Om: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Sacred sound in Indic religions}}

{{Italic title}}

[[File:004 Gopura, Aum Sign (26596636998).jpg|thumb|''Om'' ({{script|Taml|ௐ}}) in [[Tamil script]] with a ''[[trishula]]'' at [[Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple]], [[Singapore]]; ''Om'' appears frequently as an [[Religious image|icon]] in temples (''[[mandir]]s'') and spiritual retreats]]

[[File:Golden Mandala with Om symbol at Hindu temple in Malaysia.jpg|thumb|A ''[[rangoli]]'' featuring ''Om'' surrounded by stylised [[Peafowl#Indian peafowl|peacock]]s; ''Om'' often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of [[Indic religions]]]]

[[File:OM in Rakhi.jpg|thumb|A ''[[Raksha Bandhan|rakhi]]'' in the shape of ''Om'']]

'''''Om''''' (or '''''Aum''''') ({{audio|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|listen}}; {{lang-sa|ॐ, ओम्|translit=Ōṃ|translit-std=IAST}}) is a sacred sound, syllable, mantra, and an invocation in Hinduism.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |url= |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=319–20 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/824698506 |title=Sonic liturgy : ritual and music in Hindu tradition |date=2012 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-108-2 |location=Columbia |pages=25 |oclc=824698506}}</ref> ''Om'' is the prime symbol of Hinduism.<ref name="wilke4352">{{Cite book |last1=Wilke |first1=Annette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC&pg=PA435 |title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism |last2=Moebus |first2=Oliver |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3110181593 |location=Berlin |page=435}}</ref><ref name="Krishna Sivaraman 20082">Krishna Sivaraman (2008), ''Hindu Spirituality Vedas Through Vedanta'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812543}}, page 433</ref> It is variously said to be the essence of the supreme Absolute,<ref name=":1" /> consciousness,<ref name="james4822">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 482</ref><ref name="Holdrege19962">{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnUFxccJ4igC |title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7914-1640-2 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="merriam-webster.com2">"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/om Om]". ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\</ref> ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]],'' ''[[Brahman]],'' or the cosmic world.<ref name="David Leeming 20052">David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'', [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54</ref><ref name="ReferenceA2">Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 318</ref><ref name="annette2">Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 435–456</ref> In Indic traditions, ''Om'' serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of [[Vedas|Vedic]] authority and a central aspect of [[soteriological]] doctrines and practices.<ref name=":2">{{Cite thesis |last1=Gerety |first1=Moore |last2=McKean |first2=Finnian |date=2015-05-20 |title=This Whole World Is OM: Song, Soteriology, and the Emergence of the Sacred Syllable |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/17467527 |publisher=Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences |pages=33 |issn=1746-7527}}</ref> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and other [[Hindu text]]s.<ref name="annette2" />

''Om'' emerged in the [[Vedic Literature|Vedic corpus]] and is said to be an encapsulated form of [[Samaveda|''Samavedic'']] chants or songs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during ''[[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (''[[Samskara (rite of passage)|samskara]]'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[Pranava yoga]].<ref name="David White 20112">David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691140865}}, pp. 104–111</ref><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122">Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791453902}}, pages 1–4</ref> It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]].<ref>T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), ''Elements of Hindu Iconography'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, p. 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), ''A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan'', {{ISBN|978-8170173489}}, p. 5</ref> As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during [[meditation]] in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="The Indian Mantra pp. 2442">[[Jan Gonda]] (1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297</ref><ref name="lipner2">[[Julius Lipner]] (2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415456760}}, pp. 66–67</ref>

The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as '''Onkara (Omkara)''' and '''Pranava''' among [[#Common names and synonyms|many other names]].<ref name="Misra20182">{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Nityanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104 |title=The Om Mala: Meanings of the Mystic Sound |date=25 July 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-87471-85-6 |pages=104–}}</ref><ref>"[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=OM&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 OM]". ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', University of Köln, Germany</ref>

** ''{{lang|pa-Latn|[[Ik Onkar|Ik Oṅkār]]}}'' ({{lang|pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an [[Names of God#Sikhism|epithet of God]] in [[Sikhism]]. (see [[#Sikhism|below]]).

* ''{{IAST|[[Aksara|Akṣara]]}}'' ({{lang|sa|अक्षर}}); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".

== Origin and spiritual significance ==

The etymological origins of ''ōm''/''aum'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the [[Upanishads]] having proposed multiple [[Sanskrit]] etymologies for ''aum'', including: from "''ām''" ({{lang|sa|आम्}}; "yes"), from "''ávam''" ({{lang|sa|आवम्}}; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" ({{lang|sa|अव्}}; "to urge") or "''āp-''" ({{lang|sa|आप्}}; "to attain").<ref name="PSSOM">{{Cite journal |last=Parpola |first=Asko |date=1981 |title=On the Primary Meaning and Etymology of the Sacred Syllable ōm |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49902 |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |language=en |volume=50 |pages=195–214 |issn=2323-5209}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Praṇava Upaniṣad in [[Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha Brāhmaṇa]] 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142}} In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] introductory [[Grammatical particle|particle]] "''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" ({{lang|sa|अथ}}).<ref name=PSSOM/> However, contemporary [[Indology|Indologist]] [[Asko Parpola]] proposes a borrowing from [[Proto-Dravidian language|Dravidian]] "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern [[Tamil language|Tamil]] "''ām''" ({{lang|ta|ஆம்}}) meaning "yes".<ref name=PSSOM/><ref name="PRoH">{{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism : the Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |isbn=9780190226909 |location=New York}}</ref>

Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. [[Max Müller]] and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a "tool for meditation", explain various meanings that the syllable may be in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, [[Brahman]], [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], and Self-knowledge".<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up ''Chandogya Upanishad''], Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name="deussenmeaningofom">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>

The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads, the [[mysticism#Indian religions|mystical]] texts associated with the [[Vedanta]] philosophy. It has variously been associated with concepts of  "cosmic sound" or "mystical syllable" or "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name="annette2"/> In the [[Aranyaka]] and the [[Brahmana]] layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name="annette2"/> The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), ''Ganapati: The Song of Self'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791424391}}, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> The [[Aitareya Brahmana]] of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, for example suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.<ref name="annette2"/><ref>[http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/vedas/aitereya/the_aitareya_brahmanam_of_the_rigveda__s.pdf Aitareya Brahmana 5.32], Rig Veda, pages 139-140 (Sanskrit); for English translation: See {{Cite book |last=Arthur Berriedale Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSgYAAAAYAAJ |title=The Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1920 |page=256}}</ref> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name="annette2"/> The [[Samaveda]], the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract [[Tala (music)|musical meters]] from it.<ref name="annette2"/>

When occurring within spoken [[Classical Sanskrit]], the syllable is subject to the normal rules of [[sandhi]] in [[Sanskrit grammar]], with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the [[Guṇa#Sanskrit grammar|guṇa]] [[Indo-European ablaut|vowel grade]] of ''u'', not the [[vṛddhi]] grade, and is therefore pronounced as a [[monophthong]] with a [[Vowel length|long vowel]] ({{IPA-sa|oː|}}), ie. ''ōm'' not ''aum''.{{efn-ua|see [[Pāṇini]], [[Aṣṭādhyāyī]] 6.1.95}}<ref name="Whitney1950">{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney) |title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1950 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=12, 27–28}}</ref> Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilated]] into the preceding vowel as [[Nasal vowel|nasalisation]] ({{transliteration|sa|raṅga}}). As a result, ''Om'' is regularly pronounced {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in the context of Sanskrit.

However, this ''o'' reflects the older [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[diphthong]] ''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet [[monophthong]]ised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often [[Archaism|archaically]] considered as consisting of three [[phoneme]]s: "a-u-m".<ref>Osho (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LpJ1CAAAQBAJ&dq=aum+three&pg=PT546 The Book of Secrets]'', unpaginated. Osho International Foundation. {{ISBN|9780880507707}}.</ref><ref>Mehta, Kiran K. (2008). ''Milk, Honey and Grapes'', p.14. Puja Publications, Atlanta. {{ISBN|9781438209159}}.</ref><ref>Misra, Nityanand (2018). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&pg=PT287 The Om Mala]'', unpaginated. Bloomsbury Publishing. {{ISBN|9789387471856}}.</ref><ref>Vālmīki; trans. Mitra, Vihārilāla (1891). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLlIAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&pg=PA61 The Yoga-vásishtha-mahárámáyana of Válmiki, Volume 1]'', p.61. Bonnerjee and Company. {{pre-ISBN}}.</ref> Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the [[Vedas]].

In the context of the [[Vedas]], particularly the Vedic [[Brahmana]]s, the vowel is often ''[[Pluti|pluta]]'' ("three times as long"), [[vowel length|indicating a length]] of three [[morae]] ({{transliteration|sa|trimātra}}), that is, the time it takes to say three [[Syllabic weight|light syllable]]s. Additionally, a diphthong becomes {{transliteration|sa|pluta}} with the prolongation of its first vowel.<ref name="Whitney1950" /> When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo {{transliteration|sa|pluti}} they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |year=2006 |title=Pāṇini's Phonological Rules and Vedic: Aṣṭādhyāyī 8.2* |url=http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf |journal=Journal of Indological Studies |volume=18 |page=16}}</ref> realised as an [[Overlong vowel|overlong]] [[open back unrounded vowel]] (''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' {{IPA-sa|ɑːːum|}}). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as [[Arya Samaj]].

However, ''Om'' is also attested in the [[Upanishads]] without ''pluta'',{{efn-ua|see {{IAST|Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad}} 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes ''Om'' as having three {{transliteration|sa|mātra}}s corresponding to the three letters a-u-m}} and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ({{IPA-sa|õː|}} or {{IPA-sa|oːm|}}).

[[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] or [[Devanagari]] representations are found [[Epigraphy|epigraphically]] on sculpture dating from [[Medieval India]] and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. ''Om'' is represented in [[Devanagari]] as '''{{lang|sa|ओम्}}''', composed of four elements: the [[Devanagari#Vowels|vowel letter]] {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}), the [[Devanagari#Vowel diacritics|vowel diacritic]] {{script|Deva|ो}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|o}}), the [[Devanagari#Consonants|consonant letter]] {{script|Deva|म}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|m}}), and the ''[[virama]]'' stroke {{script|Deva|्}} which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination {{script|Deva|ओ}} represented a diphthong, often transcribed as {{IAST|au}}, but it now represents a long vowel, {{IAST|ō}}. (See [[#Pronunciation|above]].) The syllable is sometimes written '''{{lang|sa|ओ३म्}}''', where {{script|Deva|३}} (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates ''[[Pluti|pluta]]'' ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओऽम्}}''' in languages such as [[Hindi]], with the {{IAST|[[avagraha]]}} ({{script|Deva|ऽ}}) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the {{IAST|avagraha}} in [[Sanskrit]], where it would instead indicate the [[prodelision]] of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओं}}''', with an {{IAST|[[Anusvara|anusvāra]]}} reflecting the pronunciation of {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as [[Urdu]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] ''Om'' may be written '''{{script|Arab|اوم}}''' in [[Arabic script]], although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.

The commonly seen representation of the syllable ''Om,'' '''{{lang|sa|{{large|ॐ}}}}''', is a [[cursive]] [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in [[Devanagari]], combining {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}) with {{script|Deva|उ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|u}}) and the [[chandrabindu]] ([[ँ]],{{nbsp}}{{IAST|ṃ}}). In [[Unicode]], the symbol is encoded at {{unichar|0950|Devanagari OM|ulink=Devanagari (Unicode block)}} and at {{unichar|1f549|OM Symbol|ulink=Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs}} as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".

In some South Asian [[writing system]]s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali and Assamese]] ''Om'' is written simply as '''{{script|Beng|ওঁ}}''' without an additional curl. In languages such as [[Bengali language|Bengali]] differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for {{IAST|u}} redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains {{IPA-bn|õː|}}. Similarly, in [[Odia script|Odia]] ''Om'' is written as '''{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}}''' without an additional diacritic.

In [[Tamil script|Tamil]], ''Om'' is written as {{script|Taml|ௐ}}, a ligature of {{lang|ta|ஓ}} (''ō'') and {{lang|ta|ம்}} (''m''), while in [[Kannada script|Kannada]], [[Telugu script|Telugu]], and [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]], ''Om'' is written simply as the letter for ''ō'' followed by {{IAST|anusvāra}} ({{lang|kn|ಓಂ}}, {{lang|te|ఓం}}, and {{lang|ml|ഓം}}, respectively).

There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in [[Brahmi script]], dating to before the [[Common Era]]. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the ''[[swastika]]'' is a [[monogram]]matic representation of the syllable ''Om'', wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters ({{unichar|11011|Brahmi letter O}}) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deb |first=Harit Krishna |title=The Svastika and the Oṁkāra |year=1921 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=17 |number=3 |pages=231–247 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/97555#page/313/}}</ref> A commentary in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1922 |title=Research Items: The Swastika, Gammadion, Fylfot |journal=Nature |volume=110 |issue=2758 |page=365 |doi=10.1038/110365a0 |s2cid=4114094 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }} {{Google books|1bMzAQAAMAAJ|The Swastika|page=PA365}}</ref> [[A. B. Walawalkar]] (1951) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" ({{script|Brah|𑀅𑀉𑀫}}), and that this may have influenced the unusual [[epigraphic]]al features of the symbol {{script|Deva|ॐ}} for ''Om''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Ankita |year=2011 |title=Rediscovering the Brahmi Script |url=http://www.mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003025656/https://mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2015 |publisher=Industrial Design Center, IDC, IIT |location=Bombay}} See the section, "Ancient Symbols".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kak |first=SC |year=1990 |title=Indus and Brahmi: Further Connections |journal=Cryptologia |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=169–183|doi=10.1080/0161-119091864878 }}</ref> [[Henry Parker (author)|Parker]] (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among [[Tamil-Brahmi]] [[Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka|inscriptions in Sri Lanka]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Parker (author) |title=Ancient Ceylon  |year=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientceylon00hpar/page/428/ 428]}}</ref> including [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura era]] coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |title=Ancient Ceylon  |year=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientceylon00hpar/page/490/ 490]}}</ref>

The [[Khmer people|Khmer]] adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the [[Funan|Kingdom of Funan]], where it is also seen on artefacts from [[Angkor Borei and Phnom Da|Angkor Borei]], once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from [[Chenla]] to [[Khmer Empire]] periods and still in used until the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម: ប្រភពនៃរូបសញ្ញាឱម |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum02.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម : អំណាចឱមនៅក្នុងសាសនា |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum01.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Khmer language blog articles; historical claims need scholarly sources, preferably in English|date=August 2021}}

In [[Chinese characters]], ''Om'' is typically [[transliteration|transliterated]] as either [[:wikt:唵|唵]] ({{zh|p=ǎn}}) or [[:wikt:嗡|嗡]] ({{zh|p=wēng}}).

|File:Aum Om black.svg| [[Devanagari]] ligature,{{efn|{{script|Deva|ॐ}} (U+0950)}} [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]{{efn|{{script|Gujr|ૐ}} (U+0AD0)}}

|File:Devanagari_AUM_ओम्.svg| [[Devanagari]]{{efn|{{script|Deva|ओम्}} (U+0913 & U+092E & U+094D)}} ([[#South Asia|see above]] for variants)

|File:Om symbol1.svg| [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali, Assamese)]]{{efn|{{script|Beng|ওঁ}} (U+0993 & U+0981)}}

|File:Ek_onkar.svg| [[Gurmukhi]]{{efn|{{script|Guru|ੴ}} (U+0A74)}}, [[Ik Onkar]]

|File:Lepcha Om.svg| [[Lepcha script|Lepcha]]{{efn|{{script|Lepc|ᰣᰨᰵ}} (U+1C23 & U+1C28 & U+1C35)}}

|File:Limbu Om.svg| [[Limbu script|Limbu]]{{efn|{{script|Limb|ᤀᤥᤱ}} (U+1900 & U+1925 & U+1931)}}

|File:Om - Anji in Meetei Mayek.svg| [[Meitei script|Meitei Mayek]], Anji symbol{{efn|{{script|Mtei|ꫲ}} (U+AAF2)}}

|File:Om in Modi script.svg| [[Modi script|Modi]]{{efn|{{script|Modi|𑘌𑘽}} (U+1160C & U+1163D)}}

|File:Odia Om symbol.png| [[Odia script|Odia]]{{efn|{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+0B01)}}

|File:Odia Om sign.svg| [[Odia script|Odia]] cursive variant{{efn|{{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+200D & U+0B01)}}

|File:Om in Pracalit(Newa) script.svg| [[Pracalit script|Prachalit]]{{efn|{{script|Newa|𑑉}} (U+11449)}}

|File:Om in Sharada script.svg| [[Sharada script|Sharada]]{{efn|{{script|Shrd|𑇄}} (U+111C4)}}

|File:Om in Siddham script.svg| [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]]{{efn|{{script|Sidd|𑖌𑖼}} (U+1158C & U+115BC)}}

|File:Soyombo Om symbol.svg| [[Soyombo script|Soyombo]]{{efn|{{script|Soyo|𑩐𑩖𑪖}} (U+11A50 & U+11A55 & U+11A96)}}

|File:Om in Takri script.svg| [[Takri script|Takri]]{{efn|{{script|Takr|𑚈𑚫}} (U+11688 & U+116AB)}}

|File:Om tibetain-red.svg| [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]{{efn|{{bo-textonly|ༀ}} (U+0F00)}}

|File:Om in Tirhuta script.svg| [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta, Mithilakshar]]{{efn|{{script|Tirh|𑓇}} (U+114C7)}}

|File:Om in Burmese script.png| [[Burmese script|Burmese]]{{efn|{{script|Mymr|ဥုံ}} (U+1025 & U+102F & U+1036)}}

|File:Om in Chakma script.svg| [[Chakma script|Chakma]]{{efn|{{script|Cakm|𑄃𑄮𑄀}} (U+11103 & U+1112E & U+11100)}}

|File:Om in Cham script.png| [[Cham script|Cham]]{{efn|{{script|Cham|ꨯꩌ}} (U+AA05 & U+AA4C)}}

|File:Cham Homkar (Om) symbol.svg| [[Cham script|Cham]] ''homkar'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Cham|ꨀꨯꨱꩌ}} (U+AA00 & U+AA2F & U+AA31 & U+AA4C)}}

|File:Om in Grantha script.svg| [[Grantha script|Grantha]]{{efn|{{script|Gran|𑍐}} (U+11350)}}

|File:Kannada OM.svg| [[Kannada script|Kannada]]{{efn|{{script|Knda|ಓಂ}} (U+0C93 & U+0C82)}}

|File:Om in Khmer script.png| [[Khmer script|Khmer]]{{efn|{{script|Khmr|ឱំ}} (U+17B1 & U+17C6)}}

|File:Khmer Sacred Symbol, Om or Unalom.svg| [[Khmer script|Khmer]] ''Aom, [[Unalome|Unalaom]],'' or ''Komutr'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Khmr|៚}} (U+17DA)}}

|File:Om in Lao script.png| [[Lao script|Lao]]{{efn|{{script|Laoo|ໂອໍ}} (U+0EAD & U+0EC2 & U+0ECD)}}

|File:Ohm Malayalam.png| [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]]{{efn|{{script|Mlym|ഓം}} (U+0D13 & U+0D02)}}

|File:Sinhala Om symbol.svg| [[Sinhala script|Sinhala]]{{efn|{{script|Sinh|ඕං}} (U+0D95 & U+0D82)}}

|File:Tamil Om.svg| [[Tamil script|Tamil]]{{efn|{{script|Taml|ௐ}} (U+0BD0)}}

|File:Om in telugu.svg| [[Telugu script|Telugu]]{{efn|{{script|Telu|ఓం}} (U+0C13 & U+0C02)}}

|File:Thai Om symbol.png| [[Thai script|Thai]]{{efn|{{script|Thai|โอํ}} (U+0E2D & U+0E42 & U+0E4D)}}

|File:Thai Khomut symbol.svg| [[Thai script|Thai]] ''Om, [[Unalome]],'' or ''Khomut'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Thai|๛}} (U+0E5B)}}

|File:Om cinese.svg| [[Chinese characters|Chinese]]{{efn|{{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} (U+5535)}}

|File:Korean Om.svg| [[Hangul]]{{efn|{{script|Hang|옴}} (U+110B & U+1169 & U+1106)}}

|File:Om in Katakana(Japanese).svg| [[Katakana]]{{efn|{{script|Kana|オーム}} (U+30AA & U+30FC & U+30E0)}}

|File:Om in Mongolian script.svg| [[Mongolian script|Mongolian]]{{efn|{{script|Mong|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}} (U+1826 & U+1838 & U+1820 & U+1880)}}

|File:OM_in_divehi.svg| [[Thaana]]{{efn|{{script|Thaa|އޮމ}} (U+0787 & U+07AE & U+0789)}}

|File:Shukla Warang Citi Om.svg| [[Warang Citi]]{{efn|{{script|Wara|𑣿}} (U+118FF)}}

In [[Hinduism]], ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds.<ref name="wilke4352"/><ref name="Krishna Sivaraman 20082"/> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and other [[Hindu text]]s,<ref name="annette2"/> and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages ([[Sanskara (rite of passage)|sanskara]]) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[yoga]].<ref name="David White 20112"/><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122"/>

It is the most sacred syllable symbol and [[mantra]] of [[Brahman]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2020 |title=Om |url=https://slife.org/om/}}</ref> which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self within).<ref name="David Leeming 20052"/><ref name="ReferenceA2"/><ref name="james4822"/><ref name="Holdrege19962"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ellwood |first1=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Alles |first2=Gregory D. |date=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438110387 |pages=327–328 |language=en}}</ref>

It is called the ''[[Shabda]] Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (''Pranava'') of the universe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1995 |isbn=9788120812611 |pages=42–48 |language=en}}</ref>

''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the [[Veda]]s. For example, the [[Gayatri mantra]], which consists of a verse from the [[Rigveda]] Samhita ([[Mandala 3|RV 3]].62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.<ref name="mmwpage17">[[Monier Monier-Williams]] (1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.<ref name="lipner2"/>

The [[Aitareya Brahmana]] (7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".<ref name="wilke4352"/>

|Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13<ref name="wilke4352"/>}}

The [[Chandogya Upanishad]] is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".<ref name="maxmuller11">[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1-3 with footnotes</ref> It calls the syllable ''Om'' as ''udgitha'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the [[Rigveda]], the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the ''udgitha'' (song, ''Om'').<ref name=pauldeussen11 />

{{IAST|Ṛc}} ({{lang|sa|ऋच्}}) is speech, states the text, and {{IAST|sāman}} ({{lang|sa|सामन्}}) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.<ref name=maxmuller11 /><ref name=pauldeussen11 /> The highest song is ''Om'', asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because ''Adhvaryu'' invokes it, the ''Hotr'' recites it, and ''Udgatr'' sings it.<ref name="pauldeussen11">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 68-70</ref><ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185">Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195124354}}, page 171-185</ref>

The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable ''Om'', explaining its use as a struggle between ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (gods) and ''[[Asuras]]'' (demons).<ref name="pauldeussen12">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 70-71 with footnotes</ref> Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient [[Indian people|Indian]] scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.<ref name="maxmuller12">[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-6 with footnotes</ref> The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the ''Udgitha'' (song of ''Om'') unto themselves, thinking, "with this ''song'' we shall overcome the demons".<ref name="hume12">Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n199/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, pages 178-180</ref> The syllable ''Om'' is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.<ref name=maxmuller12 /><ref name=hume12 />

The [[Katha Upanishad]] is the legendary story of a little boy, [[Nachiketa]], the son of sage {{transliteration|sa|Vājaśravasa|italic=no}}, who meets [[Yama]], the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and [[moksha]] (liberation).<ref name="pauldeussenintro">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge ({{transliteration|sa|[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance ({{transliteration|sa|[[Avidyā (Hinduism)|avidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the pleasant.<ref name="maxmuller121">Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0486209937}}, page 8</ref> It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.<ref name="pauldeussen1214">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 284-286</ref>

The [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]] in sixth ''Prapathakas'' (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of ''Om''. The text asserts that ''Om'' represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M''.<ref name="maxmuller64">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up |title=The Upanishads: Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Muller |editor-first=Max |editor-link=Max Muller |volume=2 |pages=307–308}}</ref>

* as thought-endowed body – [[Buddhi|intellect]], [[Antahkarana|mind]], and [[Citta|psyche]].<ref name=maxmuller64 /><ref name="cowell64">[https://www.shemtaia.com/SKT/PDF/Upanishads/cowellmaitriskt.pdf Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260</ref>

Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.<ref>[[Max Muller]], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless isn't changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980 |isbn=978-8120814684 |editor-last=Deussen |editor-first=Paul |volume=1 |page=347 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Maitri Upanishad: Sanskrit Text with English Translation |editor-last=Cowell |editor-first=E.B. |series=Bibliotheca Indica |location=Cambridge University Press |page=258 |translator-last=Cowell |translator-first=E.B.}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Sanskrit original, quote: {{lang|sa|द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्}}<ref>{{Cite wikisource |wslink=मैत्रायण्युपनिषत् |wslanguage=sa |title=Maitri Upanishad |language=Sanskrit}}</ref>}}

|Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4<ref name="roberthume22">Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n393/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 372-373</ref><ref>Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920–1931), ''The Mukhya Upanishads'', Kshetra Books, {{ISBN|978-1495946530}} (Reprinted in 2014), [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/Mundaka%20Upanishad_Johnston.pdf Archive of Mundaka Upanishad, pages 310-311] from Theosophical Quarterly journal</ref>}}

The [[Mandukya Upanishad]] opens by declaring, "''Om''!, this syllable is this whole world".<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.<ref name=humefull /> This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "silence" (or without an element).<ref name="pauldeussenfull">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 605-637</ref><ref name="humefull">{{Citation |last=Hume |first=Robert Ernest |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n411/mode/2up |pages=391–393 |year=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

*: In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.<ref name="johnston">Charles Johnston, [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/Mandukya%20Upanishad_Johnston.pdf The Measures of the Eternal – Mandukya Upanishad] Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162</ref>

The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]], in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.<ref name="pauldeussen116">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 308</ref><ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/236/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref> The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Hume |date=1921 |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n417/ |chapter=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.14 – 1.16 |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=396-397 with footnotes}}</ref>

[[File:Ganesha-aum.jpg|thumb|The Hindu deity [[Ganesha]] is sometimes referred to as "{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}" (''Omkara'' is his form) and used as the symbol for [[Upanishad]]ic concept of Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoqB4n95pSoC |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2439-1 |pages=77–78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alter |first=Stephen |title=Elephas Maximus: a portrait of the Indian Elephant |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0143031741 |location=New Delhi |page=95}}</ref>]]

 

{{blockquote|(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva|Mahesa]]. You are [[Indra]]. You are fire {{bracket|[[Agni]]}} and air {{bracket|[[Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]]}}. You are the sun {{bracket|[[Surya|{{IAST|Sūrya}}]]}} and the moon {{bracket|[[Chandra]]ma}}. You are [[Brahman]]. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and [[Swarga]]loka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

|Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6{{Sfnp|Saraswati|1987|p=127|ps=, In [[Chinmayananda Saraswati|Chinmayananda]]'s numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}}}

{{blockquote|"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable {{transliteration|sa|Vashat}} (on hearing which the {{transliteration|sa|Adhvaryu}} priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable ''OM''. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in {{transliteration|sa|brahmana}}s. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."|[[Ramayana#Yuddha Kanda|Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda]], Sarga 117<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://valmikiramayan.pcriot.com/utf8/yuddha/sarga117/yuddha_117_prose.htm|title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda - Sarga 117|website=valmikiramayan.pcriot.com}}</ref>}}

||[[Krishna]] to [[Arjuna]], Bhagavad Gita 9.17<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mukundananda |author-link=Mukundananda |year=2014 |title=Bhagavad Gita, The Song of God: Commentary by Swami Mukundananda |url=https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/16-17 |publisher=[[Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog]]}}</ref><ref name="jfowler164">{{Cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler |date=2012 |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1845193461 |page=164}}</ref>}}

|Bhagavad Gita 17.24<ref name="jfowler271">{{Cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler |date=2012 |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1845193461 |page=271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |translator-first=K.T. |translator-last=Telang |editor-last=Muller |editor-first=Max |editor-link=Max Muller |url={{Google books|5cPKAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Bhagavadgita with the Sanatsujatiya and the Anugita |date=26 October 2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0700715473 |page=120}}</ref>}}

The [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-garuda-purana-dutt/d/doc122701.html |title=The Vishnu-Dharma Vidya [Chapter CCXXI] |date=16 April 2015}}</ref> According to the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'',{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu [[Trimurti]], and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for [[Brahma]], ''U'' for [[Vishnu]] and ''M'' for [[Shiva]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Esnoul |first=A.M. |chapter=Oṃ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Macmillan Reference |date=2005 |isbn=9780028659978 |edition=2nd |location=USA |pages=6820–6821}}</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth, [[Religious initiation rites|initiation]], and the performance of sacrifice ([[yajña]]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/9/14/ |title=Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Canto 9 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |language=en |chapter=14, King Purūravā Enchanted by Urvaśī}}</ref>

 

In [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] traditions, the ''[[Shiva Purana]]'' highlights the relation between deity [[Shiva]] and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Guy |last=Beck |year=1995 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120812611 |page=154}}</ref>

In the [[thealogy]] of [[Shaktism|Shakta]] traditions, ''Om'' connotes the female divine energy, [[Adi Parashakti]], represented in the [[Tridevi]]: ''A'' for the creative energy (the [[Shakti]] of Brahma), [[Mahasaraswati]], ''U'' for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), [[Mahalakshmi]], and ''M'' for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), [[Mahakali]]. The 12th book of the ''[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'' describes the [[Devi|Goddess]] as the mother of the Vedas, the ''Adya Shakti'' (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the [[Gayatri mantra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rocher |first=Ludo |title=The Purāṇas |date=1986 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3447025225 |location=Wiesbaden}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2018 |title=Adi Parashakti - The Divine Mother |url=https://www.templepurohit.com/adi-parashakti-the-divine-mother/ |access-date=26 May 2021 |website=TemplePurohit - Your Spiritual Destination Bhakti, Shraddha Aur Ashirwad}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Narayanananda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_sKqkhwRzoC |title=The Primal Power in Man: The Kundalini Shakti |date=1960 |publisher=Health Research Books |isbn=9780787306311}}</ref>

|Yogasutra 1.27<ref name="charlesj">{{Cite book |last=Patanjali |author-link=Patanjali |url=https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/ |title=The Yogasutras of Patanjali |year=1912 |translator-first=Charles |translator-last=Johnston |page=15|publisher=New York, C. Johnston }}</ref>}}

In [[Krishnaism|Krishnava]] traditions, [[Krishna]] is revered as [[Svayam Bhagavan]], the Supreme Lord himself, and ''Om'' is interpreted in light of this. According to the ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'', ''Om'' is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. ''A'' is said to represent [[Bhagavan]] [[Krishna]] (Vishnu), ''U'' represents [[Srimati]] [[Radharani]] ([[Mahalakshmi]]), and ''M'' represents [[jiva]], the Self of the devotee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Century - OM |url=https://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |website=www.indiancentury.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaviraja |first=Krishnadasa |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/tlc/20/ |title=Teachings of Lord Caitanya |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |year=1967 |language=en |translator-last=[[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] |chapter=20, the Goal of Vedānta Study}}</ref>

The [[Dravyasamgraha]] quotes a [[Prakrit]] line:{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}

{{lang|pra-Deva|ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां}}

''AAAUM'' [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [{{IAST|pañca-parameṣṭhi}}]: "[[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]], [[Siddha|Ashariri]], [[Acharya]], [[Upajjhaya]], [[Jain monasticism|Muni]]".<ref>{{Citation |last=Malaiya |first=Yashwant K. |article-url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |article=Om – significance in Jainism |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html |title=Languages and Scripts of India |publisher=Colorado State University}}</ref>}}

By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the [[Namokar Mantra|Namokar mantra]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namokar Mantra |url=http://www.digambarjainonline.com/namo_index.htm |access-date=2014-06-04 |publisher=Digambarjainonline.com}}</ref> the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the {{IAST|Pañca-Parameṣṭhi}}. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}

''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXgy1WvZCI0C&q=vajrayana+tantra&pg=PR9 |title=Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120827523 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajrayana Buddhism Origins, Vajrayana Buddhism History, Vajrayana Buddhism Beliefs |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Vajrayana-Buddhism |access-date=2017-08-04 |website=www.patheos.com}}</ref>

In [[East Asian Buddhism]], ''Om'' is often [[Transliteration|transliterated]] as the [[Chinese character]] {{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} ([[pinyin]] {{transl|zh|ǎn}}) or {{script|Hant|[[:wikt:嗡|嗡]]}} ([[pinyin]] {{transl|zh|wēng}}).

 

Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra {{IAST|oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ}} to be {{IAST|auṃ}}, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.<ref name="carlolsenb">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |first=Carl |title=The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8135-3778-8 |page=215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Getty |first=Alice |url=https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett |title=The Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-486-25575-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett/page/29 29], 191–192 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

{{IAST|Oṃ}} has been described by the [[14th Dalai Lama]] as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure [[Three Vajras|body, speech, and mind]] of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyatso |first=Tenzin |title=On the meaning of: OM MANI PADME HUM - The jewel is in the lotus or praise to the jewel in the lotus |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tib/omph.htm |access-date=2017-04-17 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |pages=159–160}}</ref> According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |page=158}}</ref>

The term {{nihongo|'''''A-un'''''|{{linktext|阿吽}}}} is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "''a''" and "{{IAST|hūṃ}}", written in [[Devanagari]] as {{script|Deva|अहूँ}}. In Japanese, it is often [[Conflation|conflated]] with the syllable ''Om''. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first ({{script|Deva|अ}}) and the last ({{script|Deva|ह}}) letters of the Devanagari [[abugida]], with [[Devanagari#Vowel diacritics|diacritics]] (including [[anusvara]]) on the latter indicating the "-{{IAST|ūṃ}}" of "{{IAST|hūṃ}}". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.<ref name="jaanus a-un">{{Cite web |year=2001 |title="A un" (阿吽) |url=http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/a/aun.htm |access-date=14 April 2011 |publisher=Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System}}</ref> In Japanese ''[[Mikkyō]]'' Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.<ref>[[Daijirin]] Japanese dictionary, 2008, Monokakido Co., Ltd.</ref>  This is comparable to [[Alpha and Omega]], the first and last letters of the [[Greek alphabet]], similarly adopted by [[Christianity]] to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.

 

[[Niō]] statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist [[Torana|temple gate]]s and [[stupa]]s, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (''[[Vajrapani]]'').<ref name="adrian">{{Cite book |last=Snodgrass |first=Adrian |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass |year=2007 |isbn=978-8120807815 |page=303 |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass}}</ref><ref name="helenbaroni">{{Cite book |last=Baroni |first=Helen J. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism |publisher=Rosen Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-2240-6 |page=240}}</ref>

[[Komainu]], also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth ({{transl|ja|Agyō}}), the other closed ({{transl|ja|Ungyō}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.dentsdelion.com/NEWSLETTER/03_Komainu.pdf |title=Komainu and Niô |journal=Dentsdelion Antiques Tokyo Newsletter |volume=11 |issue=3 |date=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Katherine |title=Animal Motifs in Asian Art |publisher=Dover Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-486-43338-7 |pages=59–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arthur |first=Chris |title=Irish Elegies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-61534-2 |page=21}}</ref>

 

''Ik Onkar'' ({{lang-pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}; iconically represented as {{script|Guru|ੴ}}) are the first words of the [[Mul Mantar]], which is the opening verse of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the Sikh scripture.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">{{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA500 |title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=500 |access-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om ''";<ref name="gulati285">{{Cite book |first=Mahinder |last=Gulati |date=2008 |title=Comparative Religious And Philosophies: Anthropomorphlsm And Divinity |publisher=Atlantic |isbn=978-8126909025 |pages=284–285}}</ref> {{efn-ua|Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."<ref name="gulati285" />}} these words are a statement that there is "one God",<ref name="Sikhism">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khushwant |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2002 |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |editor-last=Kitagawa |editor-first=Joseph Mitsuo |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |location=London |page=114 |chapter=The Sikhs |author-link=Khushwant Singh |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&pg=PA114}}</ref> understood to refer to the "absolute [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] unity of God"<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".<ref name="wazirsingh">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Wazir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWM9AAAAIAAJ&q=substitute+ekankar |title=Aspects of Guru Nanak's philosophy |publisher=Lahore Book Shop |year=1969 |page=20 |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality,  ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."<ref name=wazirsingh />}}

''Ik Onkar'' is a significant [[Names of God#Sikhism|name of God]] in the Guru Granth Sahib and [[Gurbani]], states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the [[Upanishads]] and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (''[[Trailokya]]'') of [[Creationism|creation]].<ref name="sskohli39">{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=S.S. |title=The Sikh and Sikhism |publisher=Atlantic |year=1993 |isbn=81-71563368 |page=35}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."<ref name=sskohli39 />}} According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Wazir |year=1969 |title=Guru Nanak's philosophy |journal=Journal of Religious Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=56}}</ref> However, in [[Sikhism]], ''Onkar'' is interpreted differently than in other Indian religions; ''Onkar'' refers directly to the creator of ultimate reality and consciousness, and not to the creation. [[Guru Nanak]] wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" />

|Ramakali Dakkhani|[[Adi Granth]] 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh<ref name="pashaura227">{{Cite encyclopedia |first=Pashaura |last=Singh |date=2014 |title=Gurmat: The Teachings of the Gurus |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |editor-first=Pashaura |editor-last=Singh |editor2-first=Louis E. |editor2-last=Fenech |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199699308 |page=227}}</ref>}}

For both symbolic and [[English Qabalah|numerological]] reasons, [[Aleister Crowley]] adapted ''aum'' into a [[Thelema|Thelemic]] [[magical formula]], ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word '[[gnosis]]') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the [[Trigraph (orthography)|compound letter]] 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of [[Thelema#93|93]], a number with [[Polysemy|polysemic]] significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's [[Ceremonial magic|magical]] and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the ''[[Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass|Gnostic Mass]]''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of ''[[Liber Samekh]]'' and in detail in chapter 7 of ''[[Magick (Book 4)]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Liber Samekh |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/lib813.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick in Theory and Practice - Chapter 7 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/aba/chap7.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick : Liber ABA, book four, parts I-IV |date=1997 |isbn=9780877289197 |edition=Second revised |location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Liber XV : Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae Canon Missae |date=2016 |isbn=9788393928453 |location=Gothenburg}}</ref>

The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western [[counterculture]] since the 1960s, mostly in its standard [[Devanagari]] form ({{script|Deva|ॐ}}), but the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] ''Om'' ({{bo-textonly|ༀ|lang=bo}}) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Messerle |first=Ulrich |title=Graphics of the Sacred Symbol OM |url=http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231191837/http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |archive-date=31 December 2017 |access-date=14 January 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

 

Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said{{by whom|date=February 2022}} to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H.R. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N.K. |last4=Naveen |first4=K.V. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |date=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=[[International Journal of Yoga]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |s2cid=2631383}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=January 2022}}

 

* {{Cite journal |last=Francke |first=A. H. |year=1915 |title=The Meaning of the "Om-mani-padme-hum" Formula |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |pages=397–404 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00048425 |jstor=25189337|s2cid=170755544 }}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Gurjar |first1=A. A. |last2=Ladhake |first2=S. A. |last3=Thakare |first3=A. P. |year=2009 |title=Analysis of Acoustic of "OM " Chant to Study {{sic|I|t's|nolink=y}} Effect on Nervous System |journal=International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=363–367 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.8652}}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N. |last4=Naveen |first4=K. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |year=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=International Journal of Yoga |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894}}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Uttam |last2=Guleria |first2=Anupam |last3=Khetrapal |first3=Chunni Lal |year=2015 |title=Neuro-cognitive aspects of "OM" sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study |journal=Cognition and Emotion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=432–441 |doi=10.1080/02699931.2014.917609 |pmid=24845107 |s2cid=20292351}}

* {{Cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Chinmayananda |title=Glory of Ganesha |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-8175973589 |location=Bombay |author-link=Chinmayananda Saraswati}}

* {{Cite magazine |last=Stein |first=Joel |date=4 August 2003 |title=Just say Om |url=http://www.thebuddhasaidiamawake.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Just-Say-Om-Printout-TIME.pdf |magazine=Time Magazine}}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Telles |first1=S. |last2=Nagarathna |first2=R. |last3=Nagendra |first3=H. R. |year=1995 |title=Autonomic changes during "OM" meditation |url=http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1995_39_4/418-420.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=418–420 |issn=0019-5499 |pmid=8582759}}

* {{Cite wikisource |last=Vivekanda |title=The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom |wslink=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 3/Bhakti-Yoga/The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom}}

* {{Cite book |last=Von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |date=1999 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |location=[[Delhi]] |language=de |trans-title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp}}

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