Ganesha: Difference between revisions

| siblings = [[Kartikeya]] (brother)

| consort = [[Riddhi]] and [[Siddhi]] or [[brahmacharya|celibate]]

| deity_of = God of Luck and New Beginnings <br/> Remover of Obstacles{{Sfn|Heras|1972|p=58}}{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 5}}<br/>Supreme God (Ganapatya)

'''Ganesha''' ({{lang-sa|गणेश}}, {{IAST3|Gaṇeśa}})<!--Do not remove, WP:INDICSCRIPT doesn't apply to WikiProject Hinduism-->, also known as '''Ganapati,''' '''Vinayaka''', and '''Pillaiyar''', is one of the best-known and most worshipped [[Deva_(Hinduism)|deities]] in the [[Hindu deities|Hindu pantheon]]{{Sfn|Ramachandra Rao|1992|p=6}} and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout [[India]].<ref>{{Spaces|5}}

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=1}}</ref> Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends [[Ganesha in world religions|to Jains and Buddhists]] and includes [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]] ([[Java]] and [[Bali]]), [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]], and [[Bangladesh]] and in countries with large ethnic Indian populations including [[Fiji]], [[Guyana]], [[Mauritius]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].<ref>{{Spaces|5}}

Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his [[Asiatic Elephant|elephant]] head.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 2.</ref> He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and thought to bring good luck;<ref>For Ganesha's role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on {{IAST|Gaṇapati Upaniṣad}}, verse 12 in {{Harvnb|Saraswati|2004|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= India - Mahabharata. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminar Abroad 1994 (India) |first1=Carole|last1=DeVito|first2=Pasquale|last2=DeVito|publisher=United States Educational Foundation in India|year=1994|page=4}}</ref> the patron of [[The arts|arts]] and [[Science|sciences]]; and the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] of intellect and wisdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heras|1972|p=58}}</ref> As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as a patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 5}}<ref name = "Vignesha">These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, ''Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''.</ref> Several texts relate [[Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha|mythological anecdotes]] associated with his birth and exploits.

== Etymology and other names ==

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of [[India]] by the 6th century CE.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=175}}</ref> The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997}}, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).</ref> and another similar statue is dated c.&nbsp;12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.<ref>Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art|Los Angeles County Museum]] of Art that is dated as c. 12th century.  Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii.</ref> Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=176}}</ref> A more primitive statue in one of the [[Ellora Caves]] with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.<ref>See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995|p=16}}</ref> Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an [[Parashu|axe]] or a [[Ankus|goad]] in one upper arm and a [[Pasha (Hinduism)|pasha]] ([[noose]]) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.{{refn|group=note|For the human-headed form of Ganesha in:

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=92}}. For the snake as a common type of ''{{IAST|yajñyopavīta}}'' for Ganesha.</ref> wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a [[third eye]] or the sectarian mark (IAST: {{IAST|[[tilaka]]}}), which consists of three horizontal lines.<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=81}}. ''tilaka'' with three horizontal lines.

The earliest Ganesha images are without a [[vahana]] (mount/vehicle).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=47–48, 78}}</ref> Of [[Mudgala Purana#The eight incarnations of Ganesha|the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the ''Mudgala Purana'']], Ganesha uses a [[mouse]] (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as ''Vakratunda'', a peacock in his incarnation as ''Vikata'', and [[Shesha]], the divine serpent, in his incarnation as ''Vighnaraja''.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1981–1982|p=49}}</ref> ''Mohotkata'' uses a [[lion]], ''{{IAST|Mayūreśvara}}'' uses a peacock, ''Dhumraketu'' uses a [[horse]], and ''Gajanana'' uses a mouse, in the [[Mahotkata|four incarnations of Ganesha]] listed in the ''Ganesha Purana''. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a [[mouse]], [[elephant]], [[tortoise]], ram, or [[Peafowl|peacock]].<ref>

The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret {{IAST|Gaṇapati}}'s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes ''[[Tamas (philosophy)|{{IAST|tamoguṇa}}]]'' as well as desire".<ref>For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995|p=86}}.</ref> Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.<ref>''A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification,'' by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117</ref> Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|mūṣaka}}'' (mouse) is derived from the root ''{{IAST|mūṣ}}'' (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of ''vighna'' (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as ''Vigneshvara'' (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk ''grāma-devatā'' (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=49–50}}</ref> Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=231}}

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=5}}.</ref> In Sanskrit, the word ''[[buddhi]]'' is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.{{Sfn|Apte|1965|p= 703}} The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' and the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]'' is ''Buddhipriya''.<ref>''Ganesha Purana'' I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.</ref> This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the ''Ganesha Sahasranama'' that Ganesha says are especially important.<ref>Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads ''Buddhipriya'', Bailey translates ''Granter-of-lakhs.''</ref> The word ''priya'' can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband",<ref>Practical Sanskrit Dictionary By [[Arthur Anthony McDonell]]; p. 187 (''priya''); Published 2004; [[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ; {{ISBN|8120820002}}</ref> so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=60–70}}p. discusses Ganesha as "Buddhi's Husband".</ref>

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu [[mantra]] [[Om]]. The term ''{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}'' (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.<ref>Grimes, p. 77.</ref> The ''[[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]]'' attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:{{Sfn|Chinmayananda|1987|p= 127, In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}

Ujjain]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]]; [[Jodhpur]], [[Nagaur]] and Raipur ([[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]]) in [[Rajasthan]]; Baidyanath in [[Bihar]]; [[Baroda]], Dholaka, and [[Valsad]] in [[Gujarat]] and Dhundiraj Temple in [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: [[Vinayaka Temple, Kanipakam|Kanipakam]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]; the [[Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple]] at [[Tiruchirapalli]] and [[Arulmigu Munthi Vinayagar Temple|Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple]] at [[Coimbatore]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Major Ganesha Temples around the world|url=https://tamilminutes.com/famous-vinayagar-temple-in-the-world/|date=31 August 2022|newspaper=Tamil Minutes|access-date=22 October 2022}}</ref> in [[Tamil Nadu]]; [[Kottarakkara Sree Mahaganapathi Kshethram|Kottarakkara]], [[Trivandrum|Pazhavangadi]], [[Madhur Temple|Kasargod]] in [[Kerala]]; [[Hampi]], and [[Ganesha Temple, Idagunji|Idagunji]] in [[Karnataka]]; and [[Bhadrachalam]] in [[Telangana]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishna|1985}}, p. 91–92</ref>

[[File:Kabul ganesh khingle.jpg|thumb|175px|upright|The ''[[Gardez Ganesha]]'', a 7th-century marble Ganesha found in [[Gardez]], [[Afghanistan]], and once displayed at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, [[Kabul]].<ref>The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of {{IAST|Mahāvināyaka}}" was consecrated by the [[Turk Shahis|Shahi]] King Khingala. For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., "{{IAST|Gaņeśa}}: Myth and Reality", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=50, 63}}. </ref><ref>{{citation|jstor=29755703|title=A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan|journal=East and West|volume=21|issue=3/4|pages=331–336|last1=Dhavalikar|first1=M. K.|year=1971}}</ref>]]  

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed ''{{IAST|yakṣa}}'' form exists it cannot be presumed to represent {{IAST|Gaṇapati-Vināyaka}}. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. {{IAST|Gaṇapati-Vināyaka}} had yet to make his debut."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 75.</ref>

Ganesha does not appear in the [[Indian epic]] literature that is dated to the [[Vedic period]]. A late interpolation to the epic poem ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (1.1.75–79{{efn|Bombay edition}}) says that the sage [[Vyasa]] ({{IAST|Vyāsa}}) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the ''Mahabharata'',<ref>Rocher, Ludo "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71–72.</ref> in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.<ref>''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'' Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.</ref> The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.<ref>For a statement that "Fifty-nine manuscripts of the ''{{IAST|Ādiparvan}}'' were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} acting as the scribe for writing the ''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'' occurs in 37 manuscripts", see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=31, note 4}}.</ref> Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for {{IAST|Vyāsa}}'s dictation of the ''Mahabharata'' in this interpolation.<ref>Brown, p. 4.</ref> Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and [[Moriz Winternitz]] concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the ''Mahabharata'' some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in [[South India]]n manuscripts of the ''Mahabharata'' is their omission of this Ganesha legend.<ref>Winternitz, Moriz. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} in the {{IAST|Mahābhārata}}". Journal of [[Royal Asiatic Society|the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}<nowiki/>'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 80.</ref> The term ''{{IAST|vināyaka}}'' is found in some recensions of the ''{{IAST|Śāntiparva}}'' and ''{{IAST|Anuśāsanaparva}}'' that are regarded as interpolations.<ref>For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=29}}.</ref> A reference to ''{{IAST|Vighnakartṛīṇām}}'' ("Creator of Obstacles") in ''Vanaparva'' is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.<ref>For reference to {{IAST|Vighnakartṛīṇām}} and translation as "Creator of Obstacles", see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=29}}.</ref>

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of [[Smartism]]. The 9th-century philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] popularised the "worship of the five forms" ([[Panchayatana puja]]) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.<ref>* {{Harvard citation|Courtright|1985|p=163}} For Dating of the ''{{IAST|pañcāyatana pūjā}}'' and its connection with {{IAST|Smārta}} Brahmins.

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995}}, p. ix.</ref> Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

[[File:Prambanan-ganesha.jpg|thumb|upright|175px|left|Ganesha statue in 9th-century [[Prambanan]] temple, Java, Indonesia]]

 

| photo2a = Seal of the City of Salatiga.svg

Hindus migrated to [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 55}} Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of [[Philippines]], [[Java]], [[Bali]], and [[Borneo]] show specific regional influences.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Getty|1936}}, p. 55–66.</ref> The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In [[Indochina]], Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 52}} In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the [[Cham (Asia)|Chams]] in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.<ref name="Brown">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=182}}.</ref>  

Among the Indonesian, who predominantly profess Muslim faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha's likeness in their grounds and/or logo. [[Blitar]], [[Salatiga]] City, and [[Kediri Regency]] are among 3 local governments that include Ganesha in their Regency/City official seals. Indonesia is the only country who featured Ganesha on her bill ([[Banknotes_of_the_rupiah#Updates to high denominations and introduction of the Rp100,000 note (1998-1999)|20 thousand denomination]], between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation.  

Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.<ref name="Brown"/> Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King [[Vajiravudh]] of [[Chakri Dynasty]] who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, [[Sanam Chandra Palace]] in [[Nakhon Pathom Province]] where he focused on his academic and literature works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of the [[Fine Arts Department (Thailand)|Fine Arts Department]] where he took Ganesha as the seal. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's first prominent fine arts academy; the [[Silpakorn University]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=วัฒนะมหาตม์ |first=กิตติ |date=November 2011 |title= พระคเณศไม่ใช่เทพศิลปะ รัชกาลที่ 6 ทรงทำให้เป็นเทพศิลปะ|trans-title= Ganesh was not the god of art. King Vajiravudh was the one who made him be one. |url= https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_5821|language= TH|journal= ศิลปวัฒนธรรม (Arts and Culture)|issue= November 2011 |access-date=26 May 2020}}</ref>

Ganesha appears in [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god {{IAST|Vināyaka}}, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|pp= 37–45}} His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 37}} As the Buddhist god {{IAST|Vināyaka}}, he is often shown dancing. This form, called {{IAST|Nṛtta}} Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 38}} In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as [[Heramba]], is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 40}} Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992}}, p. 185.</ref> A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is ''tshogs bdag''.<ref>Wayman, Alex (2006). ''Chanting the Names of Manjushri''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers:  p. 76.  {{ISBN|8120816536}}</ref> In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by [[Mahakala|{{IAST|Mahākāla}}]],(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.<ref>Ganesha