Maratha Empire: Difference between revisions

{{Infobox country

| image_flag            = Flag of the Maratha Empire.png

| alt_flag              =  

| flag_border            = no

| image_coat            = Shivaji seal, reproduction.jpg

| conventional_long_name = Maratha Empire

| common_name            = Maratha Empire

| date_event1            = 1680–1707

| date_event2            = 1758–1761

| event3                = [[Maratha–Mysore Wars]]

| event4                = [[First Anglo-Maratha War]]

| date_event4           = 1775–1782

| event5                = [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]

| s1                    = Company rule in India

| flag_s1                = Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg

| s2                    = Sikh Empire

| image_map              = India1760 1905.jpg

| image_map_caption      = Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (Yellow)

| englishmotto          = ([[English language|English]]: "Praises to [[Shiva]]")

| official_languages    = {{plainlist|

*[[Marathi language|Marathi]] (court language, literature)

*[[Sanskrit]] (religious)}}

| religion              = '''State religion:'''<br/>[[Hinduism]]

----'''Minority:'''<br />[[Religion in India|Other religions in South Asia]]

| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]] (1674–1731)<br />[[Oligarchy]] with restricted monarchial [[figurehead]] (1731–1818)

| year_leader1          = 1674–1680

| area_km2              = 2,500,000<ref>Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "[http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf East-West Orientation of Historical Empires] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517210851/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf |date=17 May 2016 }}" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222–223. {{ISSN|1076-156X}}. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.</ref>

| today                  = {{ubl|[[India]]|[[Pakistan]]}}

The '''Maratha Empire''', also referred to as the '''Maratha Confederacy''', was an [[early modern India]]n [[confederation]] that rose to dominate much of the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the 18th century. Maratha rule formally began in 1674{{#tag:ref| Some historians{{sfnp|Schmidt|2015|pp=54-}} may consider 1645 as the founding of the empire because that was the year when the teenaged Shivaji captured a fort from the Adilshahi sultanate.|group=note}} with the coronation of [[Shivaji]] of the [[Bhonsle|Bhonsle Dynasty]] as the ''[[Chhatrapati]]'' ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]: "The title "Chhatrapati" was created by Shivaji upon his coronation"). Although Shivaji came from the [[Maratha (caste)|Maratha caste]], the Maratha empire also included warriors, administrators and other notables from Maratha and several other castes from [[Maharashtra]].<ref name="kantak78">{{cite journal |last=Kantak |first=M. R.|title=The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of the Shivaji's Swarajya |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |date=1978 |volume=38 |issue=1 |page=44 |jstor=42931051}}</ref>

They are largely credited for ending [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] control over the Indian subcontinent and establishing the Maratha Empire.{{sfnp|Pearson|1976|pp=221–235}}{{sfnp|Capper|1997|p=|ps=:This source establishes the Maratha control of Delhi before the British}}{{sfnp|Sen|2010|pp=1941–|ps=:The victory at Bhopal in 1738 established Maratha dominance at the Mughal court}} The religious attitude of [[Aurangzeb|Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb]] estranged non-Muslims, and his inability to finish the resulting Maratha uprising after a  [[Mughal–Maratha Wars|27-year war]] at a great cost to his men and treasure, eventually ensued Maratha ascendency and control over sizeable portions of former Mughal lands in the north or about 1/3 of the subcontinent by 1757.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osborne |first=Eric W. |date=2020-07-03 |title=The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680–1707 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=988–1009 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |s2cid=221060782 |issn=0959-2318}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clingingsmith |first1=David |last2=Williamson |first2=Jeffrey G. |date=2008-07-01 |title=Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th century India: Mughal decline, climate shocks and British industrial ascent |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014498307000447 |journal=Explorations in Economic History |language=en |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=209–234 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2007.11.002 |issn=0014-4983}}</ref> Maratha rule officially ended in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa [[Bajirao II]] at the hands of the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] in [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].

The Marathas were a [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-speaking warrior group from the western [[Deccan Plateau]] (present-day [[Maharashtra]]) who rose to prominence by establishing [[Hindavi Swarajya]] (meaning "self-rule of Hindus").{{sfnp|Pagdi| 1993|p=98|ps=: Shivaji's coronation and setting himself up as a sovereign prince symbolises the rise of the Indian people in all parts of the country. It was a bid for ''Hindavi Swarajya'' (Indian rule), a term in use in Marathi sources of history.}}{{sfnp|Jackson|2005|p=38}} The Marathas became prominent in the 17th century under the leadership of [[Shivaji]], who revolted against the [[Adil Shahi dynasty]], and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] to carve out a kingdom with [[Raigad Fort|Raigad]] as his capital.

His father, [[Shahaji]], had earlier conquered [[Thanjavur]] which Shivaji's half-brother, Venkoji Rao (alias [[Ekoji]]) inherited. This kingdom was known as the [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom]]. [[Bangalore]] which was established in 1537 by a [[vassal]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], [[Kempe Gowda I]] who declared independence, was captured in 1638 by a large [[Adil Shahi]] Bijapur army led by Ranadulla Khan who, accompanied by his second in command Shahaji, defeated Kempe Gowda III. As a result, Bangalore was given to Shahaji as a ''[[jagir]]'' (feudal estate). Known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during the [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]] and later controlled a large part of the Indian subcontinent.

 

 

A large portion of the Maratha empire was coastline, which had been secured by the potent [[Maratha Navy]] under commanders such as [[Kanhoji Angre]]. He successfully kept foreign naval ships at bay, particularly those of the Portuguese and British.{{sfnp|Pagdi|1993|p=21}} Securing the coastal areas and building land-based fortifications were crucial aspects of the Maratha's defensive strategy and regional [[Military history of India|military history]].

The Maratha Empire is also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy. The historian [[Barbara Ramusack]] says that the former is a designation preferred by Indian nationalists, while the latter was that used by British historians. She notes, "neither term is fully accurate since one implies a substantial degree of centralisation and the other signifies some surrender of power to a central government and a longstanding core of political administrators".{{sfnp|Ramusack|2004|p=35}}

=== Shivaji and his descendants ===

Shivaji had two sons: [[Sambhaji]] and [[Rajaram I|Rajaram]], who had different mothers and were half-brothers. In 1681, Sambhaji succeeded to the crown after his father's death and resumed his expansionist policies. Sambhaji had earlier defeated the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Wodeyar|Chikka Deva Raya]] of [[Mysore]]. To nullify the alliance between his rebel son, Akbar, and the Marathas,{{sfnp|Richards|1995|p=12}} [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] headed south in 1681. With his entire imperial court, administration and an army of about 500,000 troops, he proceeded to expand the Mughal empire, gaining territories such as the sultanates of Bijapur and [[Golconda]]. During the eight years that followed, Sambhaji led the Marathas successfully against the Mughals.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005}}{{pn|date=January 2023}}

Upon Sambhaji's death, his half-brother Rajaram ascended the throne. The Mughal siege of Raigad continued, and he had to flee to [[Vishalgad]] and then to [[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] for safety. From there, the Marathas raided Mughal territory, and many forts were recaptured by Maratha commanders such as [[Santaji Ghorpade]], [[Dhanaji Jadhav]], [[Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi]], Shankaraji Narayan Sacheev and Melgiri Pandit. In 1697, Rajaram offered a truce but this was rejected by Aurangzeb. Rajaram died in 1700 at [[Sinhagad]]. His widow, [[Tarabai]], assumed control in the name of her son, Ramaraja (Shivaji II).{{sfnp|Mehta|2005}}{{pn|date=January 2023}}

After Aurangzeb died in 1707, [[Shahu I|Shahu]], the son of Sambhaji (and grandson of Shivaji), was released by [[Bahadur Shah I]], the new Mughal emperor. However, his mother was kept a hostage of the Mughals to ensure that Shahu adhered to the release conditions. Upon release, Shahu immediately claimed the Maratha throne and challenged his aunt Tarabai and her son. The spluttering Mughal-Maratha war became a three-cornered affair. This resulted in two rival seats of government being set up in 1707 at Satara and [[Kolhapur]] by Shahu and Tarabai respectively. Shahu appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath]] as his Peshwa.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=11}} The Peshwa was instrumental in securing Mughal recognition of Shahu as the rightful heir of Shivaji and the [[Chhatrapati]] of the Marathas.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=11}} Balaji also gained the release of Shahu's mother, [[Yesubai Bhonsale|Yesubai]], from Mughal captivity in 1719.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=81}}

During Shahu's reign, [[Raghoji I Bhonsle|Raghoji Bhosale]] expanded the empire Eastwards, reaching present-day [[Bengal]]. [[Khanderao Dabhade]] and later his son, Triambakrao, expanded it Westwards into Gujarat.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=101-103}} Peshwa Bajirao and his three chiefs, [[Pawar]] ([[Dhar]]), [[Holkar]] ([[Indore]]), and [[Scindia]] ([[Gwalior]]), expanded it northwards up to [[Peshawar]]. He also expanded it up to [[Kaveri|Kaveri river]].

Shahu appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath|Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath]] in 1713. From his time, the office of Peshwa became supreme while Shahu became a figurehead.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=11}} His first major achievement was the conclusion of the ''Treaty of Lonavala'' in 1714 with [[Kanhoji Angre]], the most powerful naval chief on the Western Coast. He later accepted Shahu as Chhatrapati. In 1719, [[Maratha Army|Marathas]] marched to [[Delhi]] after defeating Sayyid Hussain Ali, the Mughal governor of Deccan, and deposed the Mughal emperor. The Mughal Emperors became puppets in the hands of their Maratha overlords from this point on.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=12}}{{better source needed|date=December 2022}}

After Balaji Vishwanath's death in April 1720, his son, [[Baji Rao I]], was appointed Peshwa by Shahu. Bajirao is credited with expanding the Maratha Empire tenfold from 3% to 30% of the modern Indian landscape during 1720–1740. He fought over 41 battles before his death in April 1740 and is reputed to have never lost any.{{sfnp|Montgomery|1972|p=132}} The [[Battle of Palkhed]] was a land battle that took place on 28 February 1728 at the village of Palkhed, near the city of Nashik, Maharashtra, India between Baji Rao I and [[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I]] of Hyderabad. The Marathas defeated the [[Nizam]]. The battle is considered an example of the brilliant execution of military strategy.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=12}} In 1737, Marathas under [[Bajirao I]] raided the suburbs of Delhi in a blitzkrieg in the [[Battle of Delhi (1737)]].{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=117}}{{sfnp|Sen|2006|p=12}} The Nizam set out from the Deccan to rescue the Mughals from the invasion of the Marathas, but was defeated decisively in the [[Battle of Bhopal]].{{sfnp|Sen|2006}}{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=23}} The Marathas extracted a large tribute from the Mughals and signed a treaty which ceded [[Malwa]] to the Marathas.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=13}} The [[Battle of Vasai]] was fought between the Marathas and the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rulers of [[Vasai]], a village lying on the northern shore of Vasai creek, 50&nbsp;km north of [[Mumbai]]. The Marathas were led by [[Chimaji Appa]], brother of Baji Rao. The Maratha victory in this war was a major achievement of Baji Rao's time in office.{{sfnp|Sen|2006}}

Baji Rao's son, [[Nanasaheb Peshwa|Balaji Bajirao]] (Nanasaheb), was appointed as the next Peshwa by Shahu despite the opposition of other chiefs. In 1740, the Maratha forces, under Raghoji Bhosale, came down upon [[Arcot]] and defeated the [[Nawab of Arcot]], Dost Ali, in the pass at Damalcherry. In the war that followed, Dost Ali, one of his sons Hasan Ali, and a number of other prominent persons lost their lives. This initial success at once enhanced Maratha prestige in the south. From Damalcherry, the Marathas proceeded to Arcot, which surrendered to them without much resistance. Then, Raghuji invaded Trichinopoly in December 1740. Unable to resist, [[Chanda Sahib]] surrendered the fort to Raghuji on 14 March 1741. Chanda Saheb and his son were arrested and sent to Nagpur.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=202}} [[Rajputana]] also came under Maratha domination during this time.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=15}} In June 1756 Luís Mascarenhas, Count of Alva (Conde de Alva), the Portuguese Viceroy was killed in action by the Maratha Army in Goa.

After the successful campaign of Karnataka and the [[Siege of Trichinopoly (1741)|Trichinopolly]], Raghuji returned from Karnataka. He undertook [[Expeditions in Bengal|six expeditions into Bengal]] from 1741 to 1748. {{sfnp|Sarkar|1991|p=}} The resurgent Maratha Empire launched [[Maratha invasions of Bengal|brutal raids against the prosperous Bengali state in the 18th century]], which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. During their invasions and occupation of [[Bihar]]{{sfnp|Chaudhuri|2006|p=253}} and [[West Bengal|western Bengal]] up to the [[Hooghly River]],{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}} During their occupation of [[West Bengal|western Bengal]], the Marathas perpetrated atrocities against the local population.{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}} The Maratha atrocities were recorded by both Bengali and European sources, which reported that the Marathas demanded payments, and tortured or killed anyone who couldn't pay.{{sfnp|Marshall|2006|p=72}}

Raghuji was able to annex [[Odisha]] to his kingdom permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal after the death of its governor [[Murshid Quli Khan]] in 1727. Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles, Odisha, Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined. Alivardi Khan, the [[Nawab of Bengal]] made peace with Raghuji in 1751 ceding Cuttack (Odisha) up to the river Subarnarekha, and agreeing to pay Rs. 1.2&nbsp;million annually as the [[Chauth]] for Bengal and Bihar.{{sfnp|Sen|2010|p=15}}

Balaji Bajirao encouraged agriculture, protected the villagers and brought about a marked improvement in the state of the territory. [[Raghunath Rao]], brother of Nanasaheb, pushed into the wake of the Afghan withdrawal after [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]]'s plunder of Delhi in 1756. Delhi was captured by the Maratha army under Raghunath Rao in August 1757, defeating the Afghan garrison in the [[Siege of Delhi, 1757|Battle of Delhi]]. This laid the foundation for the [[Maratha conquest of North-west India]]. In [[Lahore]], as in Delhi, the Marathas were now major players.{{sfnp|Roy|2004|pp=80–81}} After the 1758 Battle of [[Attock]], the Marathas captured [[Peshawar]] defeating the Afghan troops in the [[Battle of Peshawar]] on 8 May 1758.{{sfnp| Sen|2010|p=16}}

In 1760, the Marathas under [[Sadashivrao Bhau]] (referred to as the Bhau or Bhao in sources) responded to the news of the Afghans' return to North India by sending a large army north. Bhau's force was bolstered by some Maratha forces under [[Holkar]], [[Scindia]], [[Gaikwad]] and [[Govind Pant Bundele]] with [[Suraj Mal]]. The combined army of over 50,000 regular troops re-captured the former Mughal capital, Delhi, from an Afghan garrison in August 1760.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=140}}

Delhi had been reduced to ashes many times due to previous invasions, and there was an acute shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered the sacking of the already depopulated city.{{sfnp|Agrawal|1983|p=26}}{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=274|ps=}} He is said to have planned to place his nephew and the Peshwa's son, [[Vishwasrao]], on the Mughal throne. By 1760, with defeat of the Nizam in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], Maratha power had reached its zenith with a territory of over {{convert|2500000|km2}}.{{sfnp|Turchin|Adams|Hall|2006|p=223}}

[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] called on the [[Rohillas]] and the [[Nawab of Oudh]] to assist him in driving out the Marathas from Delhi.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} Huge armies of Muslim forces and Marathas collided with each other on 14 January 1761 in the [[Third Battle of Panipat]]. The [[Maratha Army]] lost the battle, which halted their imperial expansion. The [[Jat]]s and [[Rajput]]s did not support the Marathas. Historians have criticised the Maratha treatment of fellow Hindu groups. Kaushik Roy says "The treatment of Marathas with their co-religionist fellows – Jats and Rajputs was definitely unfair<!-- and ultimately they had to pay its price in Panipat where Muslim forces had united in the name of religion."{{sfnp|Roy|2004|pp=80–81}}--> After the battle, Malhar Rao Holkar attacked the Rajputs and defeated them at the battle of Mangrol. This largely restored Maratha power in [[Rajasthan]].{{sfnp|Stewart|1993|p=157}}

Peshwa [[Madhavrao I]] was the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. It was during his tenure that the [[Maratha Resurrection]] took place. He worked as a unifying force in the Maratha Empire and moved to the south to subdue Mysore and the Nizam of Hyderabad to assert Maratha power. He sent generals such as Bhonsle, Scindia and Holkar to the north, where they re-established Maratha authority by the early 1770s.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} Madhav Rao I crossed the [[Krishna River]] in 1767 and defeated [[Hyder Ali]] in the battles of Sira and Madgiri. He also rescued the last queen of the [[Keladi Nayaka Kingdom]], who had been kept in confinement by Hyder Ali in the fort of Madgiri.{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=458|ps=}}  

[[File:The Maharahaj of Gwalior Before His Palace ca 1887.jpg|thumb|[[Maharaja of Gwalior|Maratha king of Gwalior]] at his palace]]

In early 1771, ten years after the collapse of Maratha authority over North India following the Third Battle of Panipat, Mahadji recaptured Delhi and installed [[Shah Alam II]] as a puppet ruler on the Mughal throne{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=8|ps=}} receiving in return the title of deputy ''Vakil-ul-Mutlak'' or vice-regent of the Empire and that of ''Vakil-ul-Mutlak'' being at his request conferred on the Peshwa. The Mughals also gave him the title of ''Amir-ul-Amara'' (head of the amirs).{{sfnp|Farooqui|2011|p=334}} After taking control of Delhi, the Marathas sent a large army in 1772 to punish Afghan [[Rohilla]]s for their involvement in Panipat. Their army devastated [[Rohilkhand]] by looting and plundering as well as taking members of the royal family as captives.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=8|ps=}}Madhav Rao died in 1772, at the age of 27. His death is considered to be a fatal blow to the Maratha Empire and from that time Maratha power started to move on a downward trajectory, less an empire than a confederacy.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

After the growth in power of feudal lords like Malwa sardars, landlords of Bundelkhand and Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan, they refused to pay tribute to Mahadji, so he sent his army to conquer the states such as [[Bhopal State|Bhopal]], Datiya, Chanderi, Narwar, Salbai and Gohad. However, he launched an unsuccessful expedition against the Raja of Jaipur, but withdrew after the inconclusive Battle of Lalsot in 1787.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=95|ps=}} The [[Battle of Gajendragad]] was fought between the Marathas under the command of Tukojirao Holkar (the adopted son of Malharrao Holkar) and [[Tipu Sultan]] from March 1786 to March 1787 in which Tipu Sultan was defeated by the Marathas. By the victory in this battle, the border of the Maratha territory extended till [[Tungabhadra]] river.{{sfnp|Sampath|2008|p=238}} The strong fort of [[Gwalior]] was then in the hands of [[Chhatar Singh]], the Jat ruler of [[Gohad]]. In 1783, Mahadji besieged the fort of Gwalior and conquered it. He delegated the administration of Gwalior to Khanderao Hari Bhalerao. After celebrating the conquest of Gwalior, Mahadji Shinde turned his attention to Delhi again.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=30|ps=}}

In 1788, Mahadji's armies defeated [[Ismail Beg]], a Mughal noble who resisted the Marathas.{{sfnp|Rathod|1994|p=106|ps=}} The Rohilla chief [[Ghulam Kadir]], Ismail Beg's ally, took over Delhi, capital of the Mughal dynasty and deposed and blinded the king Shah Alam II, placing a puppet on the Delhi throne. Mahadji intervened and killed him, taking possession of Delhi on 2 October restoring Shah Alam II to the throne and acting as his protector.{{sfnp|Kulakarṇī|1996|p=}} [[Jaipur]] and [[Jodhpur]], the two most powerful Rajput states, were still out of direct Maratha domination. So, Mahadji sent his general [[Benoît de Boigne]] to crush the forces of Jaipur and Jodhpur at the [[Battle of Patan]].{{sfnp|Sarkar|1994|p=}} Marwar was also captured on 10 September 1790. Another achievement of the Marathas was their victories over the [[Nizam]] of Hyderabad's armies including in the [[Battle of Kharda]].{{sfnp|Majumdar|1951b|p=}}{{sfnp|Barua|2005|p=91}}

==== Maratha–Mysore Wars ====

The Marathas came into conflict with [[Tipu Sultan]] and his [[Kingdom of Mysore]], leading to the [[Maratha–Mysore Wars|Maratha–Mysore War]] in 1785. The war ended in 1787 with the Tipu Sultan being defeated by Marathas.{{sfnp|Hasan|2005|pp=105–107}} The Maratha-Mysore war ended in April 1787, following the finalizing of the ''treaty of Gajendragad'', as per which, Tipu Sultan of Mysore was obligated to pay 4.8&nbsp;million rupees as a war cost to the Marathas, and an annual tribute of 1.2&nbsp;million rupees, in addition to returning all the territory captured by [[Hyder Ali]],{{sfnp|Naravane|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxsa3jtHoCEC&pg=PA175 175]}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-kanqrtVhYC&dq=gajendragad+1787&pg=PA54 ''Anglo-Maratha relations, 1785-96'']</ref>  In 1791–92, large areas of the Maratha Confederacy suffered massive population loss due to the [[Doji bara famine]].<ref name=igi-III-502>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III|1907|p=502}}</ref>

==== British intervention ====

{{See|Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Mysore Wars}}

In 1775, the [[British East India Company]], from its base in Bombay, intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, on behalf of [[Raghunathrao]] (also called Raghobadada), who wanted to become Peshwa of the empire. Marathas forces under Tukojirao Holkar and Mahadaji Shinde defeated a British expeditionary force at the [[Battle of Wadgaon]], but the heavy surrender terms, which included the return of annexed territory and a share of revenues, were disavowed by the British authorities at Bengal and fighting continued. What became known as the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war ''status quo'' and the East India Company's abandonment of Raghunathrao's cause.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Wadgaon |title=Battle of Wadgaon, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623110244/https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Wadgaon |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Third Anglo-Maratha War was fought by Maratha warlords separately instead of forming a common front and they surrendered one by one. Shinde and the Pashtun Amir Khan were subdued by the use of diplomacy and pressure, which resulted in the Treaty of Gwalior{{sfnp|Prakash|2002|p=300}} on 5 November 1817.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} All other Maratha chiefs like Holkars, Bhonsles and the Peshwa gave up arms by 1818. British historian [[Percival Spear]] describes 1818 as a watershed year in the [[history of India]], saying that by that year "the British dominion in India became the British dominion of India".{{sfnp|Nayar|2008|p=64}}{{sfnp|Trivedi|Allen|2000|p=30}}

== Rebellions ==

In 1760, the peace of Peshwa government was broken by a rising of [[Koli people|Kolis]] under their Naik [[Javji Bamble]]. Javji with drew to the hills and organised a series of gang robberies, causing widespread terror and misery throughout the country. For twenty years he held out bravely, defeating and killing the generals of the Peshwa's Government sent against him. At last he was so hotly pursued that, on the advice of Dhondo Gopal, the Peshwa's governor at [[Nashik|Nasik]], he surrendered all his forts to [[Tukoji Rao Holkar|Tukoji Holkar]] and, through [[Holkar|Holkar's]] influence, was pardoned and placed in military and police charge of a district of sixty villages with powers of life and death outlaws. In 1798, a fresh disturbance took place among the Kolis. The leader of this outbreak was Ramji Naik Bhangria, who was an abler and more daring man than his prede cessors, and succeeded in baffling all the efforts of the Government officers to seize him. As force seemed hopeless, the Government offered Ramji a pardon and gave him an important police post.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hassan|first=Syed Siraj ul|url=|title=The Castes and Tribes of H.E.H. the [[Nizam]]'s Dominions|publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]]|year=1989|isbn=978-81-206-0488-9|location=[[New Delhi]], [[India]]|pages=333|language=en}}</ref>

 

In 1763, the [[Peshwa]] [[Raghunath Rao|Raghunathrao]] had appointed Abha [[Purandare]] who was an anti koli as [[Sarnaik]], due to which the Chivhe [[Koli people|Kolis]] revolted against the Peshwa and captured [[Purandar Fort|Purandar]] and [[Sinhagad]] [[Forts in India|forts]] because the Kolis did not like Abha Purandare, so Abha removed the Kolis from the fortification and posted new Kiledars, due to which the Kolis attacked and captured the forts on 7 May 1764. Five days later, Rudramal fort was also captured and presented a challenge to the [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]] of the Maratha Empire, Peshwa Raghunathrao.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guha|first=Sumit|url=|title=History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000|date=2019-11-01|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|isbn=978-0-295-74623-4|location=[[New Delhi]], [[India]]|pages=191|language=en}}</ref> A few days later the Peshwa came to the fort to worship the deity inside the Purandar fort but the Peshwa got caught up by the Kolis. The Kolis looted all the belongings and weapons of the Peshwa and took him prisoner but released after some time. After this the Kolis started collecting revenue from the surrounding area. After this, the chief of the Kolis, Kondaji Chivhe, sent a letter to the Peshwa, in which it was written 'What now sir, what is the condition, how is the government doing, be in fun'. After reading this letter, the Peshwa felt a bit humiliated and in a fit of rage ordered the [[Maratha Army|Maratha army]] to attack but the army could not do anything because the Kolis himselves were [[Subedar]] and had fortified the forts well and the Peshwa faced failure.  the humiliated Peshwa started taking the Kolis of Chivhe clan as captive. All those Chivhe kolis who were living in the territory of Peshwa were declared as rebels and started making captives. After this the Chivhe Kolis sent a letter to [[Madhavrao I|Madhavrao]] and explained whole matter, after this the Kolis handed over the forts to Madhavrao and the Chivahe Kolis were again handed over the fortifications.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Guha|first1=Sumit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSa5blriOYcC&dq=chivhe&pg=PA90|title=Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991|last2=Guha|first2=Lecturer Sumit|date=1999-07-15|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-64078-7|location=New Delhi, India|pages=83–105|language=en}}</ref>

 

In the year 1776, a large number of the Shelkande [[Koli people|Kolis]] of [[Otur, Maharashtra|Otur]] village, raised against [[Peshwa]] because of their hereditary land rights and as the Peshwa refused to do them.  Kolis assembled a revolutionary army of Shelkande and Kokate Kolis and commenced plundering the surrounding villages and doing other violent activities in the hope of obtaining redress.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gāre|first=Govinda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZciAAAAMAAJ|title=Tribals in an Urban Setting: A Study of Socio-economic Impact of Poona City on the Mahadeo Kolis|publisher=Shubhada Saraswat Publications|year=1976|location=New Delhi, India|pages=26|language=en}}</ref>  In response, The Peshwa sent [[Maratha Army|Maratha]] troops from [[Pune]] against rebel kolis and surprised them, killed and wounded many of them. The Koli leaders were consequently forced to disperse the [[Rebellion|rebels]].  The government officers learned that Sattu Shelkande, chief of the insurgents, was hiding in the neighboring [[jungle]].  The better to ensure this, they obliged him to enter into the Sunkli zamin or chain security (one [[Patil (title)|Patil]] going security for two or three cultivators, another Patil for five or six poorer Patils, and a [[Deshmukh]] for a number of the Patils).  Hearing of the measures the government officers were adopting, moved off to another place;  this was partly for their own safety, and partly to save their friends from being harassed and punished for not fulfilling their promise of apprehending them.  After the troops retired from the jungles, the Kolis recommenced their operations. Several seasons were passed in this way;  however when [[Javji Bamble]] was appointed as [[Mansabdar]] of [[Rajur]] he was ordered by Peshwa to prevent the rebellious activities by rebels. Kolis did not wish to fight with Bumble because he was also a Koli by caste.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hardiman|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNA-AQAAIAAJ|title=Histories for the Subordinated|publisher=[[Seagull Books]]|year=2007|isbn=978-1-905422-38-8|location=[[New Delhi]], [[India]]|pages=104|language=en}}</ref>  Kolis remained quiet for four years but Kolis went again to the jungles because his hereditary rights have not been fulfilled. The troops employed against the Shelkande Kolis and again forced them to disperse and the chiefs went to [[Aurangabad]].  Kolis had taken an oath that they would cut off the head of Patil of Otur, unless Peshwa afforded them redress. [[Nana Fadnavis|Nana Phadnavis]] who was minister in Maratha Empire declared that he would not pardon the Kolis again, as they were such a turbulent race and as no faith could be reposed in them. Nana Fadnavis detached few [[Brahmin]]s disguised as [[Gusainji|Gusai]], who gained information of the hiding place of Kolis and a detachment that marched to apprehend them was so fortunate as to bring them all prisoners to [[Junnar]], where the five Kolis were executed.  Balwantrao, brother-in-law to Nana Fadnavis, was [[subedar]] of the district at the time, and it is asserted Balwantrao became very unhappy after the execution of these kolis. Therefore, in the hope of reestablishing the happiness that he had enjoyed, he erected a temple near river in Junnar, in which was placed as the object of worship a Punah Lingh, or five stones representing the five Kolis who were executed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pillai|first=S. Devadas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&q=mahadev+koli|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1997|isbn=978-81-7154-807-1|location=New Delhi, India|pages=207–210|language=en}}</ref>

 

The Maratha Empire, at its peak, encompassed a large area of the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian sub-continent]]. The Maratha Empire at its zenith, expanded from [[Afghanistan]] in the north to [[Thanjavur]] in the south, [[Sindh]] in the west to [[Bengal]] in the east. It bordered [[Nepal]] and [[Afghanistan]] in the north. Apart from capturing various regions, the Marathas maintained a large number of tributaries who were bounded by agreements to pay a certain amount of regular tax, known as [[Chauth]]. The empire defeated the [[Sultanate of Mysore]] under [[Hyder Ali]] and [[Tipu Sultan]], the [[Nawab of Oudh]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], the [[Nawab of Bengal]], [[Talpur dynasty|Nawab of Sindh]] and the [[Nawab of Arcot]] as well as the [[Polygar]] kingdoms of South India. They extracted ''chauth'' from the rulers in [[Delhi]], [[Oudh State|Oudh]], [[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Odisha]], [[Punjab]], [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]], [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]], [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Sindh]] and [[Rajputana]].{{sfnp|Lindsay|1967|p=556}}{{sfnp|Saini|Chand|n.d.|p=97}} They built up the largest Hindu empire in India after the fall of the [[Gupta Empire]] on the 6th century.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

 

 

The Marathas were requested by [[Safdarjung]], the Nawab of Oudh, in 1752 to help him defeat the Afghani Rohillas. The Maratha force set out from Pune and defeated the Afghan Rohillas in 1752, capturing the whole of [[Rohilkhand]] (present-day northwestern Uttar Pradesh).{{sfnp|Agrawal|1983|p=26}} In 1752, the Marathas entered into an agreement with the Mughal emperor, through his ''wazir'', Safdarjung, and the Mughals gave the Marathas the ''chauth'' of [[Punjab region|Punjab]], [[Sindh]] and [[Doab]] in addition to the ''[[Subahdar]]i'' of [[Ajmer]] and [[Agra]].{{sfnp|Sen|2006|p=13}} In 1758, Marathas started their [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|north-west conquest]] and expanded their boundary till Afghanistan. They defeated Afghan forces of [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]], in what is now Pakistan, including [[Punjab Province, Pakistan|Pakistani Punjab Province]] and [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. The Afghans were numbered around 25,000–30,000 and were led by [[Timur Shah]], the son of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]. The Marathas massacred and looted thousands of Afghan soldiers and captured [[Lahore]], [[Multan]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan]], [[Attock]], [[Peshawar]] in the [[Punjab region]] and [[Kashmir]].{{sfnp|Roy|2011|p=103}} They also made sporadic raids in [[Afghanistan]].

 

 

 

 

== Government and military ==

=== Administration ===

=== Military ===

{{Main|Maratha Navy|Maratha Army}}

The Maratha army under [[Shivaji]] was a national army consisting of personnel drawn mainly from [[Maharashtra]]. It was a homogeneous body commanded by a regular cadre of officers, who had to obey one supreme commander. With the rise of the [[Peshwa]]s, however, this national army had to make room for a feudal force provided by different Maratha sardars.{{sfnp|Kar|1980|p={{page needed|date=April 2022}}}} This new Maratha army was not homogenous, but employed soldiers of different backgrounds, both locals and foreign mercenaries, including large numbers of [[Arabs]], [[Sikhs]], [[Rajputs]], [[Sindhis]], [[Rohillas]], [[Abyssinian people|Abyssinians]], [[Pathans]], Topiwalas and Europeans. The army of [[Nana Fadnavis]], for example, included 5,000 Arabs.{{sfnp|Majumdar|1951b|p=512}}

Some historians have credited the [[Maratha Navy]] for laying the foundation of the [[Indian Navy]] and bringing significant changes in naval warfare. A series of sea forts and battleships were built in the 17th century during the reign of [[Shivaji]]. It has been noted that vessels built in the dockyards of [[Konkan]] were mostly indigenous and constructed without foreign aid.{{sfnp|Bhave|2000|p=28}} Further, in the 18th century, during the reign of [[Kanhoji Angre|Admiral Kanhoji Angre]], a host of dockyard facilities were built along the entire western coastline of present-day [[Maharashtra]]. The Marathas fortified the entire coastline with sea fortresses with navigational facilities.{{sfnp|Sridharan|2000|p=43}} Nearly all the hill forts, which dot the landscape of present-day western Maharashtra were built by the Marathas. The renovation of [[Gingee Fort|Gingee fortress]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], has been particularly applauded, according to the contemporary European accounts, the defence fortifications matched the European ones.{{sfnp|Kantak|1993|p=10}}

==== European accounts ====

[[Norman Gash]] says that the Maratha infantry was equal to that of British infantry. After the [[Third Anglo-Maratha war]] in 1818, Britain listed the [[Maratha]]s as one of the [[Martial Race]]s to serve in the British Indian Army.{{sfnp|Gash|1990|p=17}} The 19th-century diplomat Sir [[Justin Sheil]] commented about the British East India Company copying the French Indian army in raising an army of Indians:

=== Federal houses of Maratha Confederacy ===

===Thanjavur Marathas===

The Thanjavur Marathas were the rulers of the [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom]] in present day Tamil Nadu between the 17th and 19th centuries. Their native language was [[Thanjavur Marathi dialect|Thanjavur Marathi]]. [[Venkoji]], Shahaji's son and Shivaji's half-brother, was the founder of the dynasty.{{sfnp| Serfoji|1979|p=}} They were patrons of fine arts and their reign has been considered the golden period of [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]] history. Art and culture reached new heights during their rule. They also considered themselves as representatives of [[Chola Dynasty|Cholas]] referring themselves as ''Cholasimhasanathipathi''.{{sfnp|Bhosle|2017|p=143}} They made significant contributions towards Sanskrit and Marathi literature,{{sfnp|Rath|2012|p=164}} [[Bharatanatyam]] (dance form), and [[Carnatic music]].<ref name="Madhavan2017" />

== References ==

=== Footnotes ===

* {{cite journal|last1=Ahmad|first1=Aziz|last2=Krishnamurti|first2=R.|title=Akbar: The Religious Aspect.|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=21|issue=4|year=1962|page=577|issn=0021-9118|doi=10.2307/2050934|jstor=2050934|s2cid=161932929 }}

* {{cite journal |first=M. N. |last=Pearson |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=221–235 |date=February 1976 |jstor=2053980 |doi=10.2307/2053980|s2cid=162482005 }}

{{Empires}}

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[[Category:Maratha Empire]]