Malayalam: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Dravidian language}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}{{EngvarB|date=May 2017}}

| nativename      = മലയാളം, ''Malayalam''

| region          = [[Kerala]] with border communities in the Nilgiris, Kanyakumari, and Coimbatore, Tenkasi, Theni districts of Tamil Nadu, Kodagu, Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka, [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Mahé district|Mahé]] ([[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]])

| speakers        = {{sigfig|45|2}} million

| date            = 2011–2019

| ref              = <ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf</ref><ref name="Ethnologue_mal">{{e22|mal}}</ref><ref>Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. [http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114073426/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf |date=14 November 2018 }}</ref>

| fam2            = [[Southern Dravidian languages|Southern Dravidian]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/dravidian|title=Dravidian |website=[[Ethnologue]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416125646/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/dravidian |archive-date=16 April 2017}}</ref>

| dia1            = [[Jeseri dialect|Jeseri]] ([[Lakshadweep]]), [[Mappila dialect|Mappila]], [[Suriyani Malayalam|Suriyani]], [[Judeo-Malayalam]], [[Beary dialect|Beary]]

| script          = [[Malayalam script]] ([[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic]])<br />[[Malayalam Braille]]<br /> [[Vatteluttu alphabet|Vattezhuth]] (historical)<br /> [[Kolezhuthu]] (historical)<br /> [[Malayanma]] (historical)<br /> [[Grantha alphabet|Grantha]] (historical)<br /> [[Arabi Malayalam script|Arabi Malayalam]] (historical/rarely used now)<br /> [[Syriac script]] (historical)<br /> [[Hebrew script]]<br/> [[Latin script]] (informal)

[[File:WIKITONGUES- Netha speaking Malayalam.webm|thumb|A Malayalam speaker, recorded in [[South Africa]].]]

'''Malayalam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|æ|l|ə|ˈ|j|ɑː|l|ə|m}};<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh, p. 300.</ref> {{indic|lang=ml|indic=മലയാളം|trans=Malayāḷam|showlang=true}}, {{IPA-ml|mɐlɐjäːɭɐm||Malayalam.ogg}}) is a [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]]<ref name=":0" />  spoken in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] and the union territories of [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] ([[Mahé district]]) by the [[Malayali]] people. It is one of 22 [[Languages with official status in India|scheduled languages]] of India spoken by 2.88% of Indians. Malayalam has [[official language]] status in the state of [[Kerala]] and in the union territories of [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] ([[Mahé, Puducherry|Mahé]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2877&Itemid=2330 |title=Official Language (Legislative) Commission |access-date=5 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325003422/http://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2877&Itemid=2330 |archive-date=25 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1337&Itemid=3311 |title=P&ARD Official Languages |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401153821/http://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1337&Itemid=3311 |archive-date=1 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/lakshadweep/languages.html |title=Languages in Lakshadweep |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411215005/http://www.mapsofindia.com/lakshadweep/languages.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> and is spoken by 34 million people worldwide.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf</ref> Malayalam is also spoken by linguistic minorities in the neighbouring states; with significant number of speakers in the [[Nilgiris District|Nilgiris]], [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]], and [[Coimbatore district|Coimbatore]], [[Tenkasi district|Tenkasi]], [[Theni District|Theni]] districts of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kodagu]] and [[Dakshina Kannada]] districts of [[Karnataka]]. Due to Malayali expatriates in the [[Persian Gulf]], malayalam is also widely spoken in the [[Gulf countries]].

The origin of Malayalam remains a matter of dispute among scholars. The mainstream view holds that Malayalam descends from early [[Middle Tamil]] and separated from it sometime after the {{circa|9th century}} AD.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ayyar |first=Ramaswami |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology|page=1-37 | title=The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology|year=1936 |publisher=Cochin government press |location=Cochin, Kerala |edition=1st}}</ref> A second view argues for the development of the two languages out of "Proto-Dravidian" or "Proto-Tamil-Malayalam" in the prehistoric era,{{sfn|Asher|Kumari|1997|p=xxiv}} although this is generally rejected by historical linguists.<ref>S.V. Shanmugam (1976). "Formation and Development of Malayalam", ''Indian Literature'', Vol. 19, No. 3 (May–June 1976), pp. 5–30. {{jstor|24157306}} "Yet, some scholars of Malayalam still believe that Malayalam should have originated independently from the Proto-Dravidian at a very early stage [...] The native scholars are unwilling to accept Malayalam as an ''ausbau'' language; instead they take it to be an ''abstand'' language 'language by distance' contrary to historical evidence (pp.9–10)".</ref> Designated a "[[Classical Language in India]]" in 2013,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927134256/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poet [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]] in the 16th century.<ref>Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia</ref> The oldest documents written in Malayalam and still surviving are the [[Vazhappally copper plate|Vazhappally Copper plates]] from 832 AD and [[Quilon Syrian copper plates|Tharisapalli Copper plates]] from 849 AD.

The earliest script used to write Malayalam was the [[Vatteluttu alphabet|Vatteluttu script]].<ref name=":0" /> The current [[Malayalam script]] is based on the Vatteluttu script, which was extended with [[Grantha script]] letters to adopt [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] loanwords.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54fV7Lwu3fMC&q=grantha+script|title=The Dravidian Languages|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1-139-43533-8|location=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval – Advances in Pattern Recognition |author=Venu Govindaraju |author2=Srirangaraj Setlur |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC |page=126 |isbn=978-1-84800-329-3 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429090130/https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC |archive-date=29 April 2016 |url-status=live|author-link=Venu Govindaraju }}</ref> The oldest literary work in Malayalam, distinct from the Tamil tradition, is dated from between the 9th and 11th centuries.{{sfn|Asher|Kumari|1997|p=xxiv}} The first book of history written in Malayalam is [[Niranam Grandhavari]], which was begun before 1773 and comprises 179 palm leaves with writing on both sides.<ref>{{cite book |authors= The State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers|date= 1997|title= Kerala Society Papers, Vol. I & II | language= Malayalam|location= Trivandrum|publisher= Gazetteers Department| page = 255|isbn= }}</ref> The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam ''[[Varthamanappusthakam]]'', written by [[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] in 1785.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=The legacy of Kerala |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |location=Kottayam, Kerala |isbn=978-81-264-2157-2 |edition=1st DCB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |title=August 23, 2010 Archives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427073541/http://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |archive-date=27 April 2013}}</ref>

The word ''Malayalam'' originated from the words ''mala'', meaning "[[mountain]]", and ''alam'', meaning "[[region]]" or "-ship" (as in "township"); ''Malayalam'' thus translates directly as "the [[mountain]] region." The term originally referred to the [[land]] of the [[Chera dynasty]], and only later became the name of its language.<ref name="Clad" /> The language Malayalam is alternatively called ''Alealum'', ''Malayalani'', ''Malayali'', ''Malean'', ''Maliyad'', and ''Mallealle''.<ref name="ethnologue.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mal |title=Ethnologue report for language code: mal |publisher=Ethnologue.com |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628195627/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/mal |archive-date=28 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The earliest extant [[literary]] works in the regional [[language]] of present-day [[Kerala]] probably date back to as early as the [[12th century]]. However, the named identity of this [[language]] appears to have come into existence only around the [[16th century]], when it was known as "Malayayma" or "Malayanma"; the words were also used to refer to the [[Writing system|script]] and the [[region]]. The word "Malayalam" was coined in the later period, and the local [[people]] referred to their [[language]] as both "[[Tamil language|Tamil]]" and "Malayalam" until the [[British Raj|colonial period]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sheldon Pollock |author2=Arvind Raghunathan Professor of South Asian Studies Sheldon Pollock |title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA442 |date=19 May 2003 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-22821-4 |pages=441–442 |access-date=18 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226111650/https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA442 |archive-date=26 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Malayalam is the only language in the world whose name is a [[palindrome]] (at least in the [[English alphabet]]). Despite having similar names, Malayalam has no relationship whatsoever with the [[Malay language]].

==Evolution==

The generally held view is that Malayalam was the western coastal dialect of [[Middle Tamil|Medieval Tamil]]<ref name="eb">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |title=Dravidian languages – History, Grammar, Map, & Facts |access-date=22 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709173402/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> and separated from [[Middle Tamil]] sometime between the 9th and 13th centuries.{{sfn|Karashima|2014|loc=p. 6|ps=: Other sources date this split to the 7th and 8th centuries.}}{{sfnp|Gopinathan Nair|2009|p=682|ps=: "[...] Malayalam emerged from Proto-Tamil–Malayalam; divergence occurred over a period of four or five centuries, from the 8th century onward".}}

Some scholars however believe that both [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and Malayalam developed during the prehistoric period from a common ancestor, 'Proto-Tamil-Malayalam', and that the notion of Malayalam being a 'daughter' of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is misplaced.{{sfn|Asher|Kumari|1997|p=xxiv}} This is based on the fact that Malayalam and several [[Dravidian languages]] on the western coast have common archaic features which are not found even in the oldest historical forms of literary Tamil.<ref>A. Govindankutty (1972) – From proto-Tamil-Malayalam to West Coast dialects. Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 14 No. (1/2), pp. 52–60</ref>  

Despite this Malayalam shares many common innovations with Tamil that emerged during the early [[Middle Tamil]] period, thus making independent descent untenable.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ayyar |first=Ramaswami |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology|page=1-37 | title=The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology|year=1936 |publisher=Cochin government press |location=Cochin, Kerala |edition=1st}}</ref> For example, [[Old Tamil]] lacks the first and second person plural pronouns with the ending ''{{IAST|kaḷ}}''. It is in the Early Middle Tamil stage that ''{{IAST|kaḷ}}'' first appears:<ref>{{cite book |last=Ayyar |first=Ramaswami |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology|page=35-37 | title=The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology|year=1936 |publisher=Cochin government press |location=Cochin, Kerala |edition=1st}}</ref>

| yārn, nām, nīr, nīyir

| ñaṅṅaḷ, nām, niṅṅaḷ, nammaḷ

Malayalam also borrowed some of its vocabulary from other European languages, such as [[Arabic]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], due to trade and colonization. For example:

!Word

!Original word

!Language of origin

!Meaning

|ജനാല or ജനൽ (janaala or janal)

|Janela

|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]

|Window

|

|മോഹബത്ത് (Mohabath)

|मोहब्बत (Mohabbat)

|[[Hindi]] and [[Arabic]]

|Love

|കക്കൂസ് (Kakkoos)

[[Robert Caldwell]], in his 1856 book "''A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages"'', opined that Malayalam branched from ''Classical Tamil'' and over time gained a large amount of [[Sanskrit]] vocabulary and lost the personal terminations of verbs.<ref name="Clad">Caldwell, Robert (1875). [https://archive.org/stream/comparativegramm00caldrich#page/ii/mode/2up ''A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316104706/http://archive.org/stream/comparativegramm00caldrich#page/ii/mode/2up |date=16 March 2016 }}, second edition. London: Trübner & Co.</ref> As the language of scholarship and administration, Old-Tamil, which was written in [[Tamil-Brahmi]] and the Vatteluttu alphabet later, greatly influenced the early development of Malayalam. The Malayalam script began to diverge from the Tamil-Brahmi script in the 8th and 9th centuries. And by the end of the 13th century a written form of the language emerged which was unique from the Tamil-Brahmi script that was used to write Tamil.{{sfn|Mahapatra|1989|p=307}}

{{clear}}

Malayalam has shared similarities to some [[Sri Lankan Tamil dialects]], and the two are often mistaken by native Indian Tamil speakers.<ref>Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p.45</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.empowerlingua.com/tamil-translators-of-indian-tamil-and-sri-lankan-tamil-dialects/ |title=Tamil Translators of Sri Lanka and India |date=26 October 2015 |work=Empowerlingua |access-date=31 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011122443/https://www.empowerlingua.com/tamil-translators-of-indian-tamil-and-sri-lankan-tamil-dialects/ |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{clear}}

 

{{refimprovesection|date=January 2021}}

Variations in [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] patterns, vocabulary, and distribution of grammatical and [[phonology|phonological]] elements are observable along the parameters of region, religion, community, occupation, social stratum, style and register.

 

According to the Dravidian Encyclopedia, the regional [[dialect]]s of Malayalam can be divided into thirteen dialect areas.<ref>Subramoniam, V. I. (1997). Dravidian encyclopaedia. vol. 3, Language and literature. Thiruvananthapuram: International School of Dravidian Linguistics.

Cit-P-487. [http://worldcat.org/isbn/818569222X Dravidian Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929131000/http://worldcat.org/isbn/818569222X |date=29 September 2007 }}</ref> They are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"

| South Travancore

| Central Travancore

| West Vempanad

| North Travancore

| Kochi-Thrissur

| [[South Malabar]]

| South Eastern Palghat

| North Western Palghat

| Central Malabar

| Wayanad

| [[North Malabar]]

| Kasaragod

| Lakshadweep

|

|

! Rank || State/Union Territory || Malayalam speakers 2011<ref>http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html</ref> || State's proportion 2011

| 5 || [[Karnataka]] || 726,096 || 1.27%

| 6 || [[Tamil Nadu]] || 774,057 || 1.01%

Malayalam is a language spoken by the native people of southwestern India (from [[Kasaragod]] to [[Kanyakumari]]). According to the Indian census of 2011, there were 32,299,239 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 93.2% of the total number of Malayalam speakers in India, and 96.74% of the total population of the state. There were a further 701,673 (1.14% of the total number) in [[Karnataka]], 957,705 (2.7%) in [[Tamil Nadu]], and 406,358 (1.2%) in [[Maharashtra]]. The number of Malayalam speakers in [[Lakshadweep]] is 51,100, which is only 0.15% of the total number, but is as much as about 84% of the population of Lakshadweep. In all, Malayalis made up 3.22% of the total Indian population in 2011. Of the total 34,713,130 Malayalam speakers in India in 2011, 33,015,420 spoke the standard dialects, 19,643 spoke the ''Yerava'' dialect and 31,329 spoke non-standard regional variations like ''Eranadan''.<ref name="Censusedia">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/data_on_language.html |title=Census Of India – Data on Language |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=30 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110230245/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/data_on_language.html |archive-date=10 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> As per the 1991 census data, 28.85% of all Malayalam speakers in India spoke a second language and 19.64% of the total knew three or more languages.

Large numbers of Malayalis have settled in [[Chennai]], [[Bengaluru]], [[Mangaluru]], [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]], [[Mumbai]], [[Navi Mumbai]], [[Pune]], [[Mysuru]] and [[Delhi]]. Many Malayalis have also emigrated to the [[Middle East]], the United States, and Europe. There were 179,860 speakers of Malayalam in the United States, according to the 2000 census, with the highest concentrations in [[Bergen County, New Jersey]], and [[Rockland County, New York]].<ref>[http://40days.homestead.com/Day_22_-_People.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073622/http://40days.homestead.com/Day_22_-_People.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}. Retrieved 22 November 2014.</ref> There are 344,000 of Malayalam speakers in [[Malaysia]].{{cn|date=July 2020}} There were 11,687 Malayalam speakers in Australia in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/census/ |title=Census 2011 Australia &#124; ABS Population Income &#124; SBS Census Explorer |publisher=Sbs.com.au |date= |access-date=10 July 2013}}</ref>The 2001 [[Canadian census]] reported 7,070 people who listed Malayalam as their mother tongue, mainly in [[Toronto]]. The 2006 New Zealand census reported 2,139 speakers.<ref name="NZ">[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130309165040/http://www.stats.govt.nz/ServicePages/NotFound.aspx Statistics New Zealand:Language spoken (total responses) for the 1996–2006 censuses (Table 16)], ''stats.govt.nz''</ref> 134 Malayalam speaking households were reported in 1956 in [[Fiji]]. There is also a considerable [[Malayali]] population in the [[Persian Gulf]] regions, especially in [[Dubai]] and [[Doha]]. The faster growth of languages spoken in the southern parts of [[India]], like Malayalam, compared to those spoken in the [[north India|north]] of the country, like [[Hindi]], shows exactly which regions Indian immigrants to the US are coming from.<ref>https://qz.com/1719427/south-asian-languages-malayalam-and-bengali-among-fastest-growing-in-us/</ref> Malayalam is 8th in the list of top ten fastest-growing foreign first languages spoken in English schools in [[UK]], according to a report. <ref>https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140316/lifestyle-offbeat/article/malayalam-among-fastest-growing-foreign-first-languages-uk-report</ref>

For the consonants and vowels, the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) symbol is given, followed by the Malayalam character and the [[ISO 15919]] transliteration.<ref name="phono">{{Cite web |url=http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~hj3/pub/Malayalam.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=30 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911225521/http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~hj3/pub/Malayalam.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{|class=wikitable

!colspan=3|[[Vowel length|Short]]

!colspan=3|Long

![[Front vowel|Front]]

![[Central vowel|Central]]

![[Back vowel|Back]]

![[Front vowel|Front]]

![[Central vowel|Central]]

![[Back vowel|Back]]

![[Close vowel|Close]]

|align="center"|{{IPA|/i/}} {{lang|ml|ഇ}} i

|align="center"|{{IPA|/ɨ̆/}} * ŭ

|align="center"|{{IPA|/u/}} {{lang|ml|ഉ}} u

|align="center"|{{IPA|/iː/}} {{lang|ml|ഈ}} ī

| align="center"|{{IPA|/uː/}} {{lang|ml|ഊ}} ū

![[Mid vowel|Mid]]

|align="center"|{{IPA|/e/}}{{lang|ml|എ}} e

|align="center"|{{IPA|/ə/}} * a

|align="center"|{{IPA|/o/}} {{lang|ml|ഒ}} o

|align="center"|{{IPA|/eː/}} {{lang|ml|ഏ}} ē

|align="center"|{{IPA|/oː/}} {{lang|ml|ഓ}} ō

![[Open vowel|Open]]

|align="center"|{{IPA|/a/}} {{lang|ml|അ}} a

|align="center"|{{IPA|/aː/}} {{lang|ml|ആ}} ā

* *{{IPA|/ɨ̆/}} is the ''saṁvr̥tōkāram'', an [[epenthesis|epenthentic vowel]] in Malayalam. Therefore, it has no independent vowel letter (because it never occurs at the beginning of words) but, when it comes after a consonant, there are various ways of representing it. In medieval times, it was just represented with the symbol for {{IPA|/u/}}, but later on it was just completely omitted (that is, written as an inherent vowel). In modern times, it is written in two different ways – the Northern style, in which a [[chandrakkala]] is used ⟨ക്⟩, and the Southern or [[Travancore]] style, in which the diacritic for a {{IPA|/u/}} is attached to the preceding consonant and a chandrakkala is written above ⟨കു്⟩. According to one author, this alternative form ⟨കു്⟩ is historically more correct, though the simplified form without a vowel sign ''u'' is common nowadays.<ref name="N3126">{{Cite web|last=Muller|first=Eric|title=Malayalam cillaksarams|work=JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3126 L2/06-207|url=http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/N3126.pdf|year=2006|access-date=2009-09-10}}</ref>

* <nowiki>*</nowiki>{{IPA|/a/}} (phonetically central: {{IPA|[ä]}}) and {{IPA|/ə/}} are both represented as basic or "default" vowels in the [[Abugida]] script (although {{IPA|/ə/}} never occurs word-initially and therefore does not make use of the letter {{lang|ml|അ}}), but they are distinct vowels.

Malayalam has also borrowed the [[Sanskrit]] diphthongs of {{IPA|/äu/}} (represented in Malayalam as {{lang|ml|ഔ}}, au) and {{IPA|/ai/}} (represented in Malayalam as {{lang|ml|ഐ}}, ai), although these mostly occur only in Sanskrit loanwords. Traditionally (as in Sanskrit), four vocalic consonants (usually pronounced in Malayalam as consonants followed by the ''saṁvr̥tōkāram'', which is not officially a vowel, and not as actual vocalic consonants) have been classified as vowels: vocalic r ({{lang|ml|ഋ}}, {{IPA|/rɨ̆/}}, r̥), long vocalic r ({{lang|ml|ൠ}}, {{IPA|/rɨː/}}, r̥̄), vocalic l ({{lang|ml|ഌ}}, {{IPA|/lɨ̆/}}, l̥) and long vocalic l ({{lang|ml|ൡ}}, {{IPA|/lɨː/}}, l̥̄). Except for the first, the other three have been omitted from the current script used in Kerala as there are no words in current Malayalam that use them.

{|class=wikitable

!colspan=2|[[Bilabial consonant|Labial]]

!colspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]

!colspan=2|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]

!colspan=2|[[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]

!colspan=2|[[Post-alveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]/<br>[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]

!colspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]

![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]

!colspan=2|[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]

|colspan=2|{{IPA|m}} {{lang|ml|മ}} {{angbr|m}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|n̪}} {{lang|ml|ന}} {{angbr|n}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|n}} {{lang|ml|ന}} {{angbr|ṉ}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ɳ}} {{lang|ml|ണ}} {{angbr|ṇ}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ɲ}} {{lang|ml|ഞ}} {{angbr|ñ}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ŋ}} {{lang|ml|ങ}} {{angbr|ṅ}}

!rowspan=2|[[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br>[[Affricate]]

!{{small|plain}}

|{{IPA|p}}<br>{{lang|ml|പ}}<br>{{angbr|p}}

|{{IPA|b}}<br>{{lang|ml|ബ}}<br>{{angbr|b}}

|{{IPA|t̪}}<br>{{lang|ml|ത}}<br>{{angbr|t}}

|{{IPA|d̪}}<br>{{lang|ml|ദ}}<br>{{angbr|d}}

|{{IPA|t}}<br>{{lang|ml|റ്റ}}<br>{{angbr|ṯ}}

|({{IPA|d}})<ref>Only occurs when (ṟ) is prenasalized often transcribed as (ṯ)</ref><br>{{lang|ml|ന്റ}}<br>{{angbr|ḏ}}

|{{IPA|ʈ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ട}}<br>{{angbr|ṭ}}

|{{IPA|ɖ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഡ}}<br>{{angbr|ḍ}}

|{{IPA|t͡ɕ~t͡ʃ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ച}}<br>{{angbr|c}}

|{{IPA|d͡ʑ~d͡ʒ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ജ}}<br>{{angbr|j}}

|{{IPA|k}}<br>{{lang|ml|ക}}<br>{{angbr|k}}

|{{IPA|ɡ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഗ}}<br>{{angbr|g}}

!{{small|[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]}}

|{{IPA|pʰ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഫ}}<br>{{angbr|ph}}

|{{IPA|bʱ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഭ}}<br>{{angbr|bh}}

|{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഥ}}<br>{{angbr|th}}

|colspan=2|

|{{IPA|ʈʰ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഠ}}<br>{{angbr|ṭh}}

|{{IPA|ɖʱ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഢ}}<br>{{angbr|ḍh}}

|{{IPA|t͡ɕʰ~t͡ʃʰ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഛ}}<br>{{angbr|ch}}

|{{IPA|d͡ʑʱ~d͡ʒʱ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഝ}}<br>{{angbr|jh}}

|{{IPA|kʰ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഖ}}<br>{{angbr|kh}}

|{{IPA|ɡʱ}}<br>{{lang|ml|ഘ}}<br>{{angbr|gh}}

!colspan=2|[[Fricative]]

|colspan=2|{{IPA|f}} {{lang|ml|ഫ}} {{angbr|f}}

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|{{IPA|s}} {{lang|ml|സ}} {{angbr|s}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ʂ}} {{lang|ml|ഷ}} {{angbr|ṣ}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ɕ~ʃ}} {{lang|ml|ശ}} {{angbr|ś}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|h}} {{lang|ml|ഹ}} {{angbr|h}}

!rowspan=2|[[Approximant consonant|Approx.]]

!{{small|central}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ʋ}} {{lang|ml|വ}} {{angbr|v}}

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ɻ}} {{lang|ml|ഴ}} {{angbr|ḻ}}<ref>Often transcribed as "zh" by Malayalis and Tamils</ref>

|colspan=2|{{IPA|j}} {{lang|ml|യ}} {{angbr|y}}

!{{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}}

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|{{IPA|l}} {{lang|ml|ല}} {{angbr|l}}

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ɭ}} {{lang|ml|ള}} {{angbr|ḷ}}

|colspan=5|

!colspan=2|[[Tap consonant|Tap]]

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|

|colspan=2|{{IPA|ɾ}} {{lang|ml|ര}} {{angbr|r}}

|colspan=7 rowspan=2|

!colspan=2|[[Trill consonant|Trill]]

|colspan=2|{{IPA|r}} {{lang|ml|റ}} {{angbr|ṟ}}

|}

* Like in other Dravidian languages the retroflex series are true sub apical retroflex ie its the bottom part of the tongue which contacts the roof.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Hamann|first=Silke |year=2003 |title=The Phonetics and Phonology of Retroflexes |location=Utrecht, Netherlands |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/627/full.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref>

|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/malayalam-namboodiri-dialect/19CBF6E9E1CE65A84928F7C9C2286A9B#}}</ref>

* The [[alveolar nasal]] once had a separate character ⟨ഩ⟩ that is now obsolete (it can be seen in the {{angbr|ṉ}} row here [https://web.archive.org/web/20060714032632/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/stone-catend/trimain3.htm]) and the sound is now almost always represented by the symbol that was originally used only for the [[dental nasal]]. However, both sounds are extensively used in current colloquial and official Malayalam, and although they were allophones in Old Malayalam, they now occasionally contrast in gemination – for example, ''eṉṉāl'' ("by me", first person singular pronoun in the instrumental case) and ''ennāl'' ("if that is so", elided from the original ''entāl''), which are both written ''ennāl''.

* The unaspirated alveolar stop also had a separate character ⟨ഺ⟩ but it has become obsolete, as the sound only occurs in geminate form (when geminated it is written with a {{lang|ml|റ}} below another {{lang|ml|റ}} ⟨റ്റ⟩) or immediately following other consonants (in these cases, {{lang|ml|റ}} or {{lang|ml|ററ}} are usually written in small size underneath the first consonant). The archaic letter can be found in the {{angbr|ṯ}} row here [https://web.archive.org/web/20060714032632/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/stone-catend/trimain3.htm].

* The letter ഫ represents both {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, a phoneme occurring in Sanskrit loanwords, and {{IPA|/f/}}, which is mostly found in comparatively recent borrowings from European languages. Though nowadays there is a increase in the number of people (especially youngsters) who pronounce {{IPA|/pʰ/}} as {{IPA|/f/}} like in the word "ഫലം" /falam/.<ref name="phono"/>

* The plain stops, affricates, nasals, laterals, the fricatives /s/ and /ɕ/ and approximates other than /ɻ/ can be geminated and gemination can sometimes change the meaning of the word for eg കളം /kaɭam/ 'cell' കള്ളം /kaɭ:am/ 'lie'.<ref name="phono"/>

* The retroflex lateral is clearly retroflex, but may be more of a flap <span style="font-family:Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, serif">[{{PUA|}}]</span> (= {{IPA|[ɺ̢]}}) than an approximant {{IPA|[ɭ]}}. The approximant {{IPA|/ɻ/}} has both rhotic and lateral qualities, and is indeterminate between an approximant and a fricative, but is [[laminal consonant|laminal post-alveolar]] rather than a true retroflex. The articulation changes part-way through, perhaps explaining why it behaves as both a rhotic and a lateral, both an approximant and a fricative, but the nature of the change is not understood.<ref>Scobbie, Punnoose & Khattab (2013) "Articulating five liquids: a single speaker ultrasound study of Malayalam". In ''Rhotics: New Data and Perspectives.'' BU Press, Bozen-Bolzano.</ref>

 

A ''chillu'' ({{lang|ml|ചില്ല്}}, ''cillŭ''), or a ''chillaksharam'' ({{lang|ml|ചില്ലക്ഷരം}}, ''cillakṣaram''), is a special consonant letter that represents a pure consonant independently, without help of a [[virama]]. Unlike a consonant represented by an ordinary consonant letter, this consonant is never followed by an inherent vowel. [[#Anusvaram|Anusvara]] and [[#Visargam|visarga]] fit this definition but are not usually included. ISCII and Unicode 5.0 treat a ''chillu'' as a glyph variant of a normal (“base”) consonant letter.<ref name="TUS50">{{Cite web|publisher=Unicode, Inc|title=South Asian Scripts-I|work=The Unicode Standard 5.0 — Electronic Edition|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode5.0.0/ch09.pdf|pages=42–44|year=1991–2007|access-date=2009-09-08}}</ref> In Unicode 5.1 and later, ''chillu'' letters are treated as independent characters, encoded atomically.

 

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:30px"

|+''Chillu'' letters

!{{lang|ml|ൺ}}

|<tt>CHILLU NN</tt>||''ṇa'' {{lang|ml|ണ}}||||കൂൺ

!{{lang|ml|ൻ}}

 

{|class="wikitable"style="width:80%;margin-left:30px;"

|{{lang|ml|ഽ}}|| Corresponds to [[Devanagari]] [[avagraha]], used when a Sanskrit phrase containing an ''avagraha'' is written in Malayalam script. The symbol indicates the [[elision]] of the word-initial vowel ''a'' after a word that ends in ''ā'', ''ē'', or ''ō'', and is transliterated as an apostrophe ('), or sometimes as a colon + an apostrophe (:').<br />({{indic|lang=ml|indic=പ്രശ്ലേഷം|trans=praślēṣam}})

![[Danda]]

|{{lang|ml|।}}

|-

|{{lang|ml|॥}}

 

Malayalam numbers and fractions are written as follows. These are archaic and no longer used. Instead, the common [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] is followed. Note that there is a confusion about the glyph of Malayalam digit zero. The correct form is oval-shaped, but occasionally the glyph for {{frac|1|4}} ({{lang|ml|൳}}) is erroneously shown as the glyph for 0.

! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 100 !! 1000 !! {{frac|1|4}} !! {{frac|1|2}} !! {{frac|3|4}}

|- style="font-size:medium;" lang="ml"

| ൦ || ൧ || ൨ || ൩ || ൪ || ൫ || ൬ || ൭ || ൮ || ൯ || ൰ || ൱ || ൲ || ൳ || ൴ || ൵

|}

 

 

|൰൲൯൰൯

For example, the number "2013" is read in Malayalam as "'''രണ്ടായിരത്തി പതിമൂന്ന്'''" (raṇḍāyiratti padimūnnŭ). It is split into:

Combine them together to get the Malayalam number "'''൨൲൰൩'''".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shijualex.in/malayalam-numerals-old-system/|title=മലയാള അക്കങ്ങൾ|last=Alex|first=Shiju|date=2013-08-22|website=ഗ്രന്ഥപ്പുര|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref>

And 1,00,000 as "൱൲" = hundred(൱), thousand(൲) (100×1000), 10,00,000 as "൰൱൲" = ten(൰), hundred(൱), thousand(൲) (10×100×1000) and 1,00,00,000 as "൱൱൲" = hundred(൱), hundred(൱), thousand(൲) (100×100×1000).

Later on this system got reformed to be more similar to the Hindu-Arabic numerals so 10,00,000 in the reformed numerals it would be ൧൦൦൦൦൦൦. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shijualex.in/malayalam-numerals-old-system/|title=മലയാള അക്കങ്ങൾ|last=Alex|first=Shiju|date=2013-08-22|website=ഗ്രന്ഥപ്പുര|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref>

====Fractions====

In Malayalam you can transcribe any fraction by affixing (-il) after the denominator followed by the numerator, so a fraction like {{frac|7|10}} would be read as '''"പത്തിൽ ഏഴ്'''" (pattil ēḻŭ) "out of ten, seven" but fractions like {{frac|1|2}} {{frac|1|4}} and {{frac|3|4}} have distinct names (ara, kāl, mukkāl) and {{frac|1|8}} (arakkāl) "half quarter".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shijualex.in/malayalam-numerals-old-system/|title=മലയാള അക്കങ്ങൾ|last=Alex|first=Shiju|date=2013-08-22|website=ഗ്രന്ഥപ്പുര|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref>

Malayalam has a canonical word order of [[subject–object–verb|SOV]] (subject–object–verb), as do other [[Dravidian languages]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_mym |title=Wals.info |publisher=Wals.info |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520015202/http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_mym |archive-date=20 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> A rare [[subject–object–verb|OSV]] word order occurs in interrogative clauses when the interrogative word is the subject.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jayaseelan |first1=Karattuparambil |title=IP-internal topic and focus phrases |date=2001 |page=40}}</ref> Both [[adjective]]s and [[possessive adjective]]s precede the [[noun]]s they modify. Malayalam has 6<ref>Asher, R. E. and Kumari, T. C. (1997). Malayalam. Routledge Pub.: London.</ref> or 7<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jaimalayalam.com/papers/socialCaseMalayalam05.pdf |title=The Samyojika Vibhakthi and Its Unique Application in Malayalam Grammar |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731141301/http://www.jaimalayalam.com/papers/socialCaseMalayalam05.pdf |archive-date=31 July 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=June 2017}} [[grammatical case]]s. Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood and aspect, but not for person, gender nor number except in archaic or poetic language.

!

! colspan="4" | Singular

! colspan="4" | Plural

! Case

!  First person ([[Clusivity|exclusive]])

! First person (inclusive)

| ñāṉ || nī || avaṉ (voc. avaṉē) || avaḷ (voc. avaḷē) || ñaṅṅaḷ || nām/nammaḷ || niṅṅaḷ || avar (voc. avarē)

| eṉṉe || niṉṉe || avaṉe || avaḷe || ñaṅṅaḷe || namme || niṅṅaḷe || avare

| eṉṯe (also eṉ, eṉṉuṭe) || niṉṯe (also niṉ, niṉṉuṭe) || avaṉṯe (also avaṉuṭe) || avaḷuṭe || ñaṅṅaḷuṭe (also ñaṅṅuṭe) || nammuṭe || niṅṅaḷuṭe || avaruṭe

| eṉikku || niṉakku || avaṉu || avaḷkku || ñaṅṅaḷkku || namukku || niṅṅaḷkku || avaṟkku

| eṉṉāl || niṉṉāl || avaṉāl || avaḷāl || ñaṅṅaḷāl (also ñaṅṅāl) || nammāl || niṅṅaḷāl (also niṅṅāl) || avarāl

| eṉṉil (also eṅkal) || niṉṉil (also niṅkal) || avaṉil (also avaṅkal) || avaḷil (also avaḷkal) || ñaṅṅaḷil || nammil || niṅṅaḷil || avaril (also avaṟkal)

| eṉṉōṭu || niṉṉōṭu || avaṉōṭu || avaḷōṭu || ñaṅṅaḷōṭu || nammōṭu || niṅṅaḷōṭu || avarōṭu

! Word (translated)

! colspan="2" | "Tree"

! colspan="2" | "Elephant"

! colspan="2" | "Human"

! colspan="2" | "Dog"

! Case

! Singular

! Plural

! Singular

! Plural

! Singular

! Plural

! Singular

! Plural

! Nominative

| മരം

''maram''

| മരങ്ങ​ൾ

''maraṅṅaḷ''

| ആന

''āṉa''

| ആനക​ൾ

''āṉakaḷ''

| മനുഷ്യൻ

''maṉuṣyaṉ''

| മനുഷ്യർ

''maṉuṣyaṟ''

| പട്ടി

''paṭṭi''

| പട്ടികൾ

! Vocative

| മരമേ

''maramē''

| മരങ്ങളേ

''maraṅṅaḷē''

| ആനേ

''āṉē''

| ആനക​ളേ

''āṉakaḷē''

| മനുഷ്യാ

''maṉuṣyā''

| മനുഷ്യരേ

''maṉuṣyarē''

| പട്ടീ

''paṭṭī''

| പട്ടികളേ

''paṭṭikaḷē''

! Accusative

| മരത്തെ

''maratte''

| മരങ്ങളെ

''maraṅṅaḷe''

| ആനയെ

''āṉaye''

| ആനക​ളെ

''āṉakaḷe''

| മനുഷ്യനെ

''maṉuṣyaṉe''

| മനുഷ്യരെ

''maṉuṣyare''

| പട്ടിയെ

''paṭṭiye''

| പട്ടികളെ

''paṭṭikaḷe''

! Genitive

| മരത്തിൻ്റെ

| മരങ്ങളുടെ

| ആനയുടെ

| ആനക​ളുടെ

| മനുഷ്യൻ്റെ

| മനുഷ്യരുടെ

| പട്ടിയുടെ

| പട്ടികളുടെ

! Dative

| മരത്തിന്

| മരങ്ങൾക്ക്

''maraṅṅaḷkkŭ''

| ആനയ്ക്ക്  

''āṉaykkŭ''

| ആനക​ൾക്ക്

''āṉakaḷkkŭ''

| മനുഷ്യന്

''maṉuṣyaṉŭ''

| മനുഷ്യർക്ക്

''maṉuṣyaṟkkŭ''

| പട്ടിയ്ക്ക്  

''paṭṭiykkŭ''

| പട്ടികൾക്ക്

''paṭṭikaḷkkŭ''

! Instrumental

| മരത്താൽ

''marattāl''

| മരങ്ങളാൽ

''maraṅṅaḷāl''

| ആനയാൽ

''āṉayāl''

| ആനക​ളാൽ

''āṉakaḷāl''

| മനുഷ്യനാൽ

''maṉuṣyaṉāl''

| മനുഷ്യരാൽ

''maṉuṣyarāl''

| പട്ടിയാൽ

''paṭṭiyāl''

| പട്ടികളാൽ

''paṭṭikaḷāl''

! Locative

| മരത്തിൽ

''marattil''

| മരങ്ങളിൽ

''maraṅṅaḷil''

| ആനയിൽ

''āṉayil''

| ആനക​ളിൽ

''āṉakaḷil''

| മനുഷ്യനിൽ

''maṉuṣyaṉil''

| മനുഷ്യരിൽ

''maṉuṣyaril''

| പട്ടിയിൽ

''paṭṭiyil''

| പട്ടികളിൽ

''paṭṭikaḷil''

! Sociative

| മരത്തോട്

| മരങ്ങളോട്

| ആനയോട്

| ആനക​ളോട്

| മനുഷ്യനോട്

| മനുഷ്യരോട്

| പട്ടിയോട്

| പട്ടികളോട്

Historically, several scripts were used to write Malayalam. Among these were the Vatteluttu, [[Kolezhuthu]] and [[Malayanma]] scripts. But it was the [[Grantha script]], another [[Southern Brahmi]] variation, which gave rise to the modern [[Malayalam script]]. It is syllabic in the sense that the sequence of graphic elements means that syllables have to be read as units, though in this system the elements representing individual vowels and consonants are for the most part readily identifiable. In the 1960s Malayalam dispensed with many special letters representing less frequent conjunct consonants and combinations of the vowel /u/ with different consonants.

Malayalam script consists of a total of 578 characters. The script contains 52 letters including 16 vowels and 36 consonants, which forms 576 syllabic characters, and contains two additional diacritic characters named [[anusvāra]] and [[visarga]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Malayalam Self-Taught |author=Don M. de Z. Wickremasinghe |author2=T.N. Menon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vX9Vk95OqNoC |page=7 |year=2004 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1903-6 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528191159/https://books.google.com/books?id=vX9Vk95OqNoC |archive-date=28 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://kerala.gov.in/language%20&%20literature/language.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011052626/http://kerala.gov.in/language%20%26%20literature/language.htm |archive-date=11 October 2007 |title=Language |work=kerala.gov.in |access-date=28 May 2007 |url-status=dead |df=}}</ref> The earlier style of writing has been superseded by a new style as of 1981. This new script reduces the different letters for typesetting from 900 to fewer than 90. This was mainly done to include Malayalam in the keyboards of typewriters and computers.

Malayalam has been written in other scripts like [[Latin alphabet|Roman]], [[Suriyani Malayalam|Syriac]]<ref name="nf">[http://www.nasranifoundation.org/articles/SyriacMalayalam.html Suriyani Malayalam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611020933/http://www.nasranifoundation.org/articles/SyriacMalayalam.html |date=11 June 2014 }}, Nasrani Foundation</ref><ref name="thehin">[http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/11/stories/2008081164350500.htm A sacredlanguage is vanishing from State] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130710100809/http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/11/stories/2008081164350500.htm |date=10 July 2013 }}, The Hindu</ref><ref name="indtod">[http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/tiny-village-in-kerala-one-of-the-last-bastions-of-syriac-in-the-world/1/276352.html Prayer from the Past] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404193804/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/tiny-village-in-kerala-one-of-the-last-bastions-of-syriac-in-the-world/1/276352.html |date=4 April 2014 }}, India Today</ref> and [[Arabi Malayalam|Arabic]]. [[Suriyani Malayalam]] was used by [[Saint Thomas Christians]] (also known as Nasranis) until the 19th century.<ref name="nf" /><ref name="thehin" /><ref name="indtod" /> Arabic scripts particularly were taught in [[madrasah]]s in Kerala and the [[Lakshadweep Islands]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gaṅgopādhyāẏa |first=Subrata |title=Symbol, Script, and Writing: From Petrogram to Printing and Further |publisher=Sharada Pub. House |year=2004 |page=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books? |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108170235/https://books.google.com/books |archive-date=8 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/depts/education/profile.htm |title=Education in Lakshadweep – Discovering the past chapters |access-date=24 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005155923/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/depts/education/profile.htm |archive-date=5 October 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Literature==

{{Main|Malayalam literature}}

[[File:Kerala Sahitya Akademy.JPG|thumb|Kerala Sahitya Akademy at [[Thrissur]]]]