Municipal Board || 1873<sup>↑</sup> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} ||{{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II ||
|-
| [[Guwahati Municipal Corporation]] || 1974<sup>↑</sup> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} ||{{Yes}} || style="background: Aqua;" | Tier – I || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Establishment of Guwahati Municipal Corporation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/?page_id=12 |title=History – GMC Portal|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629112827/http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/?page_id=12|archive-date=29 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Dibrugarh]]
|[[Dibrugarh Municipal Board]] || 1873  || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Dibrugarh, the second township of Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org.in/ |title=Municipal Board|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611150105/http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org.in/|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Goalpara]]
| Goalpara Municipal Board || 1875  || {{No}} {{ref|1|1}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} {{ref|2|2}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" |Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Goalpara Municipality, 1875.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://goalparamb.org.in/Aboutus.html |title=Municipal Board-About Us|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625135907/http://goalparamb.org.in/Aboutus.html|archive-date=25 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Dhubri]]
| Dhubri Municipal Board || 1883 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" |Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Dhubri Municipality, 1883.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhubrimb.org.in/ |title=Dhubri Municipal Board|access-date=14 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407235031/http://www.dhubrimb.org.in/|archive-date=7 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Nagaon]]
| Nagaon Municipal Board || 1893 || {{No}} {{ref|3|3}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content  =Formation of Nagaon Municipality, 1893.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nagaon.gov.in/hist.html |title=Nagaon – History|access-date=24 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418063334/http://nagaon.gov.in/hist.html|archive-date=18 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Tezpur]]
| Tezpur Municipal Board || 1894 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Tezpur Municipality, 1894.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tezpurmb.co.in/AboutMunicipalBoard.aspx |title=Municipal Board History |access-date=24 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624164612/http://www.tezpurmb.co.in/AboutMunicipalBoard.aspx |archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Jorhat]]
| [[Jorhat Municipal Board]] || 1909 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Jorhat Municipality, 1909.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jorhatmunicipalboard.org/jorhat_municipal_board.php |title=Jorhat Municipal Board(JBM), Jorhat, Assam|access-date=5 August 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327181336/http://jorhatmunicipalboard.org/jorhat_municipal_board.php|archive-date=27 March 2016}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Golaghat]]
| [[Golaghat Municipal Board]] || 1920 || {{No}} {{ref|4|4}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Golaghat Municipality, 1920.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150119/jsp/northeast/story_9079.jsp#.V0OXAZMrIcg |title=AGP lists civic poll candidates|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630201713/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150119/jsp/northeast/story_9079.jsp#.V0OXAZMrIcg|archive-date=30 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Silchar]]
|Silchar Municipal Board || 1922 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Silchar Municipality, 1922.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://silchartoday.com/silchar/silchar-municipal-board-silchar-municipality-assam/ |title=Silchar Municipal Board (Silchar Municipality) Assam – Silchar Karimganj Hailakandi|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728100952/http://silchartoday.com/silchar/silchar-municipal-board-silchar-municipality-assam/|archive-date=28 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
|-
| colspan="9" |†<small>''Tier – I: a big city with an [[urban conglomeration]] (in the true sense) administered by a [[Municipal corporation]]. Tier – II: a medium–sized city for an [[urban agglomeration]] administered by a [[Nagar Palika|Municipal Board]]. <br /> Tier – III: a small [[town]], larger than a [[township]] with a sizeable human settlement''</small>. <br /> ↑<small>''Upgraded to the next highest form of civic body''.</small>
|-
|colspan="9" | {{legend|#F99 |outline=silver| <small>''Jointly shared with the other urban centre''. {{note|1|1}} and {{note|2|2}} Shared with Guwahati. {{note|3|3}} Shared with Tezpur. {{note|4|4}} Shared with Jorhat.</small>}}
|}
=== Autonomous Council ===
The state has [[Autonomous administrative divisions of India#In Assam|three autonomous councils]].
*Bodoland Autonomous Territorial Council
*Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council
*Dima Hasao Autonomous Council.
The state has further more 12 statutory autonomous council –
* [[Tiwa(Lalung) Autonomous Council]] for ethnic [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa people]] (also known as Lalung people)
* [[Rabha Hasong Autonomous Council]]
* [[Moran Autonomous Council]] for Moran people
*Dudhnoi for ethnic [[Rabha people|Rabha Kachari]]
* [[Mising Autonomous Council]] for [[Mising people]]
* [[Matak Autonomous Council]] for Matak people
* [[Kamatapur Autonomous Council]] for [[Rajbongshi people]],
* [[Bodo Kachari Welfare Autonomous Council]] for [[Bodo-Kachari people]] living outside the [[Bodoland Territorial Region]]
* Sonowal Kachari Autonomous Council, Dibrugarh,
* Thengal Kachari Autonomous Council,
* Titabar and Deori Autonomous Council,
* Lakhimpur for ethnic [[Deori people|Deori Kachari]].
==Social issues==
===Inter-state dispute===
[[File:Northeast india.png|thumb]]
According to Assam Government, Assam has border dispute with four states namely Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.<ref name="m.timesofindia.com">{{cite news |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/total-seven-inter-state-border-disputes-in-country-assam-has-dispute-with-four-states-govt/amp_articleshow/84865195.cms |title=Total seven inter-state border disputes in country; Assam has dispute with four states: Govt {{!}} India News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 July 2021 |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230334/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/total-seven-inter-state-border-disputes-in-country-assam-has-dispute-with-four-states-govt/articleshow/84865195.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
'''Assam-Mizoram dispute'''
[[Mizoram]] used to be a district of Assam as [[Lushai hills]] before being carved out as a separate union territory and later, becoming another state in 1987. Because of the history, the district's borders did not really matter for locals for a long time. Mizoram shares a border with the districts [[Cachar]], [[Hailakandi]] and [[Karimganj]] which comes under [[Barak valley]] region of Assam.
Over time, the two states started having different perceptions about where the demarcation should be. While Mizoram wants it to be along an [[Inner Line Permit]] notified in 1875 to protect tribals from outside influence, which Mizos feel is part of their historical homeland, Assam wants it to be demarcated according to district boundaries drawn up much later.<ref name="m.timesofindia.com"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Deb |first1=Debraj |title=Explained: Why did a 150-year-old Assam-Mizoram dispute get violent now? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/the-assam-mizoram-dispute-violence-policemen-dead-7425600/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=5 August 2021 |language=en |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403085429/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/the-assam-mizoram-dispute-violence-policemen-dead-7425600/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
'''Assam-Meghalaya dispute'''
[[Meghalaya]] has identified close to a dozen areas on which it has a dispute with Assam about the state's borders. The chief ministers of the two states, [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]] and Megahalya's [[Conrad Sangma]], recently held the first-ever meeting on inter-state border dispute. Both the states have agreed to individually assess the claims for all 12 areas flagged by Meghalaya in the past. A second round of discussion between the two state CMs will be held next month of August.
On the question of the role the Union Government is playing in redressing the inter-State border dispute in the country, minister of state for home affairs [[Nityanand Rai]] said, “The approach of the Central Government has consistently been that inter-state disputes can be resolved only with the cooperation of the State Governments concerned and that the Central Government acts only as a facilitator for amicable settlement of the dispute in the spirit of mutual understanding.”<ref name="m.timesofindia.com"/>
'''Assam-Nagaland dispute'''
The border dispute between the two states has been going on since the formation of Nagaland in 1963. The two states lay claim to Merapani, a small village next to the plains of Assam's Golaghat district. There have been reports of violent clashes in the region since the 1960s.<ref name="m.timesofindia.com"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/border-dispute-assam-signs-agreement-with-nagaland-to-diffuse-stand-off-on-eastern-front/amp_articleshow/84925132.cms |title=Assam Nagaland border dispute: Assam signs agreement with Nagaland to diffuse stand-off on eastern front {{!}} India News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=August 2021 |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230330/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/border-dispute-assam-signs-agreement-with-nagaland-to-diffuse-stand-off-on-eastern-front/articleshow/84925132.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
'''Assam-Arunachal Pradesh dispute'''
Assam shares an 804.10&nbsp;km inter-state boundary with [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. The state of Arunachal Pradesh, created in 1987, claims some land that traditionally belonged to its residents has been given to Assam. A tripartite committee had recommended that certain territories be transferred from Assam to Arunachal. The two states have since been battling it out in the [[Supreme court of India]] over the issue. Some incidents of local violence have been reported from the borders.<ref name="m.timesofindia.com"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Border dispute with Arunachal at 1,200 places: Himanta Biswa Sarma |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/border-dispute-with-arunachal-at-1200-places-himanta-biswa-sarma/article61430562.ece |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=13 August 2021 |language=en-IN |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525120742/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/border-dispute-with-arunachal-at-1200-places-himanta-biswa-sarma/article61430562.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Separate statehood demand within Assam===
'''Bodoland'''
{{Main article|Bodoland}}
[[File:Bodoland Territorial Area Districts.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Bodoland district map]]
The agitation for the creation of a separate [[Bodoland]] state resulted in an agreement between the Indian Government, the Assam state government and the [[Bodo Liberation Tigers Force]]. According to the agreement made on 10 February 2003, the [[Bodoland Territorial Council]], an entity subordinate to the government of Assam, was created to govern four districts covering 3082 [[Bodo people|Bodo Kachari]]-majority villages in Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2003/02/26/stories/2003022600041000.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120905180331/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2003/02/26/stories/2003022600041000.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 September 2012 |title=The Hindu : Assam: accord and discord |publisher=Hinduonnet.com |access-date=4 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm |title=Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) |publisher=Satp.org |date=10 February 2003 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=8 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108080405/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Elections to the council were held on 13 May 2003, and [[Hagrama Mohilary]] was sworn in as the chief of the 46-member council on 4 June.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/04/stories/2005060401511300.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050615084032/http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/04/stories/2005060401511300.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=15 June 2005 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Mahillary sworn in Bodoland council chief |date=4 June 2005}}</ref> Demographic wise, the Indigenous Bodo tribe constitutes half of the region's population, along with the region have also significant large number of other  ethnic minorities which includes: Assamese, Koch Rajbangshi, Garo, Rabha tribe, Adivasis, Nepalis, Tea tribes, Bengalis, Biharis, Marwaris and Muslims.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1800.XLSX |title=Reference at censusindia.gov.in |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020113828/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1800.XLSX |url-status=live }}</ref>
'''Karbi Anglong'''
{{See also|Karbi Anglong}}
[[File:Dima_Hasao_und_Karbi_Anglong_Distrikte.svg|alt=|left|frameless|327x327px]]
[[Karbi Anglong]] is one of the 35 [[List of districts of Assam|districts]] of Assam. Karbi Anglong was previously known as Mikir Hills. It was part of the Excluded Areas and Partially Excluded Areas (the present North East India) in British India. The British Indian government had never included this area under their government's jurisdiction. Thereby, no government development work or activity were done, nor any tax levied from the hills including Karbi Anglong. The first memorandum for a [[Karbi people|Karbi]] homeland was presented to Governor Reid on 28 October 1940 by [[Semsonsing Ingti]] and Khorsing Terang at Mohongdijua.<ref>Dharamsing Teron, "Opium Curse – A Forgotten Chapter", unpublished.</ref> The Karbi leaders were then, a part of the All Party Hill Leaders' Conference (APHLC) which was formed on 6 July 1960.<ref>J. I. Kathar (IAS Retd), "1971 Aningkan Kilik Kehai Un:e....", ''Thekar ''(5 February 2013); available from {{cite web |url=http://thekararnivang.com/2013/02/05/1971-aningkan-kilik-kehai-un-e-karbi-asongja-atum-karbi-atum-aphan-autonomous-state-kapelong-aphurkimo-2/ |title=Reference at thekararnivang.com| access-date = 14 August 2021| archive-date = 16 May 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180516104826/http://thekararnivang.com/2013/02/05/1971-aningkan-kilik-kehai-un-e-karbi-asongja-atum-karbi-atum-aphan-autonomous-state-kapelong-aphurkimo-2/| url-status = dead}}</ref> The movement again gained momentum when the Karbi Anglong District Council passed a resolution demanding a Separate State in 1981. Then again from 1986 through the leadership of Autonomous State Demand Committee (ASDC), demanded Autonomous statehood of Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao under Article 244(A). In 2002, the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council passed another resolution to press for the demand of statehood. Several other memoranda were submitted at different times by several organisations. The demand for a separate state turned violent on 31 July 2013 when student demonstrators set government buildings on fire. Following the incident, the elected leaders of Karbi Anglong jointly submitted a memorandum to the [[Prime Minister of India]] demanding a separate State. Demographic wise, more than half of the Karbi Anglong population is made up of Indigenous Karbi tribe with significant migrants from other parts of India.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/>
'''Dimaraji'''
{{Main article|Dimaraji}}
[[File:Dimaraji map.jpeg|thumb|200px|Map of Dimaraji state]]
The [[Dimasa people]] of northeast India have been demanding a separate state called [[Dimaraji]] or "Dimaland" for several decades. It would comprise the [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]]-[[Dimasa people|Kachari]] inhabited areas, namely [[Dima Hasao district]], [[Cachar district]], parts of [[Nagaon district|Barak Valley, Nagaon district]], [[Hojai district]] and [[Karbi Anglong district]] in Assam together with part of [[Dimapur district]] in [[Nagaland]].
'''Barak state'''
{{See also|Barak valley}}
[[File:Map of Barak Valley.jpg|thumb|Barak Valley]]
[[Bengali Hindus|Bengalis]] first came into Assam's [[Brahmaputra valley]] in 19th century A.D as per as various credible sources.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://karimganj.gov.in/ |title=Home {{!}} Karimganj District {{!}} Government Of Assam, India |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723165055/https://karimganj.gov.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bangla_Language |title=Bangla Language - Banglapedia |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803150738/https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bangla_Language |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44147998 |jstor=44147998 |title=Introduction of the Bengali Language in 19 |last1=Majumdar |first1=Paramananda |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |year=2006 |volume=67 |pages=787–792 |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=25 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725045749/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44147998 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jmi.ac.in/ |title=Welcome to Jamia Millia Islamia - A Central University |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813041950/https://www.jmi.ac.in/ |url-status=live }} › uploadPDF
The Bengalis of Assam - Jamia Millia Islamia</ref> The [[Barak Valley]] of Assam comprising the present districts of [[Cachar]], [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]] and [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]] is contiguous to [[Sylhet division|Sylhet]] (Bengal plains), where the Bengali Hindus, according to historian J.B. Bhattacharjee, had settled well before the colonial period, influencing the culture of Dimasa Kacaharis.<ref name="Cachar">{{cite book |last1=Baruah |first1=Professor of Political Studies Sanjib |last2=Baruah |first2=Sanjib |title=India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality |date=29 June 1999 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3491-6 |page=103 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_Against_Itself/8k-irMMTnywC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=bengalis+in+cachar&pg=PA103&printsec=frontcover |language=en |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230333/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_Against_Itself/8k-irMMTnywC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=bengalis+in+cachar&pg=PA103&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Bhattacharjee describes that the Dimasa kings spoke Bengali and the inscriptions and coins written were in Bengali script.<ref name="Cachar" /> Migrations to Cachar increased after the British annexation of the region.<ref name="Cachar" />
The native [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali people]] of Assam demanded separate state for themselves within the Bengali majority areas of Assam particularly Bengali majority [[Barak valley]] comprising three districts: [[Cachar district|Cachar]], [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]], [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]] along with [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]] and [[Lumding]] was also demanded to meet the criteria for creating a separate state for themselves by carving out from Assam's Assamese majority [[Brahmaputra valley]] post [[National Register of Citizens for Assam|NRC]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Assam NRC LIVE: Not Hindus or Muslims, But Bengalis Being Targeted, Says Mamata |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/assam-nrc-live-not-hindus-or-muslims-but-bengalis-being-targeted-says-mamata-1827521.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=News18 |date=30 July 2018 |language=en |archive-date=12 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712175627/https://www.news18.com/news/india/assam-nrc-live-not-hindus-or-muslims-but-bengalis-being-targeted-says-mamata-1827521.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=PTI |title=Exclusion of Hindu Bengalis from Assam NRC changing political |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/exclusion-of-hindu-bengalis-from-assam-nrc-changing-political-119092200259_1.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Business Standard |date=22 September 2019 |archive-date=30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430005842/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/exclusion-of-hindu-bengalis-from-assam-nrc-changing-political-119092200259_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What the NRC reveals about the challenges of being Bengali in Assam |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-the-nrc-reveals-about-the-challenges-of-being-bengali-in-assam/story-WWTy7KEf4YQpTCZwoT9fEI.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Hindustan Times |date=7 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403221845/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-the-nrc-reveals-about-the-challenges-of-being-bengali-in-assam/story-WWTy7KEf4YQpTCZwoT9fEI.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Daniyal |first1=Shoaib |title='An expel Bengalis campaign': Opposing NRC in Assam, Mamata makes her strongest identity pitch yet |url=https://scroll.in/article/888680/an-expel-bengalis-campaign-opposing-assams-nrc-mamata-makes-her-strongest-identity-pitch-yet |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Scroll.in |date=31 July 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407101406/https://scroll.in/article/888680/an-expel-bengalis-campaign-opposing-assams-nrc-mamata-makes-her-strongest-identity-pitch-yet |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Silchar]] is the proposed capital of Barak state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.east-himalaya.com/silchar.php |title=One moment, please... |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928101652/http://www.east-himalaya.com/silchar.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Barak valley is the most neglected part of Assam in terms of its infrastructure development, tourism sector, educational institutions, hospitals, IT industries, G.D.P, H.D.I etc. which is still lagging behind in comparison to the Assam's mainland [[Brahmaputra valley]] which have access to all of those facilities mentioned above.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mazumder |first1=Prasanta |title=Statehood demand grows louder in Assam's Barak Valley |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jul/12/statehood-demand-grows-louder-in-assams-barak-valley-1842315.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=New Indian Express |date=12 July 2018 |archive-date=4 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404185447/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jul/12/statehood-demand-grows-louder-in-assams-barak-valley-1842315.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Barak organization demands creation of separate state - Sentinelassam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/news/barak-organization-demands-creation-of-separate-state/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Sentinel |date=27 December 2016 |language=en |archive-date=18 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518053144/https://www.sentinelassam.com/news/barak-organization-demands-creation-of-separate-state/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Give up separate Barak state demand: Sonowal to Dutta Roy |url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/assam/give-up-separate-barak-state-demand.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Northeast Now |date=26 July 2018 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331110016/https://nenow.in/north-east-news/assam/give-up-separate-barak-state-demand.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Saikia |first1=Arunabh |title=A tale of two valleys: What's behind the demand for a separate Union Territory in southern Assam? |url=https://scroll.in/article/863011/a-tale-of-two-valleys-whats-behind-the-demand-for-a-separate-union-territory-in-southern-assam |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Scroll.in |date=29 December 2017 |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628051038/https://scroll.in/article/863011/a-tale-of-two-valleys-whats-behind-the-demand-for-a-separate-union-territory-in-southern-assam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Statehood sought for Assam's Barak Valley |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/statehood-sought-for-assams-barak-valley/article25373875.ece |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=30 October 2018 |language=en-IN |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412040549/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/statehood-sought-for-assams-barak-valley/article25373875.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> In fact, the southern Assam have an overall indigenous Bengali majority population particularly [[Lumding]] have (95%) Bengali majority,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Saha |first1=Abhishek |last2=Agarwala |first2=Tora |title=Deadline approaching: What it is to be a name on NRC list — or off it |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/north-east-india/assam/assam-nrc-national-register-of-citizens-dhubri-hojai-5934188/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=25 August 2019 |language=en |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230334/https://indianexpress.com/article/north-east-india/assam/assam-nrc-national-register-of-citizens-dhubri-hojai-5934188/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Barak Valley]] region have an overwhelming Bengali majority of about (80.3%), while [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]] have approximately (30.2%) significant Bengali plurality on certain pockets specially in the urban areas of the district.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/>
===Migration from Bangladesh===
Assam has been a major site of migration since the [[Partition of India|Partition]] of the subcontinent, with the first wave being composed largely of [[Bengali Hindu]] [[East Bengali refugees|refugees]] arriving during and shortly after the establishment of India and Pakistan (current day Bangladesh was originally part of Pakistan, known as [[East Pakistan]]) in 1947–1951. Between the period of first patches (1946-1951), around 274,455 Bengali Hindu refugees have arrived from what is now called Bangladesh (former East Pakistan) in various locations of Assam as permanent settlers and again in second patches between (1952-1958) of the same decade, around 212,545 Bengali Hindus from Bangladesh took shelter in various parts of the state permanently.<ref>India (1951). "Annual Arrival of Refugees in Assam in 1946–1951". Census of India. XII, Part I (I-A): 353 – via web.archive.org.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |title=iussp2005 |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629180038/https://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |url-status=live }} › ...PDF
The Brahmaputra valley of India can be compared only with the Indus ...</ref> After the [[1964 East Pakistan riots]] many Bengali Hindus have poured into Assam as refugees and the number of Hindu migrants in the state rose to 1,068,455 in 1968 (sharply after 4 years of the riot).<ref>{{cite web |title=iussp2005 |url=https://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |access-date=22 April 2021 |website=iussp2005.princeton.edu |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422052125/https://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The fourth patches numbering around 347,555 have just arrived after [[Bangladesh liberation war]] of 1971 as refugees and most of them being Bengali speaking Hindus have decided to stay back in Assam permanently afterwards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adelaide Research & Scholarship: Home |url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/ |access-date=22 April 2021 |website=digital.library.adelaide.edu.au |archive-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419004649/https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Though the governments of India and Bangladesh made agreements for the repatriation of certain groups of refugees after the second and third waves, a large presence of refugees and other migrants and their descendants remained in the state. Nevertheless, still people of Bangladesh have been immigrating to Assam on regular basis. As per reports, about 635 of Bangladeshi people mostly Hindus, use to immigrate to Assam daily.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pratidintime.com/bangladeshi-people-come-to-assam-regularly-national-hindu-mahasabha/amp/ |title=Bangladeshi people come to Assam regularly: National Hindu Mahasabha - Pratidin Time |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719121641/https://www.pratidintime.com/bangladeshi-people-come-to-assam-regularly-national-hindu-mahasabha/amp/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=PTI |title=No Hindus will be left in Bangladesh after 30 years: professor |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/No-Hindus-will-be-left-in-Bangladesh-after-30-years-professor/article16675228.ece |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=22 November 2016 |language=en-IN |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331110048/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/No-Hindus-will-be-left-in-Bangladesh-after-30-years-professor/article16675228.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
Besides migration caused by displacement, there is also a large and continual unregulated movement between Assam and neighboring regions of Bangladesh with an exceptionally porous border. The situation is called a risk to Assam's as well as India's security.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=4 June 2014 |title=Illegal immigration from Bangladesh a national problem |url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |magazine=India Today |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135012/http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The continual [[Illegal immigration|illegal entry]] of people into Assam, mostly from [[Bangladesh]], has caused economic upheaval and social and political unrest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210114855/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 December 2014 |title=Soon blueprint to deport illegal Bangladeshis in Assam |work=Hindustan Times |date=10 December 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm#MIGRATION%20INTO%20ASSAM |title=Illegal Migration into Assam |website=www.satp.org |access-date=9 September 2019 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207071852/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm#MIGRATION%20INTO%20ASSAM |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Assam Movement]] (1979–1985), the [[All Assam Students Union]] (AASU) and others demanded that government stop the influx of [[Immigration|immigrants]] and [[Deportation|deport]] those who had already settled.<ref name="Illegal Migration into Assam">{{cite web |url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm |title=Illegal Migration into Assam |website=www.satp.org |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207071852/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> During this period, 855 people (the AASU says 860) died in various conflicts with migrants and police.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assamaccord.assam.gov.in/information-services/martyrs-of-assam-agitation|title=Martyrs of Assam Agitation {{!}} Implementation of Assam Accord {{!}} Government of Assam, India|website=assamaccord.assam.gov.in|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125104516/https://assamaccord.assam.gov.in/information-services/martyrs-of-assam-agitation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/assam-prafulla-mahanta-not-to-campaign-for-agp-to-protest-alliance-with-bjp/cid/1686834 |title=Assam: Prafulla Mahanta not to campaign for AGP to protest alliance with BJP |website=www.telegraphindia.com |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705144401/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/assam-prafulla-mahanta-not-to-campaign-for-agp-to-protest-alliance-with-bjp/cid/1686834 |url-status=live }}</ref> The 1983 Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, applied only to Assam, decreed that any person who entered the Assam after Bangladesh declared independence from Pakistan in 1971 and without authorisation or travel documents is to be considered a foreigner, with the decision on foreigner status to be carried out by designated tribunals. In 1985, the [[Government of India|Indian Government]] and leaders of the agitation signed the [[Assam accord]] to settle the conflict.<ref name="Illegal Migration into Assam" />
The 1991 census made the changing demographics of border districts more visible.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voi.org/books/tfst/appii1.htm |title=1. Population Explosion in West Bengal: A Survey |date=20 March 2012|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320024437/http://voi.org/books/tfst/appii1.htm|archive-date=20 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="Illegal Migration into Assam" /> Since 2010, the Indian Government has undertaken the updating of the [[National Register of Citizens for Assam]], and in 2018 the 32.2 million residents of Assam were subject to a review of their citizenship.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 August 2020 |title=The National Register of Citizens and India's commitment deficit to international law |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2020/08/10/the-national-register-of-citizens-and-indias-commitment-deficit-to-international-law/ |access-date=4 December 2020 |website=LSE Human Rights |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114005200/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2020/08/10/the-national-register-of-citizens-and-indias-commitment-deficit-to-international-law/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In August 2019, India released the names of the 2 million residents of Assam that had been determined to be non-citizens and whose names had therefore been struck off the Register of Citizens, depriving them of rights and making them subject to action, and potentially leaving some of them stateless, and the government has begun deporting non-citizens, while detaining 1,000 others that same year.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 June 2014 |title=Leave in 15 days, BJP MPs tell illegal immigrants in Assam |work=Firstpost |url=http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103455/http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 August 2019 |title=Assam NRC: What next for 1.9 million 'stateless' Indians? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49520593 |access-date=4 December 2020 |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115123645/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49520593 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-politics-citizenship-idUSKCN1VL04W |title=India leaves nearly two million people off citizens' list, fate... |date=31 August 2019 |work=Reuters |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-date=1 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901193524/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-politics-citizenship-idUSKCN1VL04W |url-status=live }}</ref>
In January 2019, the Assam's peasant organisation [[Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti]] (KMSS) claimed that there are around 20 [[lakh]] [[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Hindu Bangladeshis]] in Assam who would become Indian citizens if the [[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019|Citizenship (Amendment) Bill]] is passed. [[BJP]], however claimed that only eight lakh Hindu Bangladeshis will get citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |title=20 lakh Bangladeshi Hindus to become Indians if Citizenship Bill is passed: Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/20-lakh-bangladeshi-hindus-to-become-indians-if-citizenship-bill-is-passed-krishak-mukti-sangram-samiti/articleshow/67574226.cms?from=mdr |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=The Economic Times |date=17 January 2019 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021109/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/20-lakh-bangladeshi-hindus-to-become-indians-if-citizenship-bill-is-passed-krishak-mukti-sangram-samiti/articleshow/67574226.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Saikia |first1=Arunabh |title=Bengali Hindus in this Assam village live the anxious life of 'NRC rejects' |url=https://scroll.in/article/971038/residents-of-this-bengali-speaking-hindu-village-in-assam-live-the-anxious-life-of-nrc-rejects |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=Scroll.in |date=30 August 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027145241/https://scroll.in/article/971038/residents-of-this-bengali-speaking-hindu-village-in-assam-live-the-anxious-life-of-nrc-rejects |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tewari |first1=Ruhi |title=Bengali Hindus in Assam look at Citizenship Bill to get out of NRC mess |url=https://theprint.in/india/bengali-hindus-in-assam-look-at-citizenship-bill-to-get-out-of-nrc-mess/287076/ |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=ThePrint |date=5 September 2019 |archive-date=25 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025230949/https://theprint.in/india/bengali-hindus-in-assam-look-at-citizenship-bill-to-get-out-of-nrc-mess/287076/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to various sources, the total number of illegal Hindu Bangladeshis is hard to ascertain.<ref>{{cite news |title=Confusion, hope run high among Assam's Hindu Bengalis |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/east-and-northeast/confusion-hope-run-high-among-assams-hindu-bengalis-786418.html |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=Deccan Herald |date=17 December 2019 |language=en |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160713/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/east-and-northeast/confusion-hope-run-high-among-assams-hindu-bengalis-786418.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="FP">{{cite news |title=Citizenship Amendment Act: BJP chasing ghosts in Assam; Census data shows number of Hindu immigrants may have been exaggerated - India News, Firstpost |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/citizenship-amendment-bill-bjp-chasing-ghosts-in-assam-as-census-data-shows-number-of-hindu-immigrants-couldve-been-exaggerated-5640511.html |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=Firstpost |date=18 December 2019 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725082148/https://www.firstpost.com/india/citizenship-amendment-bill-bjp-chasing-ghosts-in-assam-as-census-data-shows-number-of-hindu-immigrants-couldve-been-exaggerated-5640511.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Census of India|census data]], the number of Hindu immigrants have been largely exaggerated.<ref name="FP"/>
In February 2020, the Assam Minority Development Board announced plans to segregate illegal Bangladeshi Muslim immigrants from the indigenous Muslims of the state, though some have expressed problems in identifying an indigenous Muslim person. According to the board, there are 1.4 [[crore]] Muslims in the state, of which 1 crore are of Bangladeshi origin.<ref>{{cite news |title=BJP wants to segregate Assamese Muslims from Bangladeshi Muslims, but some ask how |url=https://theprint.in/india/bjp-wants-to-segregate-assamese-muslims-from-bangladeshi-muslims-but-some-ask-how/363736/?amp |first=Mytithili |last=Hazarika |access-date=4 November 2020 |work=The Print |date=12 February 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227034321/https://theprint.in/india/bjp-wants-to-segregate-assamese-muslims-from-bangladeshi-muslims-but-some-ask-how/363736/?amp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Assam plans survey to identify indigenous Muslim population |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/assam-plans-survey-to-identify-indigenous-muslim-population/article30780667.ece |last=PTI |access-date=4 November 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=10 February 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416195642/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/assam-plans-survey-to-identify-indigenous-muslim-population/article30780667.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/online-census-of-assamese-muslims-launched/article34325747.ece |title=Online census of Assamese Muslims launched |newspaper=The Hindu |date=15 April 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516152722/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/online-census-of-assamese-muslims-launched/article34325747.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> A report reveals that out of total 33 districts in Assam, Bangladeshis dominate almost 15 districts of Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiablooms.com/news-details/N/34467/hari-shankar-brahma-report-reveals-illegal-bangladeshis-dominates-15-out-of-33-assam-districts-massive-threats-to-indigenous-people.html |title=Hari Shankar Brahma report reveals illegal Bangladeshis dominates 15 out of 33 Assam districts, massive threats to indigenous people &#124; Indiablooms - First Portal on Digital News Management |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524123719/https://www.indiablooms.com/news-details/N/34467/hari-shankar-brahma-report-reveals-illegal-bangladeshis-dominates-15-out-of-33-assam-districts-massive-threats-to-indigenous-people.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/muslim-majority-districts-in-assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms |title=Muslim majority districts in Assam up &#124; India News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 August 2015 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829021043/https://m.timesofindia.com/india/muslim-majority-districts-in-assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/politics/assam-elections-2021-how-muslims-of-the-state-one-third-of-electorate-voted-in-2016-and-2019-6714131.html |title=Assam Elections 2021 &#124; How Muslims of the State, One-third of Electorate, Voted in 2016 and 2019 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524123716/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/politics/assam-elections-2021-how-muslims-of-the-state-one-third-of-electorate-voted-in-2016-and-2019-6714131.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Floods===
{{Main|Brahmaputra floods}}
In the rainy season every year, the Brahmaputra and other rivers overflow their banks and flood adjacent land. Flood waters wash away property including houses and livestock. Damage to crops and fields harms the agricultural sector. Bridges, railway tracks, and roads are also damaged, harming transportation and communication, and in some years requiring food to be air-dropped to isolated towns. Some deaths are attributed to the floods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |title=Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13 |publisher=NDTV |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=24 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824155525/http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/flood-situation-in-assam-worsens-7-dead-over-650-000-displaced/article1-1383226.aspx |title=Flood situation in Assam worsens |work=Hindustan Times |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
===Unemployment===
[[Unemployment]] is a chronic problem in Assam. It is variously blamed on poor [[infrastructure]], limited connectivity, and government policy;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/indicators/Poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-Assams-growth-Assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |title=Poor infrastructure, stringent policies bottleneck for Assam's growth |work=The Economic Times |date=9 July 2015 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927130403/http://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/indicators/poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-assams-growth-assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> on a "poor work culture";<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |title=Panel for study of unemployment problem in Assam |publisher=Zee News |date=26 October 2012 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135649/http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |url-status=live }}</ref> on failure to advertise vacancies;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713/at098 |title=Govt inaction deprives local aspirants |first=Shivasish |last=Thakur |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200248/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713%2Fat098 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and on government hiring candidates from outside Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114/city07 |title=80% of Central jobs occupied by outsiders |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=21 January 2014 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200246/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114%2Fcity07 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 2020 a series of [[2020 Assam mob lynchings|violent lynchings]] occurred in the region.
== Education ==
{{Main|Education in Assam}}
{{See also|List of colleges affiliated to Gauhati University}}
{{See also|List of colleges affiliated to Assam University}}
{{See also|List of educational institutions in Assam}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Lakhiganj HSS.jpg|School girls in the classroom, Lakhiganj High School, Assam
File:Assam Cotton College.jpg|[[Cotton University|Cotton University, Guwahati]]
File:IITG acad complex.jpg|Academic complex of [[IIT Guwahati]]
File:NIT_Silchar_Guest_House.jpg|[[National Institute of Technology, Silchar]]
File:Jec frontview.jpg|[[Jorhat Engineering College]] of [[Assam Science and Technology University]]
</gallery>
Assam schools are run by the Indian government, government of Assam or by private organisations. Medium of instruction is mainly in Assamese, English or Bengali. Most of the schools follow the state's examination board which is called the [[Secondary Education Board of Assam]].  Almost all private schools follow the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE) and [[Indian School Certificate]] (ISC) syllabuses.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Assamese language is the main medium in educational institutions but [[Bengali language]] is also taught as a major [[Languages of India|Indian language]]. In Guwahati and Digboi, many Jr. basic schools and Jr. high schools are Nepali linguistic and all the teachers are [[Nepalis|Nepali]]. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is included by Assam State Secondary Board, [[Assam Higher Secondary Education Council]] and [[Gauhati University]] in their HSLC, higher secondary and graduation level respectively. In some junior basic and higher secondary schools and colleges, Nepali teachers and lecturers are appointed.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
The capital, Dispur, contains institutions of higher education for students of the north-eastern region. [[Cotton University|Cotton College]], Guwahati, dates back to the 19th century. Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Universities, colleges and institutions include:
=== Universities ===
* [[Assam University]]
* [[Assam Agricultural University]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[Assam Don Bosco University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dbuniversity.ac.in/index.php |title=Don Bosco University – Azara – Guwahati – Welcome to Don Bosco University |publisher=Dbuniversity.ac.in |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807103907/http://www.dbuniversity.ac.in/index.php |archive-date=7 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Assam down town University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adtu.in/ |publisher=adtu.in |title=Assam Down Town University|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913010242/http://www.adtu.in/|archive-date=13 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Assam Rajiv Gandhi University of Cooperative Management]], (ARGUCOM), Sivasagar
* [[Assam Science and Technology University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://astu.ac.in/astu/ |title=Assam Science and Technology University - Home |access-date=23 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423170740/https://astu.ac.in/astu/ |archive-date=23 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Guwahati]]
* [[Assam Women's University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://awu.ac.in |title=Assam Women's University |publisher=Assam Women's University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220050933/http://www.awu.ac.in/ | archive-date=20 December 2015 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Jorhat
* [[Bodoland University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bodolanduniversity.org.in/ |publisher=bodolanduniversity.org.in |title=Bodoland University website|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419202453/http://bodolanduniversity.org.in/|archive-date=19 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kokrajhar
* [[Cotton University]], Guwahati
* [[Dibrugarh University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dibru.ac.in |title=Dibrugarh University |publisher=Dibrugarh University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810104814/http://www.dibru.ac.in/ | archive-date=10 August 2015 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Dibrugarh
* [[Gauhati University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gauhati.ac.in |title=Gauhati University |publisher=Gauhati University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810042834/http://www.gauhati.ac.in/ | archive-date=10 August 2015 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Guwahati]]
* [[Kaziranga University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kazirangauniversity.in/ |publisher=kazirangauniversity.in |title=Kaziranga University|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103005719/http://kazirangauniversity.in/|archive-date=3 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Jorhat
* [[Krishnaguru Adhyatmik Vishvavidyalaya]]
* [[Krishna Kanta Handique State Open University]]
* [[Kumar Bhaskar Varma Sanskrit and Ancient Studies University]]
* [[Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya]]
* [[National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nluassam.ac.in/ |title=National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam |publisher=National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam |access-date=11 May 2019 |archive-date=11 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511082316/http://nluassam.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Royal Global University]]
* [[Srimanta Sankaradeva University of Health Sciences]]
* [[Tezpur University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tezu.ernet.in |title=Tezpur University |publisher=Tezpur University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810115112/http://www.tezu.ernet.in/ | archive-date=10 August 2015 | url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Tezpur]]
=== Medical colleges ===
* [[Assam Medical College]], [[Dibrugarh]]
* [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College]], [[Barpeta]]
* [[Gauhati Medical College and Hospital]], [[Guwahati]]
* [[Jorhat Medical College and Hospital]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[Regional Dental College]], [[Guwahati]]
* [[Silchar Medical College and Hospital]], [[Silchar]]
* [[Tezpur Medical College]] & Hospital, [[Tezpur]]
=== Engineering and technological colleges ===
* [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Guwahati]]
* [[National Institute of Technology, Silchar]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nits.ac.in/ |title=National Institute of Technology, Silchar |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821141331/http://www.nits.ac.in/ |archive-date=21 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Assam Engineering College]], [[Guwahati]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://aec.ac.in/ |title=Assam Engineering College |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151148/https://aec.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Assam Science and Technology University]]
* [[Bineswar Brahma Engineering College]], [[Kokrajhar]]
* [[Central Institute of Technology]], [[Kokrajhar]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cit.ac.in/ |title=Central Institute of Technology |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151142/https://cit.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology]], [[Guwahati]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gimt-guwahati.ac.in// |title=Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management & Technology|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814104435/http://www.gimt-guwahati.ac.in/|archive-date=14 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology]], [[Tezpur]]
* [[Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati|Indian Institute of Technology]] in [[Guwahati]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iitg.ac.in/ |title=Indian Institute of Technology |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151140/https://iitg.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Institute of Engineering and Technology, [[Dibrugarh University]]
* Institute of Science and Technology, [[Guwahati University]]
* [[Jorhat Engineering College]], [[Jorhat]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jecassam.ac.in// |title=Jorhat Engineering College |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151142/https://jecassam.ac.in// |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Jorhat Institute of Science & Technology]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[NETES Institute of Technology & Science Mirza]], {{citation needed|date=August 2015}}
* [[Barak Valley Engineering College]] Nirala [[Karimganj]]
* [[Golaghat Engineering College]] [[Golaghat]]
Research institutes present in the state include National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrcp.in/ |title=National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati|access-date=16 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019122751/http://www.nrcp.in/|archive-date=19 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Assam}}
[[File:Assam historical pci.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Per capita income of Assam since 1950]]
Assam's economy is based on agriculture and oil. Assam produces more than half of India's tea.<ref>{{cite web |author=Indian Tea Association |title=Tea Scenario |url=http://www.indiatea.org/tea_sencor.php| access-date = 19 April 2015| url-status=dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150301002205/http://www.indiatea.org/tea_sencor.php| archive-date = 1 March 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Assam-Arakan basin holds about a quarter of the country's oil reserves, and produces about 12% of its total petroleum.<ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. Energy Information Administration |title=India – Analysis |url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=in| access-date = 19 April 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150412003452/http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=IN| archive-date = 12 April 2015| url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> According to the recent estimates,<ref name="government2005">{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2005–2006 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank |url=http://databank.nedfi.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=4| access-date =6 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231164030/http://databank.nedfi.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=4|archive-date=31 December 2008}}</ref> Assam's per capita GDP is [[Indian rupee|₹]]6,157 at constant prices (1993–94) and [[Indian rupee|₹]]10,198 at current prices; almost 40% lower than that in India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2001–2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 |page=25 |chapter-url=http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |chapter=2, Income, Employment and Poverty |chapter-format=PDF |access-date=6 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220213032/http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> According to the recent estimates,<ref name="government2005" /> per capita income in Assam has reached [[Indian rupee|₹]]6756 (1993–94 constant prices) in 2004–05, which is still much lower than India's.
[[File:Rice Field..JPG|thumb|A paddy field in Assam]]
[[File:TeaGardenOfAssam.jpg|thumb|upright|<div class="center">A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. [[Darjeeling tea|Darjeeling]], [[Taiwanese tea|Taiwanese]]) teas</div>]]
=== Tea plantations ===
{{Main|Assam tea}}
{{multiple image
  | align = right
  | image1 =
  | width1 = 185
  | caption1 = Woman tea worker plucking tea leaves in a tea garden, Assam produces a significant portion of the world's tea
  | alt1 = Assam Tea
  | image2 = Assam.jpg
  | width2 = 185
  | caption2  =This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam
  | alt2 = Process of making tea in Assam
}}
=== Macro-economy ===
The economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.<ref>National Commission for Women 2004</ref>{{full citation needed|date=May 2022}} Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to 25% of India's petroleum needs, Assam's growth rate has not kept pace with that of India; the difference has increased rapidly since the 1970s.<ref name="AHDR2003">UNDP 2004, pp. 22–23</ref> The Indian economy grew at 6% per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000; the growth rate of Assam was only 3.3%.<ref>UNDP 2004, p. 22</ref> In the Sixth Plan period, Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78% when India's was positive at 6%.<ref name="AHDR2003" /> In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the difference widened further.
According to recent analysis, Assam's economy is showing signs of improvement. In 2001–02, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 4.5%, falling to 3.4% in the next financial year.<ref name="GoAESA0405">{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2004–2005 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank |year=2006 |url=http://databank.nedfi.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=4| access-date = 6 June 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081231164030/http://databank.nedfi.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=4| archive-date = 31 December 2008| url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> During 2003–04 and 2004–05, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 5.5% and 5.3% respectively.<ref name="GoAESA0405" /> The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 2005–06 at above 6%.<ref name="government2005" /> Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13&nbsp;billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was 2.6% per annum over the 1980s, has fallen to 1.6% in the 1990s.<ref name="AHDR2003II">UNDP 2004, pp. 24–25</ref> The manufacturing sector showed some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4% per annum than 2.4% in the 1980s.<ref name="AHDR2003II" /> For the past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates of the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in the 1980s.<ref name="AHDR2003II" />
=== Employment ===
Unemployment is one of the major problems in Assam. This problem can be attributed to overpopulation and a faulty education system. Every year, large numbers of students obtain higher academic degrees but because of non-availability of proportional vacancies, most of these students remain unemployed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/indicators/Poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-Assams-growth-Assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |title=Poor infrastructure, stringent policies bottleneck for Assam's growth |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=9 July 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927130403/http://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/indicators/poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-assams-growth-assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |archive-date=27 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |title=Panel for study of unemployment problem in Assam |publisher=Zee News |date=26 October 2012 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135649/http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> A number of employers hire over-qualified or efficient, but under-certified, candidates, or candidates with narrowly defined qualifications. The problem is exacerbated by the growth in the number of technical institutes in Assam which increases the unemployed community of the State. Many job-seekers are eligible for jobs in sectors like railways and [[Oil India]] but do not get these jobs because of the appointment of candidates from outside of Assam to these posts. The reluctance on the part of the departments concerned to advertise vacancies in vernacular language has also made matters worse for local unemployed youths particularly for the job-seekers of Grade C and D vacancies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713/at098 |title=The Assam Tribune |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200248/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713%2Fat098 |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114/city07 |title=The Assam Tribune |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=21 January 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200246/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114%2Fcity07 |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref>
Reduction of the unemployed has been threatened by [[illegal immigration]] from Bangladesh. This has increased the workforce without a commensurate increase in jobs. Immigrants compete with local workers for jobs at lower wages, particularly in construction, domestics, Rickshaw-pullers, and vegetable sellers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-08-05/news/65244059_1_foreigners-tribunals-illegal-migrants-assam |title=Centre taking steps to check illegal immigration into Assam |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=5 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925123930/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-08-05/news/65244059_1_foreigners-tribunals-illegal-migrants-assam |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |archive-url=https://archive.today/20151216080510/http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 December 2015 |title=Soon blueprint to deport illegal Bangladeshis in Assam |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=10 December 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> The government has been identifying (via [[National Register of Citizens for Assam|NRC]]) and deporting illegal immigrants. Continued immigration is exceeding deportation.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |title=Illegal immigration from Bangladesh a national problem |magazine=India Today |date=4 June 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135012/http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |title=Leave in 15 days, BJP MPs tell illegal immigrants in Assam |work=Firstpost |date=2 June 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103455/http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Paddy cultivation in Nagaon.jpg|thumb|left|Assamese women busy planting paddy seedlings in their agricultural field in Pahukata village in the Nagaon district of Assam]]
In Assam among all the productive sectors, agriculture makes the highest contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam's income and employs 69% of workforce.<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2001–2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 |page=32 |url=http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm  |access-date=6 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220213032/http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> Assam's biggest contribution to the world is [[Assam tea]]. It has its own variety, ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''. The state produces rice, [[rapeseed]], [[mustard seed]], [[jute]], potato, sweet potato, banana, [[papaya]], [[areca nut]], sugarcane and [[turmeric]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Assam's agriculture is yet to experience modernisation in a real sense. With implications for food security, per capita food grain production has declined in the past five decades.<ref name="AHDR2003III">UNDP 2004, p. 33</ref> Productivity has increased marginally, but is still low compared to highly productive regions. For instance, the yield of rice (a staple food of Assam) was just 1531&nbsp;kg per hectare against India's 1927&nbsp;kg per hectare in 2000–01<ref name="AHDR2003III" /> (which itself is much lower than [[Egypt]]'s 9283, US's 7279, South Korea's 6838, Japan's 6635 and China's 6131&nbsp;kg per hectare in 2001<ref>{{cite web |last=FAO Statistics Division, 2007 |first=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=Faostat |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=340| access-date =5 June 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070211180852/http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=340| archive-date=11 February 2007}}</ref>). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, and with 1.5&nbsp;million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,<ref>{{cite web |last=Assam Small Farmers' Agri-business Consortium |title=Fish Species of Assam |url=http://www.assamagribusiness.nic.in/2ndoct/fishspeciesofAssam.pdf |access-date  = 5 June 2006|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20060514212850/http://assamagribusiness.nic.in/2ndoct/fishspeciesofAssam.pdf |archive-date = 14 May 2006|url-status  = dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.<ref name="AHDR2003IV">UNDP 2004, p. 37</ref>
Floods in Assam greatly affect the farmers and the families dependent on agriculture because of large-scale damage of agricultural fields and crops by flood water.<ref name="Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13" /><ref name="Flood situation in Assam worsens" /> Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the state.<ref name="Assam Flood Toll Rises to 132">{{cite web |url=http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |title=Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13 |date=23 August 2015 |publisher=NDTV|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824155525/http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178|archive-date=24 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Flood situation in Assam worsens2">{{cite news |url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/flood-situation-in-assam-worsens-7-dead-over-650-000-displaced/article1-1383226.aspx |title=Flood situation in Assam worsens |date=23 August 2015 |newspaper=Hindustan Times|access-date=25 August 2015}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>{{See also|2016 Assam floods}}
=== Industry ===
Handlooms and handicrafts are traditional industries that continue to survive, especially among rural women, in the state.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-07 |title=National Handloom Day 2022: How self-help groups sustain Indian handicrafts and handlooms |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/national-handloom-day-2022-how-self-help-groups-sustain-indian-handicrafts-handlooms-har-ghar-tiranga-8074511/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=27 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227210549/https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/national-handloom-day-2022-how-self-help-groups-sustain-indian-handicrafts-handlooms-har-ghar-tiranga-8074511/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Assam's proximity to some neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, benefits its trade. The major [[Border checkpoint]]s through which border trade flows to Bangladesh from Assam are : Sutarkandi (Karimganj), Dhubri, Mankachar (Dhubri) and Golokanj. To facilitate border trade with Bangladesh, Border Trade Centres have been developed at Sutarkandi and [[Mankachar]]. It has been proposed in the 11th five-year plan{{clarify|WHOSE five-year plan?|date=January 2015}} to set up two more Border Trade Center, one at [[Ledo, Assam|Ledo]] connecting China and other at [[Darrang]] connecting Bhutan. There are several Land Custom Stations (LCS) in the state bordering Bangladesh and Bhutan to facilitate border trade.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian state: Assam |url=http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam.htm |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124172800/http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam.htm|archive-date=24 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The government of India has identified some thrust areas for industrial development of Assam:<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian state: Assam, Thrust Areas |url=http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam2.htm#t1 |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Govt. of India|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407180123/http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam2.htm#t1|archive-date=7 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{div col|content=
* Petroleum and natural gas-based industries
* Industries based on locally available minerals
* Processing of plantation crops
* Food processing industries
* Agri-Horticulture products
* Herbal products
* Biotech products
* Pharmaceuticals
* Chemical and plastic-based industries
* Export oriented industries
* Electronic and IT base industries including services sector
* Paper making industries
* Textiles and sericulture
* Engineering industries
* Cane and bamboo-based industries
* Other handicrafts industry
}}
Although, the region in the eastern periphery of India is landlocked and is linked to the mainland by the narrow [[Siliguri Corridor]] (or the Chicken's Neck) improved transport infrastructure in all the three modes – rail, road and air – and developing urban infrastructure in the cities and towns of Assam are giving a boost to the entire industrial scene. The [[Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport]] at Guwahati, with international flights to [[Bangkok]] and [[Singapore]] offered by [[Druk Air]] of [[Bhutan]], was the 12th busiest airport of India in 2012.<ref>[[List of busiest airports in India by passenger traffic]]</ref> The cities of Guwahati<ref>{{cite web |title=GMC |url=http://gmcportal.in:8080/GMCPortal/ |publisher=Guwahati Municipal Corporation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104033938/http://gmcportal.in:8080/GMCPortal/ |archive-date=4 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Guwahati |url=http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/Guwahati |publisher=IndiaUnveiled|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104044832/http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/Guwahati|archive-date=4 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> in the west and [[Dibrugarh]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Dibrugarh Municipality |url=http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org/about%20us.html |publisher=Dibrugarh Municipal Board |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901185847/http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org/About%20Us.html |archive-date=1 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dibrugarh |url=http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/dibrugarh |publisher=IndiaUnveiled|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104045146/http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/dibrugarh|archive-date=4 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> in the east with good rail,<ref>{{cite web |title=New Delhi Dibrugarh Trains |url=http://indiarailinfo.com/search/dibrugarh-town-dbrt-to-new-delhi-ndls/680/664 |publisher=Indiarailinfo|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522230505/http://indiarailinfo.com/search/dibrugarh-town-dbrt-to-new-delhi-ndls/680/664|archive-date=22 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Trains from Dibrugarh |url=http://indiarailinfo.com/departures/dibrugarh-dbrg/7288 |publisher=Indiarailinfo|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005002950/http://indiarailinfo.com/departures/dibrugarh-dbrg/7288|archive-date=5 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> road and air connectivity are the two important nerve centres of Assam, to be selected by Asian Development Bank for providing $200&nbsp;million for improvement of urban infrastructure.<ref name="Asian Development Bank">{{cite web |title=ADB $200 Million Loan to Upgrade Services in Key Cities of India's Assam State |url=http://www.adb.org/news/adb-200-million-loan-upgrade-services-key-cities-indias-assam-state |publisher=Asian Development Bank|access-date=2 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122800/http://www.adb.org/news/adb-200-million-loan-upgrade-services-key-cities-indias-assam-state|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live |date=3 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=$81-million ADB loan for State urban infrastructure |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=mar1012/at092|access-date=1 August 2013 |newspaper=The Assam Tribune|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103180502/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=mar1012%2Fat092|archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref>
Assam is a producer of [[crude oil]] and it accounts for about 15% of India's crude output,<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |url=http://assamgovt.nic.in/business/resources.asp |title=Available Resources in Assam |publisher=Government of Assam |date=18 February 2007 |access-date=18 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716031122/http://assamgovt.nic.in/business/resources.asp |archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamco.com/ |publisher=assamco.com |title=Assamco|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903083354/http://www.assamco.com/|archive-date=3 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and natural gas in India and is the second place in the world (after [[Titusville, Pennsylvania|Titusville]] in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Asia's first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in [[Makum]] way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Eastern Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries in [[Digboi]] (Asia's first and world's second refinery), Guwahati, [[Bongaigaon]] and [[Numaligarh]] and with a total capacity of 7&nbsp;million metric tonnes (7.7&nbsp;million [[short ton]]s) per annum. Asia's first refinery was set up at Digboi and discoverer of Digboi oilfield was the Assam Railways & Trading Company Limited (AR&T Co. Ltd.), a registered company of London in 1881.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://investinassam.com/overview.html |title=Government of Assam &#124; Department of Industries and Commerce |publisher=Investinassam.com|access-date=22 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316145633/http://investinassam.com/overview.html |archive-date=16 March 2012}}</ref> One of the biggest public sector oil company of the country [[Oil India Ltd.]] has its plant and headquarters at [[Duliajan]].
There are several other industries, including a chemical [[fertiliser]] plant at [[Namrup]], [[petrochemical]] industries in Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at [[Jagiroad]], [[Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. Township Area Panchgram]] and [[Jogighopa]], sugar mills in Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plants in Bokajan and [[Badarpur, Assam|Badarpur]], and a cosmetics plant of [[Hindustan Unilever]] (HUL) at [[Doom Dooma]]. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, [[Assam silk]], and silk mills. Many of these industries are facing losses and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iloveindia.com/states/assam/economy.html |title=Assam Economy – Economy of Assam, Business & Economy of Assam India |publisher=iloveindia.com|access-date=18 July 2010 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100710050533/http://www.iloveindia.com/states/assam/economy.html| archive-date= 10 July 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Assam}}
{{See also|Tourism in North East India}}
Wildlife, cultural, and historical destinations have attracted visitors.
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Assam }}
{{See also|Assamese cinema}}
[[File:A group of 'Husori' for the occasion of Assamese 'Bohag Bihu' in their traditional attire.png|thumb|A group of 'Husori' for the occasion of Assamese [[Bohag Bihu]] in their traditional attire.]]
[[Assamese Culture]] is traditionally a [[Hybridity|hybrid]] one developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups of Austric, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Tai origin in the past. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.<ref name="BKakatiAIFD">{{Citation |first=Banikanta |last=Kakati |title=Assamese, Its Formation and Development, 2nd edition |place=Guwahati, India |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1962}}</ref> The major milestones in the evolution of Assamese culture are:
[[File:Dakhinpat Temple.jpg|thumb|{{center|Dakhinpat Satra of [[Majuli]]}}]]
* Assimilation in the Kamarupa Kingdom for almost 700 years (under the [[Varman dynasty|Varmans]] for 300 years, Salastambhas and [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Palas]] for each 200 years).<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* Establishment of the [[Chutia Kingdom|Chutia kingdom]] in the 12th century in eastern Assam and assimilation for next 400 years.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* Establishment of the [[Ahom Kingdom|Ahom kingdom]] in the 13th century CE and assimilation for next 600 years.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* Assimilation in the [[Koch Kingdom]] (15th–16th century CE) of western Assam and Kachari Kingdom (12th–18th century CE) of central and southern Assam.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] Movement led by [[Srimanta Shankardeva]] (''Xongkordeu'') and its contribution and cultural changes. The Vaishanava Movement, the 15th century religio-cultural movement under the leadership of [[Srimanta Sankardeva]] (Sonkordeu) and his disciples have provided another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed Hinduisation in local forms took place, which was initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the Ahom Kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such as ''[[namghar]]'' and ''[[sattra]]'' (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have become part of the Assamese way of life. The movement contributed greatly towards language, literature, and performing and fine arts.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
[[File:Celebrations 1.jpg|thumb|left|{{center|Presenting ''Gayan Bayan'' in Majuli, the Neo-Vaishnavite cultural heritage of Assam}}]]
The modern culture has been influenced by events in the British and the post-British era. The language was standardised by American [[Baptist]] [[Missionary|Missionaries]] such as [[Nathan Brown (missionary)|Nathan Brown]], [[Miles Bronson and the Noctes|Dr. Miles Bronson]] and local pundits such as [[Hemchandra Barua]] with the form available in the [[Sibsagar]] (''Sivasagar'') District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom).{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated [[Ethnic groups|ethno-cultural groups]] (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a '[[cultural system]]' with sub-systems. Many source-cultures of the Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, e.g. the; [[Bodo people|Bodo]] or [[Karbi people|Karbi]] or [[Mising people|Mishing]]. It is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time focus on development of the sub-systems.
Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards [[Betel nut|areca-nut]] and [[betel]] leaves, symbolic ([[gamosa]], arnai, etc.), [[Assam silk|traditional silk]] garments (e.g. [[mekhela chador]], traditional dress of Assamese women) and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and bamboo culture are common.
=== Symbols ===
{{See also|List of Assam state symbols|Jaapi}}
[[File:Bihu Assam.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|Girl in traditional [[Mekhela chador]] dress with a [[Dhol]] wrapped with Gamosa}}]]
[[File:Jaapi with Gamosa.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|A decorative Assamese ''[[Jaapi]]'' laid over a Gamosa}}]]
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of the Assamese way of life. Various elements are used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. ''Tamulpan'', ''[[Xorai]]'' and ''Gamosa'' are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. ''Tamulpan'' (the areca nut and betel leaves) or ''guapan'' (gua from ''kwa'') are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austric culture. ''[[Xorai]]'' is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.
There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of ''Assamese-lion'', ''dragon'', and ''flying-lion'' were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th–10th centuries CE) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of the late medieval period display the use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.
=== Festivals and traditions ===
{{Main|List of festivals in Assam}}
{{See also|Domahi|Bohag Bihu|Magh Bihu|Bwisagu}}
[[File:Bihu dancer with a horn.jpg|thumb|upright|left|{{center|A [[Bihu]] dancer blowing a ''[[pepa (musical instrument)|pepa]]'' (horn)}}]]
[[File:Assamese Jaapi .jpg|thumb|upright|A beautifully adorned [[Jaapi]]]]
[[File:Ali-ai-ligang.jpg|thumb|[[Mising people|Mising girls]] dancing during [[Ali Ai Ligang]] (Spring Festival)]]
There are diversified important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam. It is the Assamese new year celebrated in April of the Gregorian calendar. [[Christmas]] is observed with great merriment by [[Christians]] of various denominations, including [[Catholics]] and [[Protestants]], throughout Assam. [[Durga Puja]], a festival introduced and popularised by [[Bengalis]], is widely celebrated across the state. Muslims celebrate two Eids ([[Eid ul-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]]) with much eagerness all over Assam.
[[Bihu]] is a series of three prominent festivals. Primarily a non-religious festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle. Three Bihus, ''rongali'' or ''bohag'', celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; ''kongali'' or ''kati'', the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the ''[[Bhogali Bihu|bhogali]]'' or ''magh'', the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Bihu songs and [[Bihu dance]] are associated to ''rongali'' bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres.
[[Bwisagu]] is one of the popular seasonal festivals of the [[Bodo people|Bodos]]. Bwisagu start of the new year or age. Baisagu is a Boro word which originated from the word "Baisa" which means year or age, and "Agu" that means starting or start.
Beshoma is a festival of Deshi people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/bihu-myriad-colours.html |title=Bihu – Its Myriad Colours |website=NORTHEAST NOW |date=20 April 2018 |language=en-US |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921143102/https://nenow.in/north-east-news/bihu-myriad-colours.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is a celebration of sowing crop. The Beshoma starts on the last day of Chaitra and goes on until the sixth of Baisakh. With varying locations it is also called ''Bishma'' or ''Chait-Boishne.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thethumbprintmag.com/beshoma-the-rongali-bihu-of-deshi-muslims/|title=Beshoma: The 'Rongali Bihu' of Deshi Muslims {{!}} The Thumb Print - A magazine from the East|language=en-US|access-date=8 September 2019|archive-date=8 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908113448/http://www.thethumbprintmag.com/beshoma-the-rongali-bihu-of-deshi-muslims/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Sattriya Dance by Students of Ghana Kanta Bora Borbayan-5.jpg|thumb|[[Gayan-bayan]]]]
[[Dimasa people#Festivals|Bushu Dima]] or simply Bushu is a major harvest festival of the [[Dimasa people]]. This festival is celebrated during the end of January. Officially 27 January has been declared as the day of Bushu Dima festival. The Dimasa people celebrate their festival by playing musical instruments- khram (a type of drum), muri (a kind of huge long flute). The people dances to the different tunes called "murithai" and each dance has got its name, the prominent being the "Baidima" There are three types of Bushu celebrated among the Dimasas Jidap, Surem and Hangsou.
Chavang Kut is a post harvesting festival of the [[Kuki people]]. The festival is celebrated on the first day of November every year. Hence, this particular day has been officially declared as a Restricted Holiday by the Assam government. In the past, the celebration was primarily important in the religio-cultural sense. The rhythmic movements of the dances in the festival were inspired by animals, agricultural techniques and showed their relationship with ecology. Today, the celebration witnesses the shifting of stages and is revamped to suit new contexts and interpretations. The traditional dances which form the core of the festival is now performed in out-of-village settings and are staged in a secular public sphere. In Assam, the Kukis mainly reside in the two autonomous districts of Dima Hasao and Karbi Anglong.
Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year on different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Some of these are:
{{div col|content=
* [[Me-Dam-Me-Phi]]
* [[Ali Ai Ligang|Ali-Aye-Ligang]]
* [[Rongker]]
* [[Wanshuwa Festival]]
* Kherai
* Garja
* Bisu ([[Deori people|Deori]])
* Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai
* Chojun/Swarak
* Deusi Bhailo ( Traditional Nepalese songs that are sung during the festival of light " Dipavali " and also called "Tihar" )
* Sokk-erroi
* Hacha-kekan
* Hapsa Hatarnai
* [[Porag]]
* [[Bathow]]
* [[Wangala]]
* [[Bohuwa dance]]
}}
Other few yearly celebrations are Doul Utsav of Barpeta, [[Brahmaputra Beach Festival]], Guwahati, [[Kaziranga Elephant Festival]], Kaziranga and [[Dehing Patkai Festival]], Lekhapani, Karbi Youth Festival of Diphu and International Jatinga Festival, [[Jatinga]] can not be forgotten. Few yearly ''Mela's'' like [[Jonbeel Mela]], began in the 15th century by the Ahom Kings, [[Ambubachi Mela]], Guwahati etc.
Lachit Divas' is celebrated to promote the ideals of Lachit Borphukan – the legendary general of Assam's history. Sarbananda Sonowal, the chief minister of Assam took part in the Lachit Divas celebration at the statue of Lachit Borphukan at Brahmaputra riverfront on 24 November 2017.
He said, the first countrywide celebration of 'Lachit Divas' would take place in New Delhi followed by state capitals such as Hyderabad, Bangalore and Kolkata in a phased manner.
=== Music, dance, and drama ===
{{See also|Music of Assam|Folk dances of Assam|Mobile theatre in Assam}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Sattriya by Dancer Meenakshi Medhi.JPG|[[Sattriya|Sattriya Dance]]
File:Bodo dance.jpg|Bodo dance Bagurumba
File:Tea Tribe Dance of Assam.jpg|Jhumair dance in Tea garden
File:Lukobadya nagara.jpg|Nagara
File:Dr. Bhupen Hazarika, Assam, India.jpg|[[Bhupen Hazarika]]
File:Bihu dance of Assam.jpg|Assamese youth performing Bihu Dance
File:Statue of Kalaguru, Rupkonwar and Natasurjya at Guwahati (Side view).JPG|Statue of [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]], [[Jyoti Prasad Agarwala]] and [[Phani Sarma]] at District Library, Guwahati.
</gallery>
[[File:Assamese mythological play "Surjya Mandirot Surjyasta".jpg|thumb|right|Actors of Abinaswar Gosthi performs the play "Surjya Mandirot Surjyasta" directed by Dipok Borah]]
Performing arts include: ''[[Ankia Naat]]'' (''Onkeeya Naat''), a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (''[[Bhaona]]'') popular since the 15th century CE.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a ''Sutradhar'' (''Xutrodhar'') continues to narrate the story.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
Besides [[Bihu dance]] and ''Huchory'' performed during the [[Bohag Bihu]], dance forms of tribal minorities such as; ''Kushan nritra'' of Rajbongshi's, ''[[Bagurumba]]'' and ''Bordoicikhla'' dance of [[Bodo people|Bodos]], Mishing Bihu, ''Banjar Kekan'' performed during ''Chomangkan'' by [[Karbis]], [[Jhumair]] of [[Tea-garden community of Assam|Tea-garden community]] are some of the major folk dances.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharatonline.com/assam/dance/index.html |title=Dances of Assam – Folk Dances of Assam, Traditional Dances of Assam |website=www.bharatonline.com|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620153050/http://www.bharatonline.com/assam/dance/index.html|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Sattriya]]'' (''Sotriya'') dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta's ''Bhortal Nritya'', [[Deodhani dance|Deodhani Nritya]], ''[[Ojapali]]'', ''Beula Dance'', ''Ka Shad Inglong Kardom'', ''Nimso Kerung'', etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many [[Mobile theatre in Assam|Mobile theatre]] groups such as [[Kohinoor Theatre|Kohinoor]], Sankardev, Abahan, Bhagyadevi, Hengul, [[Brindabon Theatre|Brindabon]], Itihas etc.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
The indigenous folk music has influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of artists like [[Jyoti Prasad Agarwala]], [[Bishnuprasad Rabha]], [[Parvati Prasad Baruwa]], [[Bhupen Hazarika]], [[Pratima Barua Pandey]], [[Anima Choudhury]], [[Rudra Baruah|Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah]], [[Jayanta Hazarika]], [[Khagen Mahanta]], [[Dipali Barthakur]], ''Ganashilpi'' Dilip Sarma, Sudakshina Sarma among many others. Among the new generation, [[Zubeen Garg]], [[Jitul Sonowal]], [[Angaraag Mahanta]] and [[Joi Barua]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
There is an award given in the honour of [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]] for achievements in the cultural/music world of Assam by the state government.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Assamese cuisine}}
[[File:Assamese Thali.jpg|thumb|Assamese Thali]]
[[File:GHOST CHILLY CHICKEN.jpg|thumb|left|An ethnic preparation of Ghost chili chicken curry of Assam]]
Typically, an Assamese meal consists of many things such as ''[[Bhat (food)|bhat]]'' ([[rice]]) with ''dayl/ daly'' ([[lentils]]), ''masor jool'' ([[fish]] stew), ''mangxô'' ([[meat]] [[stew]]) and stir fried [[Leaf vegetable|greens]] or [[herbs]] and [[vegetables]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
The two main characteristics of a traditional meal in Assam are ''[[Assamese cuisine#Khar|khar]]'' (an Alkali, named after its main ingredient) and ''tenga'' (Preparations bearing a characteristically [[Flavoring|rich]] and [[Pungent|tangy]] flavour). ''Khorika'' is the smoked or fire grilled meat eaten with meals. Commonly consumed varieties of [[meat]] include [[Goat meat|Mutton]], [[fowl]], [[duck]]/[[goose]], [[fish]], [[pigeon]], [[pork]] and [[beef]] (among [[Muslim]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] indigenous Assamese ethnic groups). [[Grasshoppers]], [[locusts]], [[silkworms]], [[snails]], [[eels]], wild [[fowl]], [[squab]] and other birds, [[venison]] are also eaten, albeit in moderation.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
''Khorisa'' (fermented [[bamboo shoots]]) are used at times to flavour curries while they can also be preserved and made into pickles. ''Koldil'' ([[banana flower]]) and [[squash (plant)|squash]] are also used in popular culinary preparations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/khorisa-turns-natural-preservative/cid/383338 |title=khorisa turns natural preservative|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411174159/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/khorisa-turns-natural-preservative/cid/383338|archive-date=11 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
A variety of different rice cultivars are grown and consumed in different ways, viz., roasted, ground, boiled or just soaked.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Fish curries made of [[free range]] [[Wildlife|wild]] [[fish]] as well as ''Bôralí'', ''rôu'', ''illish'', or ''sitôl'' are the most popular. {{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Another favourite combination is ''[[luchi]]'' (fried flatbread), a curry which can be vegetarian or non-vegetarian.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Many indigenous Assamese communities households still continue to brew their traditional alcoholic [[beverages]]; examples include: Laupani, Xaaj, Paniyo, Jou, Joumai, Hor, Apang, etc. Such beverages are served during traditional festivities. Declining them is considered socially offensive.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
The food is often served in [[bell metal]] dishes and platters like ''Kanhi'', ''Maihang'' and so on.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
[[File:Laksminath Bezbaruah.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lakshminath Bezbaroa]], one of the foremost figures of [[Assamese literature]].]]
=== Literature ===
{{Main|Assamese literature}}
[[File:Sankaradeva.jpg|thumb|upright|Imaginary portrait of [[Sankardev|Srimanta Sankardeva]] by [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/portrait-of-a-poet-as-an-artist-bishnu-rabha-s-family-compiles-coffee-table-book-on-his-paintings/cid/797447 |title=Portrait of a poet as an artist |date=13 October 2003 |work=The Telegraph |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626125652/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/portrait-of-a-poet-as-an-artist-bishnu-rabha-s-family-compiles-coffee-table-book-on-his-paintings/cid/797447 |url-status=live }}</ref>|alt=]]<!----picture should be shrunk to allow text beside it--->
Assamese literature dates back to the composition of [[Charyapada]], and later on works like [[Saptakanda Ramayana]] by [[Madhava Kandali]], which is the first translation of the [[Ramayana]] into an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]], contributed to Assamese literature.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA3 |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |last=Paniker |first=K. Ayyappa |date=1997 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=9788126003655 |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230336/https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LFzfbhmJcMC&pg=PA74 |title=The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa |last=Mukherjee |first=Prabhat |date=1981 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120602298 |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230336/https://books.google.com/books?id=7LFzfbhmJcMC&pg=PA74 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedamsbooks.in/no17118/madhava-kandali-ramayana-composed-assamese-by-sage-great-son-soil-fourteenth-century-ad-2-volumes-translated-into-english-shanti-lal-nagar |title=Madhava Kandali Ramayana : Composed in Assamese by Sage Madhava Kandali, the great son of the soil in the Fourteenth Century CE/Translated into English by Shanti Lal Nagar Translated into English by Shanti Lal Nagar Vedams Books 9788121509350 |website=www.vedamsbooks.in |access-date=3 September 2019 |archive-date=3 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903103038/http://www.vedamsbooks.in/no17118/madhava-kandali-ramayana-composed-assamese-by-sage-great-son-soil-fourteenth-century-ad-2-volumes-translated-into-english-shanti-lal-nagar |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sankardev]]a's [[Borgeet]], [[Ankia Naat]], [[Bhaona]] and [[Satra (Ekasarana Dharma)|Satra]] tradition backed the 15th-16th century Assamese literature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bordowathan.com/about-bordowa-than/|title=Bordowa Than – Bordowa Than|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903103034/http://www.bordowathan.com/about-bordowa-than/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Early history of the Vaiṣṇava faith and movement in Assam : Śaṅkaradeva and his times |last=Neog |first=Maheswar |date=1980 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=8120800079 |oclc=15304755}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Tony K. |last2=Neog |first2=Maheswar |date=April 1988 |title=Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Faith and Movement in Assam: Śaṅkaradeva and His Times |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=108 |issue=2 |page=334 |doi=10.2307/603683 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=603683}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkR4Fv37URkC&pg=PA189 |title=North East India: A Sociological Study |last1=Sociology |first1=Dibrugarh University Department of |last2=Region |first2=Dibrugarh University Centre for Sociological Study of Frontier |last3=Association |first3=North East India Sociological |date=1978 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=HkR4Fv37URkC&pg=PA189 |url-status=live }}</ref> Written during the Reign of [[Ahoms]], the [[Buranji]]s are notable literary works which are prominently historical manuscripts.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.97610 |title=Aspects of Early Assamese Literature |last=Kakati |first=Banikanta Ed |date=1953}}</ref> Most literary works are written in Assamese although other local language such as [[Bodo language|Bodo]] and [[Dimasa language|Dimasa]] are also represented.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} In the 19th and 20th century, Assamese and other literature was modernised by authors including [[Lakshminath Bezbaroa]], [[Birinchi Kumar Barua]], [[Hem Barua]], [[Mamoni Raisom Goswami|Dr. Mamoni Raisom Goswami]], [[Bhabendra Nath Saikia]], [[Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya]], [[Hiren Bhattacharyya]], [[Homen Borgohain]], [[Bhabananda Deka]], [[Rebati Mohan Dutta Choudhury]], [[Mahim Bora]], [[Lil Bahadur Chettri]], [[Syed Abdul Malik]], [[Surendranath Medhi]], [[Hiren Gohain]] etc.
=== Fine arts ===
{{Main|Painting of Assam}}
The archaic [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] [[Stupas]] discovered in and around [[Goalpara district]] are the earliest examples (c. 300&nbsp;BCE to c. 100&nbsp;CE) of ancient art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (''Doporboteeya'') archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of artwork in ancient Assam with influence of [[Sarnath]] School of Art of the late [[Gupta empire|Gupta]] period.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. [[Xuanzang]] (7th century&nbsp;CE) mentions that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to [[Harshavardhana]] there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts such as [[Hastividyarnava]] (A Treatise on Elephants), the ''Chitra Bhagawata'' and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
=== Traditional crafts ===
{{Main|Traditional crafts of Assam|Bell and brass metal crafts of Assam}}
{{See also|Assam silk}}
Assam has a rich tradition of [[crafts]], [[caning (furniture)|Cane]] and bamboo craft, bell metal and [[Brass instrument|brass]] craft, silk and cotton [[weaving]], toy and [[mask]] making, [[pottery]] and [[terracotta]] work, wood craft, [[jewellery]] making, and musical instruments making have remained as major traditions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Assam Tourism 2002 |first=Government of Assam |title=Arts and Crafts of Assam in About Assam |url=http://www.assamtourism.org/arts.htm| access-date =3 June 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070407040421/http://www.assamtourism.org/arts.htm| archive-date = 7 April 2007}}</ref>
Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as ''Sorai'' and ''Bota'' made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Ranjan |first1=M.P. |last2=Iyer |first2=Nilam |last3=Pandya |first3=Ghanshyam |title=Bamboo and Cane Crafts of Northeast India |publisher=National Institute of Design}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first=T.K. |last=Nath |title=Bamboo Cane and Assam |place=Guwahati, India |publisher=Industrial Development Bank of India, Small Industries Development Bank of India}}</ref> [[Hajo]] and [[Sarthebari]] (''Sorthebaary'') are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga – the natural golden silk, Pat – a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri – a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from [[Sualkuchi]] (''Xualkuchi''), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and [[terracotta]] work in western Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the region.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Citra Bhagavata illustration 2.jpg|{{center|A page of manuscript painting from Assam; The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials such as the colours of [[hangool and haital]] and papers manufactured from aloewood bark}}
File:Assam Xorai.png|[[Bell metal]] made sorai and sophura are important parts of culture
File:Assam Knahor Knahi.jpg|Assam Kahor ([[Bell metal]]) Kahi
File:Brihat Ushaharan, an medieval-century manuscript painting of Assam from Budhbari Satra.jpg|Brihat Ushaharan, an 18th-century manuscript illustration of Garhgoan school of painting
File:Mayurpokhyi Kehl-Nao (Pleasure boat) of Kamalabari Satra.jpg|Mayurpokhyi Khel-Nao (Pleasure boat) of medieval Assam, used by Badula Ata of [[Kamalabari Satra]]
File:Mahisamardini, 18th century Devi bronze metal sculpture from Tinsukia.jpg|18th century Mahisamardini bronze metal sculpture
File:Hastividyarnava Illustration.png|A painting from the folio of [[Hastividyarnava]]
File:Mask in the Indian Museum, Kolkata 15.jpg|Mask art of Assam
</gallery>
== Media ==
Print media include Assamese dailies ''[[Amar Asom]]'', ''[[Asomiya Khabar]]'', ''[[Asomiya Pratidin]]'', ''[[Dainik Agradoot]]'', ''[[Dainik Janambhumi]]'', ''[[Dainik Asam]]'', ''[[Gana Adhikar]]'', ''[[Janasadharan]]'' and ''[[Niyomiya Barta]]''.  ''Asom Bani'', ''Sadin'' and ''Janambhumi'' are Assamese weekly newspapers. The English dailies of Assam include ''[[The Assam Tribune]]'', ''[[The Sentinel (Gauhati)|The Sentinel]]'', ''[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[The North East Times]]'', ''Eastern Chronicle'' and ''The Hills Times''. ''[[Thekar]]'', in the Karbi language has the largest circulation of any daily from Karbi Anglong district. ''Bodosa'' has the highest circulation of any Bodo daily from BTR. ''[[Dainik Jugasankha]]'' is a Bengali daily with editions from Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Silchar and Kolkata. ''Dainik Samayik Prasanga'', ''Dainik Prantojyoti'', ''Dainik Janakantha'' and ''Nababarta Prasanga'' are other prominent Bengali dailies published in the Barak Valley towns of Karimganj and Silchar. Hindi dailies include ''Purvanchal Prahari'', ''Pratah Khabar'' and ''Dainik Purvoday''.
Broadcasting stations of [[All India Radio]] have been established in 22 cities across the state. Local news and music are the main priority for those stations. Assam has three public service broadcasting service stations of state-owned [[DD Assam|Doordarshan]] at Dibrugarh, Guwahati and Silchar. The Guwahati-based satellite news channels include [[Assam Talks]], [[DY 365]], [[News Live (Indian TV channel)|News Live]], [[News18 Assam-North East]], [[North East Live]], [[Prag News]] and [[Pratidin Time]].
With the internet users, social media based news sites have become popular. Notable among them are North East Today, G Plus, Northeast Now, Time8 etc.
== See also ==
* {{Portal-inline|size=tiny|India}}
<!-- For comprehensive listing of articles that cover Assam on Wikipedia, see [[Outline of Assam]]. -->
* [[Outline of Assam]] – comprehensive topic guide listing articles about Assam.
* [[List of people from Assam]]
* [[2022 Silchar Floods]]
* [[Emblem of Assam]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== References ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |first=S L |last=Baruah |title=A Comprehensive History of Assam |year=1986 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal}}
*{{cite book |last1=Gogoi |first1=Khagen |title=Ahom warfare evolution nature and strategy |date=2017 |location=Gauhati University}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Lahiri |first=Nayanjot |date=1984 |title=The Pre-Ahom Roots of Medieval Assam |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517004 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=60–69 |doi=10.2307/3517004 |jstor=3517004 |issn=0970-0293 |access-date=1 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709232228/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517004 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Saikia |first1=Yasmin |title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India |date=2004 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=082238616X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC |language=en |access-date=30 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230337/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Shin |first=Jae-Eun |contribution=Region Formed and Imagined: Reconsidering temporal, spatial and social context of Kamarupa |year=2018 |title=Modern Practices in North East India: History, Culture, Representation| editor-last = Dzüvichü| editor-first = Lipokmar |editor2-last=Baruah |editor2-first=Manjeet |place=London & New York |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{citation |last=Directorate of Information and Public Relations |first=Government of Assam |title=Assam at a Glance |url=http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |access-date=25 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006161204/http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |archive-date=6 October 2007 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Goswami |first1=G. C. |last2=Tamuli |first2=Jyotiprakash |editor-last=Cardona |editor-first=George |editor2-last=Jain |editor2-first=Dhanesh |contribution=Asamiya |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |year=2003 |pages=391–443 |publisher=Routledge |ref={{harvid|Goswami|2003}}}}
* {{citation |author=National Commission for Women |title=Situational Analysis of Women in Assam |year=2004 |url=http://www.ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/Gender%20Profile-Assam.pdf |access-date=5 July 2006 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615001750/http://www.ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/Gender%20Profile-Assam.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2007 }}
* {{Citation |last=Masica |first=Colin P. |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1993 |title=Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521299442 |access-date=24 April 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=National Mission on Bamboo Applications |title=Assam, State Profile |url=http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=101&subid=37&sname=STATE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929160940/http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=101&subid=37&sname=STATE |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}
* {{citation |last=Revenue Department |first=Government of Assam |title=Revenue Administration – Districts and Subdivisions |url=http://revenueassam.nic.in/ |access-date=25 May 2007 |archive-date=24 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070724043102/http://revenueassam.nic.in/ |url-status=live }}
* Singh, K. S (ed) (2003) ''People of India: Assam Vol XV Parts I and II'', Anthropological Survey of India, Seagull Books, Calcutta
* {{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Paromita |year=2005 |title=The Naraka Legends, Aryanisation and the "varnasramadharma" in the Brahmaputra Valley |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=66 |pages=224–230 |publisher=Indian History Congress |jstor=44145840}}
* {{citation |last=UNDP |author-link=UNDP |url=http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |title=Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 |publisher=Government of Assam |year=2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220213032/http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007 }}
* {{citation |last=Wandrey |first=C. J. |title=Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam Composite Total Petroleum System, Assam Geologic Province, India |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/2208/D/b2208-d.pdf |journal=US Geological Survey Bulletin |volume=2208-D |year=2004 |access-date=30 May 2007 |archive-date=5 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605131756/http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/2208/D/b2208-d.pdf |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Casson |first=Lionel |author-link=Lionel Casson |title=The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQWYkSs51rEC |year=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-04060-8 |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=qQWYkSs51rEC |url-status=live }}
{{Refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* '''Online books and material'''
** [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.125418 An account of Assam] (1800) by J.P. Wade
** [https://books.google.com/books?id=OOBAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA444 An account of the kingdom of Heerumba] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230337/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=OOBAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA444 |date=1 February 2023 }} (1819) by Friend of India
** [https://archive.org/stream/astatisticalacc32huntgoog A statistical account of Assam] (1879) by WW Hunter
** [https://archive.org/details/assamattitudetof034931mbp Assam Attitude to Federalism] (1984)by Girin Phukon
** [https://archive.org/stream/aglimpseassam00wardgoog A Glimpse of Assam] (1884) by Susan Ward
** [https://archive.org/stream/ahistoryassam00gaitgoog A history of Assam] (1906) by Edward Gait
** [https://archive.org/details/physicalpolitica00assa Physical and political geography of the province of Assam] (1896) by Assam Secretariat Printing Office
** [https://archive.org/stream/outlinegrammark00endlgoog Outline Grammar of the Kachári (Bārā) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam](1884) by Sidney Endle
** [https://archive.org/stream/anoutlinegramma00browgoog An outline grammar of the Deori Chutiya language spoken in upper Assam](1895) by William Barclay Brown
** [https://archive.org/stream/travelsandadven00butlgoog Travels and adventures in the province of Assam, during a residence of fourteen years] (1855) by John Butler
* '''Language and literature'''
** {{citation |first=Mahendra |last=Bara |title=The Evolution of the Assamese Script |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha |year=1981}}
** {{citation |last=Barpujari |first=H. K. |title=Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha |year=1983}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Birinchi Kumar |title=History of Assamese Literature |place=Guwahati |publisher=East-West Centre Press |year=1965}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Hem |title=Assamese Literature |place=New Delhi |publisher=National Book Trust |year=1965}}
** {{citation |last=Brown |first=William Barclay |title=An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary |place=Shillong |publisher=The Assam Secretariat Printing Office |year=1895}}
** {{citation |last=Deka |first=Bhabananda |title=Industrialisation of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gopal Das |year=1961}}
** {{citation |last=Dhekial Phukan |first=Anandaram 1829–1859 |title=Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1977}}
** {{citation |last=Endle |first=Sidney |title=Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam |place=Shillong |publisher=Assam Secretariat Press |year=1884}}
** {{citation |last=Gogoi |first=Lila |title=Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji |place=Dibrugarh |publisher=New Book Stall |year=1972}}
** {{citation |last=Gogoi |first=Lila |title=The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam |place=New Delhi |publisher=Omsons Publications |year=1986}}
** {{citation |last=Goswami |first=Praphulladatta |title=Folk-Literature of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam |year=1954}}
** {{citation |last=Gurdon |first=Philip Richard Thornhagh |title=Some Assamese Proverbs |place=Shillong |publisher=The Assam Secretariat Printing Office |year=1896 |isbn=1-104-30633-6}}
** {{citation |last=Kakati |first=Banikanta |title=Aspects of Early Assamese Literature |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1959}}
** {{citation |last=Kay |first=S. P. |title=An English-Mikir Vocabulary |place=Shillong |publisher=The Assam Secretariat Printing Office |year=1904}}
** {{citation |last=Medhi |first=Kaliram |title=Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1988}}
** {{citation |last=Miles |first=Bronson |title=A Dictionary in Assamese and English |place=Sibsagar, Assam |publisher=American Baptist Mission Press |year=1867}}
** {{citation |last=Morey |first=Stephen |title=The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts |place=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=2005 |isbn=0-85883-549-5}}
* '''History'''
** {{citation |last=Antrobus |first=H. |title=A History of the Assam Company |place=Edinburgh |publisher=Private Printing by T. and A. Constable |year=1957}}
** {{citation |last=Barabaruwa |first=Hiteswara 1876–1939 |title=Ahomar Din |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1981}}
** {{citation |last=Barooah |first=Nirode K. |title=David Scott in North-East India, 1802–1831 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=1970}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Harakanta 1813–1900 |title=Asama Buranji |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam |year=1962}}
** {{citation |last=Barpujari |first=H. K. |title=Assam in the Days of the Company, 1826–1858 |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1963}}
** {{citation |last=Barpujari |first=H. K. |title=Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Government of Assam |year=1977}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Kanak Lal |title=An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyers Book Stall}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Kanak Lal |title=Studies in the Early History of Assam |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha}}
** {{citation |last=Baruah |first=Swarna Lata |title=Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769 to 1826 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=1993}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771–1826 |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam |year=1949}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Annals of the Delhi Badshahate |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam |year=1947}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Atan Buragohain and His Times |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1957}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Deodhai Asam Buranji |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies |year=1962}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Early British Relations with Assam |place=Shillong |publisher=Assam Secretariat Press |year=1928}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Lachit Barphukan and His Times |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam |year=1947}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Satasari Asama Buranji |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1964}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Swargadew Rajeswarasimha |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1975}}
** {{citation |last=Buchanan |first=Francis Hamilton 1762–1829 |title=An Account of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies |year=1963}}
** {{citation |last=Duara Barbarua |first=Srinath |title=Tungkhungia Buranji |place=Bombay |publisher=H. Milford, Oxford University Press |year=1933}}
** {{citation |last=Gait |first=Edward Albert 1863–1950 |title=A History of Assam |place=Calcutta |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co. |year=1926}}
** {{citation |last=Gogoi |first=Padmeswar |title=The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1968}}
** {{citation |last=Guha |first=Amalendu |title=The Ahom Political System |place=Calcutta |publisher=Centre for Studies in Social Sciences |year=1983}}
** {{citation |first=William Wilson 1840–1900 |last=Hunter |title=A Statistical Account of Assam |place=London |publisher=Trubner & Co. |year=1879}}
* '''Tradition and Culture'''
** {{citation |last=Barkath |first=Sukumar |title=Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1976}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Birinchi Kumar |title=A Cultural History of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1969}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Birinchi Kumar |title=Sankardeva |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Academy for Cultural Relations |year=1960}}
** {{citation |last=Gandhiya |first=Jayakanta |title=Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac |place=Dibrugarh |year=1988}}
** {{citation |last=Goswami |first=Praphulladatta |title=Ballads and Tales of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1960}}
** {{citation |last=Goswami |first=Praphulladatta |title=Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1988}}
** {{citation |last=Mahanta |first=Pona |title=Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama |place=Delhi |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1985}}
** {{citation |last=Medhi |first=Kaliram |title=Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha |year=1978}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Bihar|s=The New International Encyclopædia/Assam}}
* '''Government'''
** [http://www.assam.gov.in/ Official site] of the [[Government of Assam]]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20150915011554/http://assamtourism.gov.in/ Official Tourism site of Assam]
* '''General information'''
** {{curlie|Regional/Asia/India/Assam}}
** {{osmrelation-inline|2025886}}
{{Geographic location
|Centre = Assam
|North = [[Samdrup Jongkhar District]], {{flag|Bhutan}}
|Northeast = [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
|East = [[Nagaland]]
|Southeast = [[Manipur]]
|South = [[Mizoram]]
|Southwest = [[Meghalaya]] and [[Tripura]]<br />[[Sylhet Division]],  {{flag|Bangladesh}}
|West = [[West Bengal]]<br />[[Rangpur Division]], {{flag|Bangladesh}}
|Northwest = [[Sarpang District]], {{flag|Bhutan}}
}}


{{asia-stub}}
{{Assam}}
{{States and territories of India}}
{{Fairs and Festivals in Assam}}
{{North East India|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Assam]]
[[Category:Assam| ]]
[[Category:Northeast India]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1947]]
[[Category:Tourism in Northeast India]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
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