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{{Short description|Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964}} | {{Short description|Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964}} | ||
{{Redirect|Nehru}} | {{Redirect|Nehru}} | ||
{{Pp-semi-indef}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}} | {{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}} | ||
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| birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[North-Western Provinces]], British India | | birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[North-Western Provinces]], British India | ||
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1964|5|27|1889|11|14}} | | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1964|5|27|1889|11|14}} | ||
| death_place = New Delhi, India | | death_place = [[New Delhi]], India | ||
| death_cause = <!-- should only be included when the cause of death has significance for the subject's notability --> | | death_cause = <!-- should only be included when the cause of death has significance for the subject's notability --> | ||
| resting_place = [[Raj Ghat and associated memorials|Shantivan]] | | resting_place = [[Raj Ghat and associated memorials|Shantivan]] | ||
| Line 30: | Line 31: | ||
| deputy = [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]<br /> {{nowrap|(until 15 December 1950)}} | | deputy = [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]<br /> {{nowrap|(until 15 December 1950)}} | ||
| president = {{ubl|[[Rajendra Prasad]]|[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]}} | | president = {{ubl|[[Rajendra Prasad]]|[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]}} | ||
| | | 1blankname = Vice President | ||
| predecessor = ''Post established | | 1namedata = {{ubl|[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]|[[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]]}} | ||
| predecessor = ''Post established'', hence no predecessor | |||
| successor = [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]]{{efn|[[Gulzarilal Nanda]] served as acting prime minister in the interim for 13 days.}} | | successor = [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]]{{efn|[[Gulzarilal Nanda]] served as acting prime minister in the interim for 13 days.}} | ||
| office2 = Prime Minister of the [[Dominion of India]] | | office2 = Prime Minister of the [[Dominion of India]] | ||
| monarch2 = [[George VI]] | | monarch2 = [[George VI]] | ||
| governor_general2 = {{ubl|[[Lord Mountbatten]]|[[C. Rajagopalachari]]}} | | governor_general2 = {{ubl|[[Lord Mountbatten]]|[[C. Rajagopalachari]]}} | ||
| predecessor2 = ''Dominion established'' | | predecessor2 = ''Dominion established''; hence no predecessor | ||
| successor2 = ''Dominion abolished | | successor2 = ''Dominion abolished''; hence no successor | ||
| deputy2 = Vallabhbhai Patel | | deputy2 = [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] | ||
| term_start2 = 15 August 1947 | | term_start2 = 15 August 1947 | ||
| term_end2 = 26 January 1950 | | term_end2 = 26 January 1950 | ||
| office3 = Vice-President of the [[Viceroy's Executive Council]]{{efn|As head of the [[Interim Government of India]]}} | | office3 = Vice-President of the [[Viceroy's Executive Council]]{{efn|As head of the [[Interim Government of India]]}} | ||
| monarch3 = George VI | | monarch3 = [[George VI]] | ||
| governor_general3 = | | governor_general3 = [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Earl Wavell]]<br/> [[Lord Mountbatten]] | ||
| term_start3 = 2 September 1946 | | term_start3 = 2 September 1946 | ||
| term_end3 = 15 August 1947 | | term_end3 = 15 August 1947 | ||
| office4 = Member of Parliament, | | office4 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] | ||
| constituency4 = [[Phulpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Phulpur]], Uttar Pradesh | | constituency4 = [[Phulpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Phulpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] | ||
| term_start4 = 17 April 1952 | | term_start4 = 17 April 1952 | ||
| term_end4 = 27 May 1964 | | term_end4 = 27 May 1964 | ||
| predecessor4 = '' | | predecessor4 = ''constituency established'' | ||
| office5 = 1st [[Leader of the House in Lok Sabha]] | predecessor5 = ''post created'' | successor5 = [[Gulzarilal Nanda]]| term_start5= 13 May 1952 | term_end5 = 27 May 1964}} | | successor4 = [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]] | ||
| office5 = 1st [[Leader of the House in Lok Sabha]] | |||
| predecessor5 = ''post created'' | |||
| successor5 = [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] | |||
| term_start5= 13 May 1952 | |||
| term_end5 = 27 May 1964 | |||
| office6 = [[President of the Indian National Congress]] | |||
| term6 = 1951-1954 | |||
| predecessor6 = [[Purushottam Das Tandon]] | |||
| successor6 = [[U.N. Dhebar]] | |||
| term7 = 1936-1937 | |||
| predecessor7 = [[Rajendra Prasad]] | |||
| successor7 = [[Subhash Chandra Bose]] | |||
| term8 = 1929-1930 | |||
| predecessor8 = [[Motilal Nehru]] | |||
| successor8 = [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]}} | |||
{{Jawaharlal Nehru sidebar}} | {{Jawaharlal Nehru sidebar}} | ||
'''Jawaharlal Nehru''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|eɪ|r|u|}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɛ|r|u}};<ref>"[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/nehru Nehru]". ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''. 2020. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014207/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/nehru|date=5 March 2016}}</ref> {{IPA-hi|ˈdʒəʋɑːɦəɾˈlɑːl ˈneːɦɾuː|lang|Hi-JawaharlalNehru.ogg}}; {{Respell|juh|WAH|hurr|LAHL}} {{Respell|NE|hǝ|ROO}}; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was an Indian [[Anti-colonial nationalism|anti-colonial nationalist]], [[secular humanist]], [[social democrat]],<ref name="schenk-lead">— | |||
* {{citation|last1=Ganguly|first1=Sumit|title=India Since 1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpK7oyb0kvkC&pg=PA64|page=64|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139498661|quote=Nehru was a social democrat who believed that liberal political and economic institutions could deliver economic growth with redistribution. The 1950s witnessed greater state control over industrial activity and the birth of the industrial licensing system, which made it necessary for companies to seek the permission of the government before initiating business in permitted areas.|last2=Mukherji|first2=Rahul}} | * {{citation|last1=Ganguly|first1=Sumit|title=India Since 1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpK7oyb0kvkC&pg=PA64|page=64|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139498661|quote=Nehru was a social democrat who believed that liberal political and economic institutions could deliver economic growth with redistribution. The 1950s witnessed greater state control over industrial activity and the birth of the industrial licensing system, which made it necessary for companies to seek the permission of the government before initiating business in permitted areas.|last2=Mukherji|first2=Rahul}} | ||
* {{citation|last=Schenk|first=Hans|title=Housing India's Urban Poor 1800–1965: Colonial and Post-colonial Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-XkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67|year=2020|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781000191851|quote=The idea that the state should actively and in a planned and 'rational' and 'modern' manner promote development originated abroad. Inspiration came to some extent from the Soviet Russian planned economic development, and for some, including Nehru, from the—at that time still a bit remote—concept of the West European and largely social-democrat idea of the 'Welfare' state.}} | * {{citation|last=Schenk|first=Hans|title=Housing India's Urban Poor 1800–1965: Colonial and Post-colonial Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-XkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67|year=2020|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781000191851|quote=The idea that the state should actively and in a planned and 'rational' and 'modern' manner promote development originated abroad. Inspiration came to some extent from the Soviet Russian planned economic development, and for some, including Nehru, from the—at that time still a bit remote—concept of the West European and largely social-democrat idea of the 'Welfare' state.}} | ||
* {{citation|last=Winiecki|first=Jan|title=Shortcut or Piecemeal: Economic Development Stragegies and Structural Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zEISDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|page=41|year=2016|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=9789633860632|quote=Nehru, a Fabian socialist, or social-democrat in modern parlance, either did not read Mill or disregarded the (minimal) institutional requirements outlined by that classical writer. In Nehru's view, it was the state that should direct the economy from the center, as well as decide about the allocation of scarce resources.}} | * {{citation|last=Winiecki|first=Jan|title=Shortcut or Piecemeal: Economic Development Stragegies and Structural Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zEISDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|page=41|year=2016|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=9789633860632|quote=Nehru, a Fabian socialist, or social-democrat in modern parlance, either did not read Mill or disregarded the (minimal) institutional requirements outlined by that classical writer. In Nehru's view, it was the state that should direct the economy from the center, as well as decide about the allocation of scarce resources.}} | ||
* {{citation|last=Chalam|first=K. S.|title=Social Economy of Development in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XumoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA325|page=325|year=2017|publisher=Sage|isbn=9789385985126|quote=Social democrats advocate peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism. While Jawaharlal Nehru was considered as a social democrat, his colleague in the Constituent Assembly, B. R. Ambedkar, was emphatic about state socialism. It appears that the compromise between these two ideas has been reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy. The principles of social democracy and/or democratic socialism can be interrogated in the context of the present situation in India.}}</ref> and author who was a central figure in India during the middle of the 20th century. Nehru was a principal leader of the [[Indian independence movement|Indian nationalist movement]] in the 1930s and 1940s. Upon India's independence in 1947, he | * {{citation|last=Chalam|first=K. S.|title=Social Economy of Development in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XumoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA325|page=325|year=2017|publisher=Sage|isbn=9789385985126|quote=Social democrats advocate peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism. While Jawaharlal Nehru was considered as a social democrat, his colleague in the Constituent Assembly, B. R. Ambedkar, was emphatic about state socialism. It appears that the compromise between these two ideas has been reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy. The principles of social democracy and/or democratic socialism can be interrogated in the context of the present situation in India.}}</ref> statesman and author who was a central figure in India during the middle of the 20th century. Nehru was a principal leader of the [[Indian independence movement|Indian nationalist movement]] in the 1930s and 1940s. Upon India's independence in 1947, he became the [[List of Prime Ministers of India|first]] [[Prime Minister of India]], serving for 16 years. Nehru promoted [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]], [[Secularism in India|secularism]], and [[Science and technology in India|science and technology]] during the 1950s, powerfully influencing India's arc as a modern nation. In international affairs, he steered India clear of the two blocs of the [[Cold War]]. A well-regarded author, his books written in prison, such as ''[[Letters from a Father to His Daughter]]'' (1929), ''[[ Glimpses of World History]]'' (1934), ''[[An Autobiography (Nehru)|An Autobiography]]'' (1936), and ''[[The Discovery of India]]'' (1946), have been read around the world. The honorific ''[[Pandit]]'' has been commonly applied before his name. | ||
The son of [[Motilal Nehru]], a prominent lawyer and [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalist]], Jawaharlal Nehru was educated in England—at [[Harrow School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], and trained in the law at the [[Inner Temple]]. He became a [[barrister]], returned to India, enrolled at the [[Allahabad High Court]] | The son of [[Motilal Nehru]], a prominent lawyer and [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalist]], Jawaharlal Nehru was educated in England—at [[Harrow School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], and trained in the law at the [[Inner Temple]]. He became a [[barrister]], returned to India, enrolled at the [[Allahabad High Court]] but never got truly interested in legal profession. Instead he gradually began to take an interest in national politics, which eventually became a full-time occupation. He joined the [[Indian National Congress]], rose to become the leader of a progressive faction during the 1920s, and eventually of the Congress, receiving the support of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] who was to designate Nehru as his political heir. As [[Congress president]] in 1929, Nehru called for [[Purna Swaraj|complete independence]] from the [[British Raj]]. Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s. Nehru promoted the idea of the [[Secular state|secular nation-state]] in the [[1937 Indian provincial elections]], allowing the Congress to sweep the elections, and to form governments in several provinces. In September 1939, the Congress ministries resigned to protest Viceroy [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]]'s decision to join the war without consulting them. After the [[All India Congress Committee]]'s [[Quit India Movement|Quit India Resolution]] of 8 August 1942, senior Congress leaders were imprisoned and for a time the organisation was crushed. Nehru, who had reluctantly heeded Gandhi's call for immediate independence, and had desired instead to support the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] war effort during [[World War II]], came out of a lengthy prison term to a much-altered political landscape. The [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], under [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], had come to dominate Muslim politics in the interim. In the 1946 provincial elections, Congress won the elections, but the League won all the seats reserved for Muslims, which the British interpreted to be a clear mandate for Pakistan in some form. Nehru became the interim prime minister of India in September 1946, with the League joining his government with some hesitancy in October 1946. | ||
Upon India's independence on 15 August 1947, Nehru gave a critically acclaimed speech, "[[Tryst with Destiny]]"; he was sworn in as the [[Dominion of India]]'s prime minister and raised the Indian flag at the [[Red Fort]] in Delhi. On 26 January 1950, when India became a republic within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Nehru became the [[Republic of India]]'s first prime minister. He embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social, and political reforms. Nehru promoted a pluralistic [[multi-party system|multi-party]] democracy. In foreign affairs, he played a leading role in establishing the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], a group of nations that did not seek membership in the two main ideological blocs of the | Upon India's independence on 15 August 1947, Nehru gave a critically acclaimed speech, "[[Tryst with Destiny]]"; he was sworn in as the [[Dominion of India]]'s prime minister and raised the Indian flag at the [[Red Fort]] in Delhi. On 26 January 1950, when India became a republic within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Nehru became the [[Republic of India]]'s first prime minister. He embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social, and political reforms. Nehru promoted a pluralistic [[multi-party system|multi-party]] democracy. In foreign affairs, he played a leading role in establishing the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], a group of nations that did not seek membership in the two main ideological blocs of the [[Cold War]]. | ||
Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress emerged as a [[catch-all party]], dominating national and state-level politics and winning elections in [[Indian general election, 1951–52|1951]], [[1957 Indian general election|1957]] and [[1962 Indian general election|1962]]. Nehru remained popular with the Indian people | Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress emerged as a [[catch-all party]], dominating national and state-level politics and winning elections in [[Indian general election, 1951–52|1951]], [[1957 Indian general election|1957]] and [[1962 Indian general election|1962]]. Nehru remained popular with the Indian people and his premiership spanning 16 years, 286 days—which is, to date, longest in India—ended with [[Death and state funeral of Jawaharlal Nehru|his death]] on 27 May 1964 due to a heart attack. | ||
Widely recognized as the greatest figure of modern India after Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru is also hailed as the "architect of Modern India", for his contributions in nation building, securing democracy, and preventing an ethnic civil war.{{efn|<ref name="Subramanian">{{cite book | last=Subramanian | first=V.K. | title=The Great Ones Vol. IV | publisher=Abhinav Publications | year=2003 | isbn=978-81-7017-472-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpGFRh_YbpkC |quote=He was the greatest figure after Gandhi in the history of modern India. | page=161}}</ref><ref name="Malhotra"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Architect of modern India|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article25402011.ece|access-date=4 December 2021|website=Frontline|date=8 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title='Architect of modern India': Congress pays tributes to Jawaharlal Nehru on death anniversary|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/may/27/architect-of-modern-india-congress-pays-tributes-to-jawaharlal-nehru-on-death-anniversary-2308208.html|access-date=4 December 2021|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=14 November 2019|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Architect of modern India|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/inspiring-lives/jawaharlal-nehru-architect-of-modern-india/story-Ch4DgrerxtY448l0yxulTO.html|access-date=4 December 2021|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ian Hall|first=The Conversation|title=Nehru, the architect of modern India, also helped discredit European imperialism|url=https://scroll.in/article/1002353/nehru-the-architect-of-modern-india-also-helped-discredit-european-imperialism|access-date=4 December 2021|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Dixit |first1=J. N. |title=From the archives: How Jawaharlal Nehru shaped India in the 20th century |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/from-the-archives-how-jawaharlal-nehru-shaped-india-in-the-20th-century-1876654-2021-11-14 |date=14 November 2021 |website=India Today |language=en |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Editorial: Master's voice|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/kangana-ranauts-statement-is-a-testament-to-the-quid-pro-quo-arrangement-between-the-current-regime-and-its-pets/cid/1838908|access-date=4 December 2021|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=26 May 2021|title=Opinion: Nehruvian legacy is his idea of India|url=https://www.siasat.com/nehruvian-legacy-is-his-idea-of-india-2141877/|access-date=4 December 2021|website=The Siasat Daily|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Tribune News|title=A thousand lies can't dwarf the giant Nehru was|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/a-thousand-lies-cant-dwarf-the-giant-nehru-was-258860|access-date=4 December 2021|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=16 November 2014|title=Nehru, the real architect of modern India|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141116/commentary-op-ed/article/nehru-real-architect-modern-india|access-date=4 December 2021|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>}} His birthday is celebrated as [[Children's Day (India)|Children's Day]] in India. | |||
{{TOC limit|limit=3}} | {{TOC limit|limit=3}} | ||
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[[File:Kamala and Jawaharlal Nehru 1916.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=See captionKamala and Jawaharlal Nehru marriage ceremony|Nehru and Kamala Kaul at their wedding in Delhi, 1916]] | [[File:Kamala and Jawaharlal Nehru 1916.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=See captionKamala and Jawaharlal Nehru marriage ceremony|Nehru and Kamala Kaul at their wedding in Delhi, 1916]] | ||
[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru and his family in 1918.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|alt=Family portrait of Nehru, his wife and daughter |Nehru in 1919 with wife [[Kamala Nehru|Kamala]] and daughter [[Indira Gandhi|Indira]]]] | [[File:Jawaharlal Nehru and his family in 1918.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|alt=Family portrait of Nehru, his wife and daughter |Nehru in 1919 with wife [[Kamala Nehru|Kamala]] and daughter [[Indira Gandhi|Indira]]]] | ||
Nehru married [[Kamala Nehru|Kamala Kaul]] in 1916. Their only daughter Indira was born a year later in 1917. Kamala gave birth to a boy in November 1924, but he lived for only a week.<ref name="windsor">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=tzA_AAAAIBAJ&pg=4355,5162968&dq=kamala+nehru |title=Nehru Gave Up Life Of Ease, Wealth |pages=24 |date=27 May 1964 |work=[[The Windsor Star]] |access-date=19 January | Nehru married [[Kamala Nehru|Kamala Kaul]] in 1916. Their only daughter Indira was born a year later in 1917. Kamala gave birth to a boy in November 1924, but he lived for only a week.<ref name="windsor">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=tzA_AAAAIBAJ&pg=4355,5162968&dq=kamala+nehru |title=Nehru Gave Up Life Of Ease, Wealth |pages=24 |date=27 May 1964 |work=[[The Windsor Star]] |access-date=19 January 2013}}</ref> | ||
Nevertheless, Besant formed a league for advocating Home Rule in 1916. Tilak, after releasing from a term in prison, had formed his own league in April 1916.{{sfn|Ghose|1993|p=25}} Nehru joined both leagues, but worked primarily for the former.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=55}} He remarked later that "[Besant] had a very powerful influence on me in my childhood ... even later when I entered political life her influence continued."{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=55}} Another development that brought about a radical change in Indian politics was the espousal of [[Hindu–Muslim unity|Hindu-Muslim unity]] with the [[Lucknow Pact]] at the annual meeting of the Congress in December 1916. The pact had been initiated earlier in the year at Allahabad at a meeting of the [[All India Congress Committee]], which was held at the Nehru residence at Anand Bhawan. Nehru welcomed and encouraged the [[rapprochement]] between the two Indian communities.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=55}} | Nevertheless, Besant formed a league for advocating Home Rule in 1916. Tilak, after releasing from a term in prison, had formed his own league in April 1916.{{sfn|Ghose|1993|p=25}} Nehru joined both leagues, but worked primarily for the former.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=55}} He remarked later that "[Besant] had a very powerful influence on me in my childhood ... even later when I entered political life her influence continued."{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=55}} Another development that brought about a radical change in Indian politics was the espousal of [[Hindu–Muslim unity|Hindu-Muslim unity]] with the [[Lucknow Pact]] at the annual meeting of the Congress in December 1916. The pact had been initiated earlier in the year at Allahabad at a meeting of the [[All India Congress Committee]], which was held at the Nehru residence at Anand Bhawan. Nehru welcomed and encouraged the [[rapprochement]] between the two Indian communities.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=55}} | ||
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=== Non-co-operation: 1920–1927 === | === Non-co-operation: 1920–1927 === | ||
Nehru's first big national involvement came at the onset of the [[non-co-operation movement]] in 1920.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/remembering-chacha-nehru-on-childrens-day/article7869012.ece|title=Man for All seasons|first=Madhuvanti S.|last=Krishnan|date=12 November 2015|website=thehindu}}</ref> He led the movement in the United Provinces (now [[Uttar Pradesh]]). Nehru was arrested on charges of anti-governmental activities in 1921 and released a few months later.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/ht-school/jawaharlal-nehru-freedom-struggle-icon-maker-of-modern-india/story-VdEiIZ6OtVV2NFtTuToL2I.html|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Freedom struggle icon, maker of modern India|date=2 December 2020|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> In the rift that formed within the Congress following Gandhi's sudden halting of the non-Cooperation movement after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]], Nehru remained loyal to him and did not join the [[Swaraj Party]] formed by his father Motilal Nehru and [[Chittaranjan Das|CR Das]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLIixRjaz9sC&pg=PT47 |title=Indian National Movement & Constitutional Development |last=Pratiyogita Darpan Editorial Board |publisher=Upkar Prakashan |series=Pratiyogita Darpan Extra Issue Series, Volume 12 |access-date=2 October | Nehru's first big national involvement came at the onset of the [[non-co-operation movement]] in 1920.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/remembering-chacha-nehru-on-childrens-day/article7869012.ece|title=Man for All seasons|first=Madhuvanti S.|last=Krishnan|date=12 November 2015|website=thehindu}}</ref> He led the movement in the United Provinces (now [[Uttar Pradesh]]). Nehru was arrested on charges of anti-governmental activities in 1921 and released a few months later.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/ht-school/jawaharlal-nehru-freedom-struggle-icon-maker-of-modern-india/story-VdEiIZ6OtVV2NFtTuToL2I.html|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Freedom struggle icon, maker of modern India|date=2 December 2020|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> In the rift that formed within the Congress following Gandhi's sudden halting of the non-Cooperation movement after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]], Nehru remained loyal to him and did not join the [[Swaraj Party]] formed by his father Motilal Nehru and [[Chittaranjan Das|CR Das]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLIixRjaz9sC&pg=PT47 |title=Indian National Movement & Constitutional Development |last=Pratiyogita Darpan Editorial Board |publisher=Upkar Prakashan |series=Pratiyogita Darpan Extra Issue Series, Volume 12 |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> In 1923, Nehru was imprisoned in [[Nabha State|Nabha]], a [[princely state]], when he went there to see the struggle that was being waged by the [[Sikhs]] against the corrupt [[Mahant]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20140811-parkash-singh-badal-bhupinder-singh-hooda-hsgmc-row-sikhs-804806-2014-08-01|title=Nehru went to jail for Sikhs, Hooda is playing politics with them|first1=Asit|last1=Jolly|date=1 August 2014|website=[[India Today]]}}</ref><ref name="hindustantimes.com">{{Cite web|date=15 November 2014|title=Nehru's Nabha jail ordeal lost in past|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/nehru-s-nabha-jail-ordeal-lost-in-past/story-EBrTBPS8u8UPMHndqThAjP.html|first1=Vishav|last1=Bharti|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> | ||
==== Internationalising the struggle for Indian independence: 1927 ==== | ==== Internationalising the struggle for Indian independence: 1927 ==== | ||
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[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru and Motilal Nehru in 1929.jpg|thumb|Nehru, President-elect of the Lahore session of the Indian National Congress in 1929, with the outgoing President, his father Motilal]] | [[File:Jawaharlal Nehru and Motilal Nehru in 1929.jpg|thumb|Nehru, President-elect of the Lahore session of the Indian National Congress in 1929, with the outgoing President, his father Motilal]] | ||
[[File:Gandhi Nehru 1929.jpg|thumb|Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi in 1929]] | [[File:Gandhi Nehru 1929.jpg|thumb|Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi in 1929]] | ||
Nehru drafted the policies of the Congress and a future Indian nation in 1929.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maheshwari|first=Neerja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okUSbReaevUC&pg=PA41|title=Economic Policy of Jawaharlal Nehru|date=1997|publisher=Deep & Deep|isbn=978-81-7100-850-6|pages=41|access-date=9 November | Nehru drafted the policies of the Congress and a future Indian nation in 1929.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maheshwari|first=Neerja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okUSbReaevUC&pg=PA41|title=Economic Policy of Jawaharlal Nehru|date=1997|publisher=Deep & Deep|isbn=978-81-7100-850-6|pages=41|access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> He declared the aims of the congress were [[freedom of religion]]; [[Freedom of association|right to form associations]]; [[Freedom of speech|freedom of expression of thought]]; [[Equality before the law|equality before law]] for every individual without distinction of [[Caste system in India|caste]], colour, [[creed]], or [[Religion in India|religion]]; protection of [[Languages of India|regional languages]] and cultures, safeguarding the interests of the [[Poverty in India|peasants]] and labour; abolition of [[untouchability]]; introduction of adult franchise; imposition of [[Alcohol prohibition in India|prohibition]], [[Nationalization|nationalisation]] of industries; [[Socialism in India|socialism]]; and the establishment of a [[Secularism in India|secular India]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kochar|first=R. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuFW7RKqpt4C&pg=PA22|title=Congress and Socialism: Economic Programmes and Policies|year=1997|isbn=978-81-86565-24-7|pages=22|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors}}</ref> All these aims formed the core of the "Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy" resolution drafted by Nehru in 1929–1931 and were ratified in 1931 by the Congress party session at [[Karachi]] chaired by [[Vallabhbhai Patel]].<ref name="NA2015">{{Cite book |editor-last=Pandey |editor-first=BN |title=The Indian Nationalist Movement 1885–1947: Select Documents |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KauwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 |year=2015 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-349-86215-3 |page=45}}</ref> | ||
==== Declaration of independence ==== | ==== Declaration of independence ==== | ||
Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the Congress Party should resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British Empire. The Madras session of Congress in 1927, approved his resolution for independence despite Gandhi's criticism. At that time, he formed the Independence for India League, a pressure group within the Congress.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dutt|first=R.C.|url={{Google books|2WI31XdK8pkC|page=PR9|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=Socialism of Jawaharlal Nehru|date=1981|publisher=Shakti Malik, Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-128-7|location=New Delhi|pages=54–55|access-date=8 September | Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the Congress Party should resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British Empire. The Madras session of Congress in 1927, approved his resolution for independence despite Gandhi's criticism. Gandhi wrote to Nehru: <blockquote>''you are going too fast... Most of the resolutions you framed and got carried could have been delayed for one year... But I do not mind these acts of yours so much as I mind your encouraging mischief-makers and hooligans. I do not know whether you still believe in unadulterated non-violence.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramchandra |title=Gandhi: The Years That Changed the World |publisher=Penguin Allen Lane |year=2018 |isbn=978-0670083886 |pages=258}}</ref></blockquote>Nehru replied:<blockquote>''you were supreme; you were in your element and automatically you took the right step. But since you came out of prison something seems to have gone wrong and you have been very obviously ill at ease... All you have said is that within a year or eighteen months you expected the khadi movement to spread rapidly and in a geometric ratio and then some direct action in the political field might be indulged in. Several years and eighteen months have passed since then and the miracle has not happened. It was difficult to believe it would happen but faith in your amazing capacity to bring off the impossible kept us in an expectant mood. But such faith for an irreligious person like me is a poor reed to rely on and I am beginning to think if we are to wait for freedom till khadi becomes universal in India we shall have to wait till the Greek Kalends.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramchandra |title=Gandhi: The Years That Changed the World |publisher=Penguin Allen Lane |year=2018 |isbn=978-0670083886 |pages=259}}</ref></blockquote>At that time, he formed the Independence for India League, a pressure group within the Congress.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dutt|first=R.C.|url={{Google books|2WI31XdK8pkC|page=PR9|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=Socialism of Jawaharlal Nehru|date=1981|publisher=Shakti Malik, Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-128-7|location=New Delhi|pages=54–55|access-date=8 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/patellife00rajm|title=Patel: A Life|date=28 November 1991|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House|via=Internet Archive|pages=171|first=Rajmohan|last=Gandhi|author-link=Rajmohan Gandhi}}</ref> In 1928, Gandhi agreed to Nehru's demands and proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant Dominion status to India within two years.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nag|first=Kingshuk|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=duHwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT61|title=Netaji: Living Dangerously|year=2015|isbn=978-93-84439-70-5|publisher=Paranjoy Guha Thakurta}}</ref> If the British failed to meet the deadline, the Congress would call upon all Indians to fight for complete independence. Nehru was one of the leaders who objected to the time given to the British—he pressed Gandhi to demand immediate actions from the British. Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one.<ref name="auto4" /> | ||
The British rejected demands for Dominion status in 1929.<ref name="auto4" /> Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress party during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929 and introduced a successful resolution calling for [[Purna Swaraj|complete independence]].<ref name="auto4" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Purna Swaraj: The Demand for Full Independence 26 January 1930|url=http://www.indiaofthepast.org/contribute-memories/read-contributions/major-events-pre-1950/283-purna-swaraj-the-demand-for-full-independence-26-january-1930-|access-date=6 July 2015|publisher=indiaofthepast.org|archive-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108144457/http://www.indiaofthepast.org/contribute-memories/read-contributions/major-events-pre-1950/283-purna-swaraj-the-demand-for-full-independence-26-january-1930-|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence, which stated: | The British rejected demands for Dominion status in 1929.<ref name="auto4" /> Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress party during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929 and introduced a successful resolution calling for [[Purna Swaraj|complete independence]].<ref name="auto4" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Purna Swaraj: The Demand for Full Independence 26 January 1930|url=http://www.indiaofthepast.org/contribute-memories/read-contributions/major-events-pre-1950/283-purna-swaraj-the-demand-for-full-independence-26-january-1930-|access-date=6 July 2015|publisher=indiaofthepast.org|archive-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108144457/http://www.indiaofthepast.org/contribute-memories/read-contributions/major-events-pre-1950/283-purna-swaraj-the-demand-for-full-independence-26-january-1930-|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence, which stated: | ||
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=== Salt March: 1930 === | === Salt March: 1930 === | ||
Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were ambivalent initially about Gandhi's plan to begin [[civil disobedience]] with a ''satyagraha'' aimed at the British [[salt tax]]. After the protest had gathered steam, they realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released".<ref name="gopalgandhi">[[Gopalkrishna Gandhi|Gandhi, Gopalkrishna]]. [http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article388858.ece "The Great Dandi March – eighty years after"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717030642/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article388858.ece|date=17 July | Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were ambivalent initially about Gandhi's plan to begin [[civil disobedience]] with a ''satyagraha'' aimed at the British [[salt tax]]. After the protest had gathered steam, they realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released".<ref name="gopalgandhi">[[Gopalkrishna Gandhi|Gandhi, Gopalkrishna]]. [http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article388858.ece "The Great Dandi March – eighty years after"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717030642/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article388858.ece|date=17 July 2012}}, ''[[The Hindu]]'', 5 April 2010</ref> He was arrested on 14 April 1930 while on a train from Allahabad for [[Raipur]]. Earlier, after addressing a huge meeting and leading a vast procession, he had ceremoniously manufactured some contraband salt. He was charged with breach of the salt law and sentenced to six months of imprisonment at Central Jail.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Vinod|last=Khanal|title=Mahatma Gandhi describes Nehru's arrest in 1930 as 'rest' |website= [[Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Mahatma-Gandhi-describes-Nehrus-arrest-in-1930-as-rest/articleshow/45140212.cms|date=13 November 2014|access-date=16 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.abhilekh-patal.in/jspui/handle/123456789/2754199?searchWord=nehru&backquery=[query=nehru+liaquat+pact&originalquery=&sort_by=dc.date.accessioned_dt&order=desc&rpp=20&etal=0&start=100] |title=Civil Disobedience Movement in the United Provinces. Arrest of Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru |publisher=United Provinces Government |year=1930 |location=New Delhi |pages=71 |chapter=Telegram Post No. 90, dated (and read) 14th April, 1930 |quote="For breaking Salt Law Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested at Allahabad this morning." |access-date=9 September 2022 |url-access=registration |via=[[National Archives of India]]}}</ref> | ||
He nominated Gandhi to succeed him as the Congress president during his absence in jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru nominated his father as his successor.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=167}} With Nehru's arrest, the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, firing on crowds and [[Baton charge|lathi charges]] grew to be ordinary occurrences.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=168}} | He nominated Gandhi to succeed him as the Congress president during his absence in jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru nominated his father as his successor.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=167}} With Nehru's arrest, the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, firing on crowds and [[Baton charge|lathi charges]] grew to be ordinary occurrences.{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=168}} | ||
==== Salt satyagraha success ==== | ==== Salt satyagraha success ==== | ||
The [[Salt March|salt satyagraha]] ("pressure for reform through passive resistance") succeeded in attracting world attention. Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly recognised the legitimacy of the claims by the [[Indian National Congress|Congress party]] for independence. Nehru considered the salt satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi,<ref>Fisher, Margaret W. June 1967. "India's Jawaharlal Nehru." ''[[Asian Survey]]'' 7(6):363–73. {{doi|10.2307/2642611}}. {{ | The [[Salt March|salt satyagraha]] ("pressure for reform through passive resistance") succeeded in attracting world attention. Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly recognised the legitimacy of the claims by the [[Indian National Congress|Congress party]] for independence. Nehru considered the salt satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi,<ref>Fisher, Margaret W. June 1967. "India's Jawaharlal Nehru." ''[[Asian Survey]]'' 7(6):363–73. {{doi|10.2307/2642611}}. {{JSTOR|2642611}}. p. 368.</ref> and felt its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:<ref>Johnson, Richard L. 2005. ''Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings By And About Mahatma Gandhi''. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7391-1142-0}}. p. 37.</ref> | ||
<blockquote>Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses. ... Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance. ... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole. ... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it.</blockquote> | <blockquote>Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses. ... Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance. ... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole. ... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it.</blockquote> | ||
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Nehru spent the early months of 1936 in [[Switzerland]] visiting his ailing wife in [[Lausanne]], where she died in March. While in Europe, he became very concerned with the possibility of another world war.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/studentsbritanni04hoib/page/108/mode/2up|title=Students' Britannica India|first1=Dale|last1=Hoiberg|first2=Indu|last2=Ramchandani|date=21 November 2000|publisher=New Delhi : Encyclopaedia Britannica (India)|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> At that time, he emphasised that, in the event of war, India's place was alongside the democracies, though he insisted India could only fight in support of Great Britain and France as a free country.<ref name="Hoiberg2000">{{Cite book|last=Hoiberg, Dale|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC&pg=PA108|title=Students' Britannica India|publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|pages=108–}}</ref> | Nehru spent the early months of 1936 in [[Switzerland]] visiting his ailing wife in [[Lausanne]], where she died in March. While in Europe, he became very concerned with the possibility of another world war.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/studentsbritanni04hoib/page/108/mode/2up|title=Students' Britannica India|first1=Dale|last1=Hoiberg|first2=Indu|last2=Ramchandani|date=21 November 2000|publisher=New Delhi : Encyclopaedia Britannica (India)|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> At that time, he emphasised that, in the event of war, India's place was alongside the democracies, though he insisted India could only fight in support of Great Britain and France as a free country.<ref name="Hoiberg2000">{{Cite book|last=Hoiberg, Dale|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC&pg=PA108|title=Students' Britannica India|publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|pages=108–}}</ref> | ||
At its 1936 Lucknow session, despite opposition from the newly elected Nehru as the party president, the Congress party agreed to contest the [[1937 Indian provincial elections|provincial elections]] to be held in 1937 under the [[Government of India Act 1935]].<ref name="Tomlinson 1976">{{Cite book|last=B. R. Tomlinson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5OuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP7|title=The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929–1942: The Penultimate Phase|year=1976|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK|isbn=978-1-349-02873-3|pages=57–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/312372|title=Congress-Muslim League Relations 1937–39: 'The Parting of the Ways'|author=Pandey, Deepak|year=1978|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=12|issue=4|pages=629–654|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00006351|jstor=312372|s2cid=143450107|via=JSTOR}}</ref> The elections brought the Congress party to power in a majority of the provinces with increased popularity and power for Nehru. Since the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah (who was to become the creator of Pakistan) had fared badly at the polls, Nehru declared that the only two parties that mattered in India were the British colonial authorities and the Congress. Jinnah's statements that the Muslim League was the third and "equal partner" within Indian politics were widely rejected.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xA-AAAAMAAJ|title=Pakistan: From Community to Nation|author=Arshad Syed Karim|publisher=Saad Publications|year=1985}}</ref> Nehru had hoped to elevate [[Abul Kalam Azad|Maulana Azad]] as the preeminent leader of [[Islam in India|Indian Muslims]], but Gandhi, who continued to treat Jinnah as the voice of Indian Muslims, undermined him in this.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Ayoob|first1=Mohammed|date=25 May 2018|title=Remembering Maulana Azad|author-link=Mohammed Ayoob|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/remembering-azad/article23980998.ece}}</ref><ref>{{Cite | At its 1936 Lucknow session, despite opposition from the newly elected Nehru as the party president, the Congress party agreed to contest the [[1937 Indian provincial elections|provincial elections]] to be held in 1937 under the [[Government of India Act 1935]].<ref name="Tomlinson 1976">{{Cite book|last=B. R. Tomlinson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5OuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP7|title=The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929–1942: The Penultimate Phase|year=1976|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK|isbn=978-1-349-02873-3|pages=57–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/312372|title=Congress-Muslim League Relations 1937–39: 'The Parting of the Ways'|author=Pandey, Deepak|year=1978|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=12|issue=4|pages=629–654|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00006351|jstor=312372|s2cid=143450107|via=JSTOR}}</ref> The elections brought the Congress party to power in a majority of the provinces with increased popularity and power for Nehru. Since the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah (who was to become the creator of Pakistan) had fared badly at the polls, Nehru declared that the only two parties that mattered in India were the British colonial authorities and the Congress. Jinnah's statements that the Muslim League was the third and "equal partner" within Indian politics were widely rejected.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xA-AAAAMAAJ|title=Pakistan: From Community to Nation|author=Arshad Syed Karim|publisher=Saad Publications|year=1985}}</ref> Nehru had hoped to elevate [[Abul Kalam Azad|Maulana Azad]] as the preeminent leader of [[Islam in India|Indian Muslims]], but Gandhi, who continued to treat Jinnah as the voice of Indian Muslims, undermined him in this.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Ayoob|first1=Mohammed|date=25 May 2018|title=Remembering Maulana Azad|author-link=Mohammed Ayoob|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/remembering-azad/article23980998.ece}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=21 May 2019|title=Triumph of Nehruvianism – Part 2|newspaper=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/blogs/courts-commerce-and-the-constitution/triumph-of-nehruvianism-part-2/|last1=Paul |first1=Santosh }}</ref> | ||
In the 1930s, under the leadership of [[Jayaprakash Narayan]], [[Narendra Deo]], and others, the [[Congress Socialist Party]] group was formed within the INC. Though Nehru never joined the group, he acted as a bridge between them and Gandhi.<ref name="Dutt1981">{{Cite book|last=Rabindra Chandra Dutt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2WI31XdK8pkC&pg=PR9|title=Socialism of Jawaharlal Nehru|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1981|isbn=978-81-7017-128-7|page=178}}</ref> He had the support of left-wing Congressmen Maulana Azad and [[Subhas Chandra Bose]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/on-parakram-diwas-a-look-at-bose-s-indian-national-army-101611393163491.html|title=On Parakram Diwas, a look at Bose's Indian National Army|last1=Soni|first1=Mallika|date=23 January 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2017/dec/05/indian-national-congress-presidents-over-the-ages-the-ones-who-changed-course-of-history-101085.html|title=Indian National Congress Presidents over the ages: The ones who changed course of history|date=5 December 2017|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The trio combined to oust [[Rajendra Prasad]] as the Congress president in 1936.<ref name="auto6" /> Nehru was elected in his place and held the presidency for two years (1936–37).{{sfn|Moraes|2007|pp=234–38}} His socialist colleagues Bose (1938–39) and Azad (1940–46) succeeded him. During Nehru's second term as general secretary of the Congress, he proposed certain resolutions concerning the [[foreign policy of India]].{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=129}} From then on, he was given ''[[carte blanche]]'' ("blank cheque") in framing the foreign policy of any future Indian nation.<ref>Sharma, Rinkal. 2016. "[https://www.academia.edu/33066114/Nehru_a_passionate_advocate_of_education_for_Indias_children_and_youth_believing_it_essential_for_Indias_future_progress Nehru: a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress]." ''International Research Journal of Management Sociology & Humanity'' 7(7):256–59.</ref> Nehru worked closely with Bose in developing good relations with governments of free countries all over the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/jawaharlal-nehru-birth-anniversary-pandit-nehru-and-his-freedom-struggle-2386021.html|title=Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Anniversary: Pandit Nehru and His Freedom Struggle|date=14 November 2019|website=[[News18]]}}</ref> | In the 1930s, under the leadership of [[Jayaprakash Narayan]], [[Narendra Deo]], and others, the [[Congress Socialist Party]] group was formed within the INC. Though Nehru never joined the group, he acted as a bridge between them and Gandhi.<ref name="Dutt1981">{{Cite book|last=Rabindra Chandra Dutt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2WI31XdK8pkC&pg=PR9|title=Socialism of Jawaharlal Nehru|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1981|isbn=978-81-7017-128-7|page=178}}</ref> He had the support of left-wing Congressmen Maulana Azad and [[Subhas Chandra Bose]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/on-parakram-diwas-a-look-at-bose-s-indian-national-army-101611393163491.html|title=On Parakram Diwas, a look at Bose's Indian National Army|last1=Soni|first1=Mallika|date=23 January 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2017/dec/05/indian-national-congress-presidents-over-the-ages-the-ones-who-changed-course-of-history-101085.html|title=Indian National Congress Presidents over the ages: The ones who changed course of history|date=5 December 2017|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The trio combined to oust [[Rajendra Prasad]] as the Congress president in 1936.<ref name="auto6" /> Nehru was elected in his place and held the presidency for two years (1936–37).{{sfn|Moraes|2007|pp=234–38}} His socialist colleagues Bose (1938–39) and Azad (1940–46) succeeded him. During Nehru's second term as general secretary of the Congress, he proposed certain resolutions concerning the [[foreign policy of India]].{{sfn|Moraes|2007|p=129}} From then on, he was given ''[[carte blanche]]'' ("blank cheque") in framing the foreign policy of any future Indian nation.<ref>Sharma, Rinkal. 2016. "[https://www.academia.edu/33066114/Nehru_a_passionate_advocate_of_education_for_Indias_children_and_youth_believing_it_essential_for_Indias_future_progress Nehru: a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress]." ''International Research Journal of Management Sociology & Humanity'' 7(7):256–59.</ref> Nehru worked closely with Bose in developing good relations with governments of free countries all over the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/jawaharlal-nehru-birth-anniversary-pandit-nehru-and-his-freedom-struggle-2386021.html|title=Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Anniversary: Pandit Nehru and His Freedom Struggle|date=14 November 2019|website=[[News18]]}}</ref> | ||
Nehru was one of the first nationalist leaders to realise the sufferings of the people in the states ruled by Indian princes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Modern_India/5tkTAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Nehru+was+one+of+the+first+nationalist+leaders+to+realise+the+sufferings+of+the+people+in+the+states+ruled+by+Indian+princes.&dq=Nehru+was+one+of+the+first+nationalist+leaders+to+realise+the+sufferings+of+the+people+in+the+states+ruled+by+Indian+princes.&printsec=frontcover|title = Modern India: A Textbook of History for Middle Schools|year = 1973|publisher = [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]]}}</ref> The nationalist movement had been confined to the territories under direct British rule. He helped to make the struggle of the people in the princely states a part of the nationalist movement for independence.<ref name="hindustantimes.com" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chowdhary|first=Rekha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-2oCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Jammu and Kashmir: Politics of identity and separatism|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-41405-6|publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref> Nehru was also given the responsibility of planning the economy of a future India and appointed the [[National Planning Commission of India|National Planning Commission]] in 1938 to help frame such policies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=3rd Five Year Plan (Chapter 1)|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/3rd/3planch1.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326094741/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/3rd/3planch1.html|archive-date=26 March 2012|access-date=16 June 2012|publisher=Government of India}}</ref> However, many of the plans framed by Nehru and his colleagues would come undone with the unexpected [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="auto7">{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/history/past-continuous-nehru-independence|title=Past Continuous: Those Who Think Nehru Was Power Hungry Should Review Events Leading to Independence|website=The Wire|first=Nilanjan|last=Mukhopadhyay|date=14 November | Nehru was one of the first nationalist leaders to realise the sufferings of the people in the states ruled by Indian princes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Modern_India/5tkTAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Nehru+was+one+of+the+first+nationalist+leaders+to+realise+the+sufferings+of+the+people+in+the+states+ruled+by+Indian+princes.&dq=Nehru+was+one+of+the+first+nationalist+leaders+to+realise+the+sufferings+of+the+people+in+the+states+ruled+by+Indian+princes.&printsec=frontcover|title = Modern India: A Textbook of History for Middle Schools|year = 1973|publisher = [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]]}}</ref> The nationalist movement had been confined to the territories under direct British rule. He helped to make the struggle of the people in the princely states a part of the nationalist movement for independence.<ref name="hindustantimes.com" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chowdhary|first=Rekha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-2oCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Jammu and Kashmir: Politics of identity and separatism|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-41405-6|publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref> Nehru was also given the responsibility of planning the economy of a future India and appointed the [[National Planning Commission of India|National Planning Commission]] in 1938 to help frame such policies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=3rd Five Year Plan (Chapter 1)|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/3rd/3planch1.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326094741/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/3rd/3planch1.html|archive-date=26 March 2012|access-date=16 June 2012|publisher=Government of India}}</ref> However, many of the plans framed by Nehru and his colleagues would come undone with the unexpected [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="auto7">{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/history/past-continuous-nehru-independence|title=Past Continuous: Those Who Think Nehru Was Power Hungry Should Review Events Leading to Independence|website=The Wire|first=Nilanjan|last=Mukhopadhyay|date=14 November 2018}}</ref> | ||
The [[All India States Peoples Conference]] (AISPC) was formed in 1927 and Nehru, who had supported the cause of the people of the princely states for many years, was made the organisation's president in 1939.<ref name="Bandyopādhyāẏa2004">{{Cite book|last=Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EpNz0U8VEQC|title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India|publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]]|year=2004|isbn=978-81-250-2596-2|page=410}}</ref> He opened up its ranks to membership from across the political spectrum. AISPC was to play an important role during the political integration of India, helping Indian leaders Vallabhbhai Patel and [[V. P. Menon]] (to whom Nehru had delegated integrating the princely states into India) negotiate with hundreds of princes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lumby|1954|p=232}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1984|p=667}}</ref> | The [[All India States Peoples Conference]] (AISPC) was formed in 1927 and Nehru, who had supported the cause of the people of the princely states for many years, was made the organisation's president in 1939.<ref name="Bandyopādhyāẏa2004">{{Cite book|last=Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EpNz0U8VEQC|title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India|publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]]|year=2004|isbn=978-81-250-2596-2|page=410}}</ref> He opened up its ranks to membership from across the political spectrum. AISPC was to play an important role during the political integration of India, helping Indian leaders Vallabhbhai Patel and [[V. P. Menon]] (to whom Nehru had delegated integrating the princely states into India) negotiate with hundreds of princes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lumby|1954|p=232}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1984|p=667}}</ref> | ||
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When [[World War II]] began, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Viceroy Linlithgow]] had unilaterally declared India a [[belligerent]] on the side of Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saraf|first=Nandini|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Life_and_Times_of_Lokmanya_Tilak/A5YkBQAAQBAJ?|date=2012|title=The Life and Times of Lokmanya Tilak|isbn=978-81-84301-52-6|publisher=Ocean Books|pages=119}}</ref> Nehru hurried back from a visit to China, announcing that, in a conflict between democracy and [[fascism]], "our sympathies must inevitably be on the side of democracy, ... I should like India to play its full part and throw all her resources into the struggle for a new order".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gk3WCgAAQBAJ&q=In+a+conflict+between+democracy+and+fascism%2C+that+%22our+sympathies+must+inevitably+be+on+the+side+of+democracy.%E2%80%A6+i+should+like+india+to+play+its+full+part+and+throw+all+her+resources+into+the+struggle+for+a+new+order.+Jawaharlal+Nehru&pg=PA60|title=Transfer of Power in India|first=Vapal Pangunni|last=Menon|author-link=V. P. Menon|date=8 December 2015|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-7937-3|pages=60}}</ref> | When [[World War II]] began, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Viceroy Linlithgow]] had unilaterally declared India a [[belligerent]] on the side of Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saraf|first=Nandini|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Life_and_Times_of_Lokmanya_Tilak/A5YkBQAAQBAJ?|date=2012|title=The Life and Times of Lokmanya Tilak|isbn=978-81-84301-52-6|publisher=Ocean Books|pages=119}}</ref> Nehru hurried back from a visit to China, announcing that, in a conflict between democracy and [[fascism]], "our sympathies must inevitably be on the side of democracy, ... I should like India to play its full part and throw all her resources into the struggle for a new order".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gk3WCgAAQBAJ&q=In+a+conflict+between+democracy+and+fascism%2C+that+%22our+sympathies+must+inevitably+be+on+the+side+of+democracy.%E2%80%A6+i+should+like+india+to+play+its+full+part+and+throw+all+her+resources+into+the+struggle+for+a+new+order.+Jawaharlal+Nehru&pg=PA60|title=Transfer of Power in India|first=Vapal Pangunni|last=Menon|author-link=V. P. Menon|date=8 December 2015|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-7937-3|pages=60}}</ref> | ||
After much deliberation, the Congress under Nehru informed the government that it would co-operate with the British but on certain conditions. First, Britain must give an assurance of full independence for India after the war and allow the election of a [[Constituent Assembly of India|constituent assembly]] to frame a new constitution; second, although the Indian armed forces would remain under the [[British Commander-in-chief]], Indians must be included immediately in the central government and given a chance to share power and responsibility.<ref name="plassey-to-partition">{{Cite book|last=Bandyopadhyay|first=Sekhara|url={{Google books|-EpNz0U8VEQC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India|date=2004|publisher=[[Orient Longman]]|isbn=978-81-250-2596-2|location=India|page=412}}</ref> When Nehru presented Lord Linlithgow with these demands, he chose to reject them. A [[deadlock]] was reached: "The same old game is played again," Nehru wrote bitterly to Gandhi, "the background is the same, the various epithets are the same and the actors are the same and the results must be the same".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Jawaharlal Nehru|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jawaharlal-Nehru|last=Moraes|first=Frank R.|access-date=2 October | After much deliberation, the Congress under Nehru informed the government that it would co-operate with the British but on certain conditions. First, Britain must give an assurance of full independence for India after the war and allow the election of a [[Constituent Assembly of India|constituent assembly]] to frame a new constitution; second, although the Indian armed forces would remain under the [[British Commander-in-chief]], Indians must be included immediately in the central government and given a chance to share power and responsibility.<ref name="plassey-to-partition">{{Cite book|last=Bandyopadhyay|first=Sekhara|url={{Google books|-EpNz0U8VEQC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India|date=2004|publisher=[[Orient Longman]]|isbn=978-81-250-2596-2|location=India|page=412}}</ref> When Nehru presented Lord Linlithgow with these demands, he chose to reject them. A [[deadlock]] was reached: "The same old game is played again," Nehru wrote bitterly to Gandhi, "the background is the same, the various epithets are the same and the actors are the same and the results must be the same".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Jawaharlal Nehru|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jawaharlal-Nehru|last=Moraes|first=Frank R.|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=W. Sears|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen W. Sears|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Horizon_History_of_the_British_Empir/ABQqAAAAYAAJ|title=The Horizon History of the British Empire Volume 2|date=1973|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Company|pages=465|isbn=978-0-07-030354-6|via=Google Books}}</ref> | ||
On 23 October 1939, the Congress condemned the Viceroy's attitude and called upon the Congress ministries in the various provinces to resign in protest.<ref name="gandhis-passions">{{cite book |title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-515634-X |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gandhispassionli00wolp/page/192 192]–193|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhispassionli00wolp |url-access=registration |access-date=4 December 2007 }}</ref> Before this crucial announcement, Nehru urged Jinnah and the Muslim League to join the protest, but Jinnah declined.<ref name="plassey-to-partition" /><ref name="british-empire-fall">{{cite web |url=http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/kenanderson/histempsequel/page5.html |title=Gandhi – The Great Soul |access-date=4 December 2007 |last=Anderson |first=Ken |work=The British Empire: Fall of the Empire |archive-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723053926/http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/kenanderson/histempsequel/page5.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> | On 23 October 1939, the Congress condemned the Viceroy's attitude and called upon the Congress ministries in the various provinces to resign in protest.<ref name="gandhis-passions">{{cite book |title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-515634-X |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gandhispassionli00wolp/page/192 192]–193|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhispassionli00wolp |url-access=registration |access-date=4 December 2007 }}</ref> Before this crucial announcement, Nehru urged Jinnah and the Muslim League to join the protest, but Jinnah declined.<ref name="plassey-to-partition" /><ref name="british-empire-fall">{{cite web |url=http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/kenanderson/histempsequel/page5.html |title=Gandhi – The Great Soul |access-date=4 December 2007 |last=Anderson |first=Ken |work=The British Empire: Fall of the Empire |archive-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723053926/http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/kenanderson/histempsequel/page5.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
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In October 1940, Gandhi and Nehru, abandoning their original stand of supporting Britain, decided to launch a limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading advocates of Indian independence were selected to participate one by one. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years' imprisonment.<ref name="auto3" /> On 15 January 1941, Gandhi had stated: | In October 1940, Gandhi and Nehru, abandoning their original stand of supporting Britain, decided to launch a limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading advocates of Indian independence were selected to participate one by one. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years' imprisonment.<ref name="auto3" /> On 15 January 1941, Gandhi had stated: | ||
<blockquote>Some say Jawaharlal and I were estranged. It will require much more than a difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Science & culture, Volume 30|publisher=Indian Science News Association|year=1964}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Aditit De|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcQDAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT91|title=Jawaharlal Nehruh – The Jewel of India|date=8 September 2009|publisher=[[Puffin Books]]|isbn=978-81-8475-866-5|via=Google Books}}</ref></blockquote> After spending a little more than a year in jail, Nehru was released, along with other Congress prisoners, three days before the [[bombing of Pearl Harbor]] in Hawaii.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite book|last=Hoiberg|first=Dale|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC&pg=PA109|title=Students' Britannica India|date=19 December 2018|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|via=Google Books}}</ref> | <blockquote>Some say Jawaharlal and I were estranged. It will require much more than a difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Science & culture, Volume 30|publisher=Indian Science News Association|year=1964}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Aditit De|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcQDAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT91|title=Jawaharlal Nehruh – The Jewel of India|date=8 September 2009|publisher=[[Puffin Books]]|isbn=978-81-8475-866-5|via=Google Books}}</ref></blockquote> After spending a little more than a year in jail, Nehru was released, along with other Congress prisoners, three days before the [[bombing of Pearl Harbor]] in Hawaii.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite book|last=Hoiberg|first=Dale|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC&pg=PA109|title=Students' Britannica India|date=19 December 2018|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|via=Google Books|authorlink=Dale Hoiberg}}</ref> | ||
=== Japan attacks India, Cripps' mission, Quit India: 1942 === | === Japan attacks India, Cripps' mission, Quit India: 1942 === | ||
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=== Cabinet mission, Interim government 1946–1947 === | === Cabinet mission, Interim government 1946–1947 === | ||
[[File:Nehru with members of Interim gov't faction leaving Viceroy's home after Swearing in.jpg|thumb|left|Nehru and the Congress party members of his interim government after being sworn in by the Viceroy, [[Lord Wavell]], 2 September 1946]] | [[File:Nehru with members of Interim gov't faction leaving Viceroy's home after Swearing in.jpg|thumb|left|Nehru and the Congress party members of his interim government after being sworn in by the Viceroy, [[Lord Wavell]], 2 September 1946]] | ||
Nehru and his colleagues were released prior to the arrival of the British [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] to propose plans for the transfer of power.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/nehru-s-belongings-still-intact-in-almora-jail-157835|title=Nehru's belongings still intact in Almora jail|first=BD|last=Kasniyal|website=Tribuneindia News Service|date=13 November | Nehru and his colleagues were released prior to the arrival of the British [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] to propose plans for the transfer of power.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/nehru-s-belongings-still-intact-in-almora-jail-157835|title=Nehru's belongings still intact in Almora jail|first=BD|last=Kasniyal|website=Tribuneindia News Service|date=13 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="auto7" /> The agreed plan in 1946 led to elections to the provincial assemblies. In turn, the members of the assemblies elected members of the Constituent Assembly. Congress won the majority of seats in the assembly and headed the [[Interim Government of India|interim government]], with Nehru as the prime minister. The Muslim League joined the government later with [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] as the Finance member.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/september-2-when-indias-interim-govt-was-formed-in-1946-5959889/|title=Explained: When India's interim government was formed in 1946|date=3 September 2019|first=Om|last=Marathe|website=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref>V. Krishna Ananth. [https://books.google.com/books?id=X62Sc3muOyQC ''India Since Independence: Making Sense of Indian Politics'']. Pearson Education India. 2010. pp 28–30.</ref> | ||
== Prime Minister of India (1947–1964) == | == Prime Minister of India (1947–1964) == | ||
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=== Republicanism === | === Republicanism === | ||
In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{Cite book|last1=Menon|first=Shivshankar|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_and_Asian_Geopolitics/eaWWDwAAQBAJ?|title=India and Asian Geopolitics: The Past, Present|date=20 April 2021|isbn=978-0-670-09129-4|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|pages=34}}</ref> In January 1947, he said that independent India would not accept the [[divine right of kings]].<ref>Lumby, E. W. R. 1954. ''The Transfer of Power in India, 1945–1947''. London: [[George Allen and Unwin|George Allen & Unwin]]. p. 228</ref> In May 1947, he declared that any [[princely state]] which refused to join the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]] would be treated as an enemy state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=172053|title=Sardar Patel – Man who United India|date=30 October 2017|first=Aaditya|last=Tiwari|website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon were more conciliatory towards the princes, and as the men charged with integrating the states, were successful in the task.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/how-vallabhbhai-patel-v-p-menon-and-mountbatten-unified-india-4915468/|title=How Vallabhbhai Patel, V P Menon and Mountbatten unified India|date=31 October | In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{Cite book|last1=Menon|first=Shivshankar|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_and_Asian_Geopolitics/eaWWDwAAQBAJ?|title=India and Asian Geopolitics: The Past, Present|date=20 April 2021|isbn=978-0-670-09129-4|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|pages=34}}</ref> In January 1947, he said that independent India would not accept the [[divine right of kings]].<ref>Lumby, E. W. R. 1954. ''The Transfer of Power in India, 1945–1947''. London: [[George Allen and Unwin|George Allen & Unwin]]. p. 228</ref> In May 1947, he declared that any [[princely state]] which refused to join the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]] would be treated as an enemy state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=172053|title=Sardar Patel – Man who United India|date=30 October 2017|first=Aaditya|last=Tiwari|website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon were more conciliatory towards the princes, and as the men charged with integrating the states, were successful in the task.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/how-vallabhbhai-patel-v-p-menon-and-mountbatten-unified-india-4915468/|title=How Vallabhbhai Patel, V P Menon and Mountbatten unified India|date=31 October 2017}}</ref> During the drafting of the Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (except Nehru) were in favour of allowing each princely state or covenanting state to be independent as a federal state along the lines suggested originally by the Government of India Act 1935. But as the drafting of the constitution progressed, and the idea of forming a republic took concrete shape, it was decided that all the princely states/covenanting states would merge with the Indian republic.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2753451|title=The Unification of India, 1947–1951|author=Furber, Holden|year=1951|journal=[[Pacific Affairs]]|volume=24|issue=4|pages=352–371|via=JSTOR|doi=10.2307/2753451|jstor=2753451|authorlink=Holden Furber}}</ref> | ||
In 1963, Nehru brought in legislation making it illegal to demand for secession and introduced the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution which makes it necessary for those running for office to take an oath that says "I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India".<ref>{{cite book|title=Sri Lanka, the Years of Terror: The J.V.P. Insurrection, 1987-1989|author=C. A. Chandraprema|year=1991|page=81|publisher=Lake House Bookshop|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmRuAAAAMAAJ|quote=Nehru brought in legislation making illegal the demand for secession in 1963. Thereafter, the DMK dropped its demand for a "Dravida Nadu".}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lw7z_JOnv0sC|title=Small Arms Control: Old Weapons, New Issues|quote=Although the campaign for secession has reached its apex in Kashmir , the first Indian state to agitate for separatism was Tamil Nadu. In 1963 , in response to the vociferous campaign for a Dravidastan, Premier Nehru introduced the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, making it mandatory for those running for office to take an oath stating, "I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India".|author= Jayantha Dhanapala, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|year=1999}}</ref> | |||
Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]], as prime minister, derecognised all the rulers by presidential order in 1969, a decision struck down by the [[Supreme Court of India]]. Eventually, her government by the [[Privy Purse in India|26th amendment]] to the constitution was successful in derecognising these former rulers and ending the privy purse paid to them in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20030818-56-events-that-changed-india-dissolution-of-princely-states-in-1950-791861-2003-08-18|title=56 events that changed India: Dissolution of princely states in 1950|date=18 August 2003|access-date=16 August 2021|website=[[India Today]]}}</ref> | Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]], as prime minister, derecognised all the rulers by presidential order in 1969, a decision struck down by the [[Supreme Court of India]]. Eventually, her government by the [[Privy Purse in India|26th amendment]] to the constitution was successful in derecognising these former rulers and ending the privy purse paid to them in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20030818-56-events-that-changed-india-dissolution-of-princely-states-in-1950-791861-2003-08-18|title=56 events that changed India: Dissolution of princely states in 1950|date=18 August 2003|access-date=16 August 2021|website=[[India Today]]}}</ref> | ||
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<blockquote>Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me but for millions and millions in this country.<ref name="Jai1996">{{Cite book|last=Janak Raj Jai|url={{Google books|5Wrc1K0uJTgC|page=PA45|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=1947–1980|publisher=Regency Publications|year=1996|isbn=978-81-86030-23-3|pages=45–47}}</ref></blockquote> | <blockquote>Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me but for millions and millions in this country.<ref name="Jai1996">{{Cite book|last=Janak Raj Jai|url={{Google books|5Wrc1K0uJTgC|page=PA45|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=1947–1980|publisher=Regency Publications|year=1996|isbn=978-81-86030-23-3|pages=45–47}}</ref></blockquote> | ||
[[Yasmin Khan]] argued that Gandhi's death and funeral helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state under Nehru and Patel. The Congress tightly controlled the epic public displays of grief over a two-week period—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyr's ashes with millions participating at different events.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/boundaries-of-belonging/performing-the-state-in-post1947-india-and-pakistan/51E29D5CE278C3362B5D10B45D35C71F/core-reader|title=Boundaries of Belonging|chapter='Performing the State' in Post-1947 India and Pakistan|date=31 October 2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|first1=Sarah|last1=Ansari|first2=William|last2=Gould|pages=23–66|doi=10.1017/9781108164511.003|isbn=978-1-107-19605-6|s2cid=211394653}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/78902926.pdf|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state|first=Yasmin|last=Khan|website=[[CORE (research service)|core.ac.uk]]}}</ref> The goal was to assert the power of the government, legitimise the Congress party's control and suppress all religious paramilitary groups. Nehru and Patel suppressed the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS), the Muslim National Guards, and the [[Khaksars]], with some 200,000 arrests.<ref name="Khan2011">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Yasmin |year=2011|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=57–80 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X10000223|s2cid=144894540 }} {{subscription required}}</ref> Gandhi's death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and helped them to understand the need to suppress religious parties during the transition to independence for the Indian people.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/performing-peace-gandhis-assassination-as-a-critical-moment-in-the-consolidation-of-the-nehruvian-state/B13C16345C0092DF55010CDEFA9ACACF|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state|first=Yasmin|last=Khan|date=12 January 2011|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=45|issue=1|pages=57–80|via=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/S0026749X10000223|s2cid=144894540}}</ref> In later years, there emerged a revisionist school of history which sought to blame Nehru for the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly [[Centralisation|centralised]] policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more [[Decentralization|decentralised]] India.<ref name="ibn">{{Cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gandhi-jinnah-both-failed-jaswant/99323-37.html |title=Gandhi, Jinnah both failed: Jaswant |last=Thapar |first=Karan |date=17 August 2009 |author-link=Karan Thapar |publisher=ibnlive.in.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703195004/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gandhi-jinnah-both-failed-jaswant/99323-37.html |archive-date=3 July | [[Yasmin Khan]] argued that Gandhi's death and funeral helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state under Nehru and Patel. The Congress tightly controlled the epic public displays of grief over a two-week period—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyr's ashes with millions participating at different events.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/boundaries-of-belonging/performing-the-state-in-post1947-india-and-pakistan/51E29D5CE278C3362B5D10B45D35C71F/core-reader|title=Boundaries of Belonging|chapter='Performing the State' in Post-1947 India and Pakistan|date=31 October 2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|first1=Sarah|last1=Ansari|first2=William|last2=Gould|pages=23–66|doi=10.1017/9781108164511.003|isbn=978-1-107-19605-6|s2cid=211394653}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/78902926.pdf|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state|first=Yasmin|last=Khan|website=[[CORE (research service)|core.ac.uk]]}}</ref> The goal was to assert the power of the government, legitimise the Congress party's control and suppress all religious paramilitary groups. Nehru and Patel suppressed the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS), the Muslim National Guards, and the [[Khaksars]], with some 200,000 arrests.<ref name="Khan2011">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Yasmin |year=2011|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=57–80 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X10000223|s2cid=144894540 }} {{subscription required}}</ref> Gandhi's death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and helped them to understand the need to suppress religious parties during the transition to independence for the Indian people.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/performing-peace-gandhis-assassination-as-a-critical-moment-in-the-consolidation-of-the-nehruvian-state/B13C16345C0092DF55010CDEFA9ACACF|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state|first=Yasmin|last=Khan|date=12 January 2011|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=45|issue=1|pages=57–80|via=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/S0026749X10000223|s2cid=144894540}}</ref> In later years, there emerged a revisionist school of history which sought to blame Nehru for the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly [[Centralisation|centralised]] policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more [[Decentralization|decentralised]] India.<ref name="ibn">{{Cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gandhi-jinnah-both-failed-jaswant/99323-37.html |title=Gandhi, Jinnah both failed: Jaswant |last=Thapar |first=Karan |date=17 August 2009 |author-link=Karan Thapar |publisher=ibnlive.in.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703195004/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gandhi-jinnah-both-failed-jaswant/99323-37.html |archive-date=3 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/After-Advani-Jaswant-turns-Jinnah-admirer/articleshow/4900326.cms |title=After Advani, Jaswant turns Jinnah admirer |date=17 August 2009 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020021442/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/After-Advani-Jaswant-turns-Jinnah-admirer/articleshow/4900326.cms |archive-date=20 October 2017 |location=India}}</ref> | ||
==== Integration of states and Adoption of New Constitution: 1947–1950 ==== | ==== Integration of states and Adoption of New Constitution: 1947–1950 ==== | ||
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[[File:Nehrucon.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption |Nehru signing the [[Indian Constitution]] c.1950]] | [[File:Nehrucon.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption |Nehru signing the [[Indian Constitution]] c.1950]] | ||
The new Constitution of India, which came into force on [[Republic Day (India)|26 January 1950]] (Republic Day), made India a sovereign democratic republic. The new republic was declared to be a "Union of States".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWJ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 |title=Patel: Political Ideas and Policies |last1=Sinha |first1=Shakti |last2=Roy |first2=Himanshu |date=5 November 2018 |isbn=978-93-5280-854-0}}</ref> | The new Constitution of India, which came into force on [[Republic Day (India)|26 January 1950]] (Republic Day), made India a sovereign democratic republic. The new republic was declared to be a "Union of States".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWJ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 |title=Patel: Political Ideas and Policies |last1=Sinha |first1=Shakti |last2=Roy |first2=Himanshu |date=5 November 2018 |isbn=978-93-5280-854-0|publisher=SAGE Publications}}</ref> | ||
=== Election of 1952 === | === Election of 1952 === | ||
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=== First term as Prime Minister: 1952–1957 === | === First term as Prime Minister: 1952–1957 === | ||
==== State reorganisation ==== | ==== State reorganisation ==== | ||
In December 1953, Nehru appointed the [[States Reorganisation Commission]] to prepare for the creation of states on linguistic lines. Headed by Justice [[Fazal Ali]], the commission itself was also known as the Fazal Ali Commission.<ref name="Koshi">{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/explainer-reorganization-states-india-and-why-it-happened-52273 |title=Explainer: The reorganization of states in India and why it happened |last=Koshi |first=Luke |date=2 November 2016 |website=[[The News Minute]] |access-date=3 April | In December 1953, Nehru appointed the [[States Reorganisation Commission]] to prepare for the creation of states on linguistic lines. Headed by Justice [[Fazal Ali]], the commission itself was also known as the Fazal Ali Commission.<ref name="Koshi">{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/explainer-reorganization-states-india-and-why-it-happened-52273 |title=Explainer: The reorganization of states in India and why it happened |last=Koshi |first=Luke |date=2 November 2016 |website=[[The News Minute]] |access-date=3 April 2019}}</ref> [[Govind Ballabh Pant]], who served as Nehru's [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|home minister]] from December 1954, oversaw the commission's efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/govind-ballabh-pants-death-anniversary-remembering-the-first-chief-minister-of-uttar-pradesh-3507449.html|title=Govind Ballabh Pant's Death Anniversary: Remembering the First Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh|date=7 March 2021|access-date=15 August 2021|website=[[News18]]}}</ref> The commission created a report in 1955 recommending the reorganisation of India's states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/state-of-the-nation/307830/0|title=STATE OF THE NATION|date=11 May 2008|access-date=15 August 2021|website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> | ||
Under the [[Seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India|Seventh Amendment]], the existing distinction between Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states was abolished. The distinction between Part A and Part B states was removed, becoming known simply as [[States of india|''states''']].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Suraj Surjit|last=Chaudhary|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Critical_Commentary_on_the_Banning_of_Un/Nj8jEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0|isbn=978-93-90252-05-3|title=Critical Commentary on the Banning of Unregulated Deposit Schemes Act, 2019 and Allied Laws|date=15 March 2021|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]}}</ref> A new type of entity, the ''[[union territory]]'', replaced the classification as a Part C or Part D state. Nehru stressed commonality among Indians and promoted [[pan-Indianism]], refusing to reorganise states on either religious or ethnic lines.<ref name="Koshi" /> | Under the [[Seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India|Seventh Amendment]], the existing distinction between Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states was abolished. The distinction between Part A and Part B states was removed, becoming known simply as [[States of india|''states''']].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Suraj Surjit|last=Chaudhary|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Critical_Commentary_on_the_Banning_of_Un/Nj8jEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0|isbn=978-93-90252-05-3|title=Critical Commentary on the Banning of Unregulated Deposit Schemes Act, 2019 and Allied Laws|date=15 March 2021|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]}}</ref> A new type of entity, the ''[[union territory]]'', replaced the classification as a Part C or Part D state. Nehru stressed commonality among Indians and promoted [[pan-Indianism]], refusing to reorganise states on either religious or ethnic lines.<ref name="Koshi" /> | ||
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In the [[1957 Indian general election|1957 elections]], Under the leadership of Nehru, the [[Indian National Congress]] easily won a second term in power, taking 371 of the 494 seats. They gained an extra seven seats (the size of the Lok Sabha had been increased by five) and their vote share increased from 45.0% to 47.8%. The INC won nearly five times more votes than the [[Communist Party of India|Communist Party]], the second largest party.<ref>{{Cite web|title=1957 India General (2nd Lok Sabha) Elections Results|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1957-election-results.html|access-date=31 August 2020|website=www.elections.in}}</ref> | In the [[1957 Indian general election|1957 elections]], Under the leadership of Nehru, the [[Indian National Congress]] easily won a second term in power, taking 371 of the 494 seats. They gained an extra seven seats (the size of the Lok Sabha had been increased by five) and their vote share increased from 45.0% to 47.8%. The INC won nearly five times more votes than the [[Communist Party of India|Communist Party]], the second largest party.<ref>{{Cite web|title=1957 India General (2nd Lok Sabha) Elections Results|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1957-election-results.html|access-date=31 August 2020|website=www.elections.in}}</ref> | ||
In 1962, Nehru led the Congress to victory with a diminished majority. The numbers who voted for [[Indian Communist Party|Communist]] and socialist parties grew, although some right-wing groups like [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]] also did well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/lok-sabha-general-elections-2019/the-story-of-1962-lok-sabha-election-all-you-need-to-know-2185457.html|title=INKredible India: The story of 1962 Lok Sabha election – All you need to know|date=6 March 2019|first=Shubhodeep|last=Chakravarty|website=Zee News}}</ref> | In [[1962 Indian general election|1962]], Nehru led the Congress to victory with a diminished majority. The numbers who voted for [[Indian Communist Party|Communist]] and socialist parties grew, although some right-wing groups like [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]] also did well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/lok-sabha-general-elections-2019/the-story-of-1962-lok-sabha-election-all-you-need-to-know-2185457.html|title=INKredible India: The story of 1962 Lok Sabha election – All you need to know|date=6 March 2019|first=Shubhodeep|last=Chakravarty|website=Zee News}}</ref> | ||
=== 1961 annexation of Goa === | === 1961 annexation of Goa === | ||
{{See also| | {{See also|Annexation of Goa}} | ||
After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorised the [[Indian Army]] to invade Portuguese-controlled [[Portuguese India]] (Goa) in 1961, and then he formally annexed it to India. It increased his popularity in India, but he was criticised by the communist opposition in India for the use of military force.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-liberation-of-goa/article22339624.ece |title=The liberation of Goa |last=Davar |first=Praveen |date=31 December 2017 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> | After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorised the [[Indian Army]] to invade Portuguese-controlled [[Portuguese India]] (Goa) in 1961, and then he formally annexed it to India. It increased his popularity in India, but he was criticised by the communist opposition in India for the use of military force.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-liberation-of-goa/article22339624.ece |title=The liberation of Goa |last=Davar |first=Praveen |date=31 December 2017 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> | ||
=== Sino-Indian War of 1962 === | === Sino-Indian War of 1962 === | ||
{{See also|Sino-Indian War}} | {{See also|Sino-Indian War}} | ||
From 1959, in a process that accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the "[[Forward policy (Sino-Indian conflict)|Forward Policy]]" of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Noorani |first=A.G. |title=Perseverance in the peace process |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2017/stories/20030829001604900.htm |date=29 August 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050326174852/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2017/stories/20030829001604900.htm |archive-date=26 March 2005 |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |publisher=hinduonnet.com |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> China attacked some of these outposts, and the [[Sino-Indian War]] began, which India lost. China | From 1959, in a process that accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the "[[Forward policy (Sino-Indian conflict)|Forward Policy]]" of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Noorani |first=A.G. |title=Perseverance in the peace process |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2017/stories/20030829001604900.htm |date=29 August 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050326174852/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2017/stories/20030829001604900.htm |archive-date=26 March 2005 |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |publisher=hinduonnet.com |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> China attacked some of these outposts, and the [[Sino-Indian War]] began, which India lost. The war ended with China announcing a unilateral ceasefire and with its forces withdrawing to 20 kilometers behind the [[Line of Actual Control|line of actual control]] of 1959.<ref name="Klintworth 1987">{{cite book | last=Klintworth | first=G. | title=China's India War: A Question of Confidence | publisher=Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University | series=Working paper (Australian National University. Strategic and Defence Studies Centre) | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-7315-0087-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt65AAAAIAAJ| page=10|quote=China declared a unilateral ceasefire and by December it had withdrawn its forces to positions 20 km behind the line of actual control that had existed in 1959}}</ref> | ||
The war exposed the unpreparedness of India's military, which could send only 14,000 troops to the war zone in opposition to the much larger [[Chinese Army]], and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence. In response, | The war exposed the unpreparedness of India's military, which could send only 14,000 troops to the war zone in opposition to the much larger [[Chinese Army]], and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence. In response, defence minister V. K. Krishna Menon had resigned and Nehru sought [[United States military aid|US military aid]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O4JIDwAAQBAJ|title=Comrades against Imperialism: Nehru, India, and Interwar Internationalism|page=195|publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote=Menon resigned under India's military preparedness failed to prevent a Chinese invasion during the Sino-Indian war of 1962|author=Michele L. Louro |year=2018|isbn=9781108419307 }}</ref> Nehru's improved relations with the US under [[John F. Kennedy]] proved useful during the war, as in 1962, the [[president of Pakistan]] (then closely aligned with the Americans) Ayub Khan was made to guarantee his neutrality regarding India, threatened by "[[Communism|communist]] aggression from Red China".<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,842104-10,00.html |title=Asia: Ending the Suspense |date=17 September 1965 |access-date=15 August 2021 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521075607/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C842104-10%2C00.html |archive-date=21 May 2013 }}</ref> India's relationship with the Soviet Union, criticised by right-wing groups supporting [[Free market|free-market]] policies, was also seemingly validated. Nehru would continue to maintain his commitment to the non-aligned movement, despite calls from some to settle down on one permanent ally.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cold-wars/alternative-world-visions/2D0ABD3F6605FE74F3307698D7989643|title=Alternative World Visions|editor-first=Lorenz M.|editor-last=Lüthi|date=14 July 2020|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=261–328|isbn=978-1-108-41833-1}}</ref> | ||
The aftermath of the war saw sweeping changes in the Indian military to prepare it for similar conflicts in the future and placed pressure on Nehru, who was seen as responsible for failing to anticipate the Chinese attack on India. Under American advice (by American envoy [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] who made and ran American policy on the war as all other top policymakers in the US were absorbed in the coincident [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]) Nehru refrained<!--not according to the best choices available (???)---> from using the Indian air force to beat back the Chinese advances. The CIA later revealed that, at that time, the Chinese had neither the fuel nor runways long enough to use their air force effectively in Tibet. Indians, in general, became highly sceptical of China and its military. Many Indians view the war as a betrayal of India's attempts at establishing a long-standing peace with China and started to question Nehru's usage of the term ''Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai'' (Indians and Chinese are brothers). The war also put an end to Nehru's earlier hopes that India and China would form a strong Asian Axis to counteract the increasing influence of the Cold War bloc superpowers.<ref name="Garver">{{Cite web |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/garver.pdf |title=China's Decision for War with India in 1962 by John W. Garver |date=26 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326032121/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/garver.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=14 August | The aftermath of the war saw sweeping changes in the Indian military to prepare it for similar conflicts in the future and placed pressure on Nehru, who was seen as responsible for failing to anticipate the Chinese attack on India. Under American advice (by American envoy [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] who made and ran American policy on the war as all other top policymakers in the US were absorbed in the coincident [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]) Nehru refrained<!--not according to the best choices available (???)---> from using the Indian air force to beat back the Chinese advances. The CIA later revealed that, at that time, the Chinese had neither the fuel nor runways long enough to use their air force effectively in Tibet. Indians, in general, became highly sceptical of China and its military. Many Indians view the war as a betrayal of India's attempts at establishing a long-standing peace with China and started to question Nehru's usage of the term ''Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai'' (Indians and Chinese are brothers). The war also put an end to Nehru's earlier hopes that India and China would form a strong Asian Axis to counteract the increasing influence of the Cold War bloc superpowers.<ref name="Garver">{{Cite web |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/garver.pdf |title=China's Decision for War with India in 1962 by John W. Garver |date=26 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326032121/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/garver.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref> | ||
[[File:India disputed areas map.svg|thumb|alt=See caption | | [[File:India disputed areas map.svg|thumb|alt=See caption | | ||
Map showing [[List of disputed territories of India|disputed territories of India]]]] | Map showing [[List of disputed territories of India|disputed territories of India]]]] | ||
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In the 1950s, Nehru was admired by world leaders such as British prime minister Winston Churchill, and US president [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. A letter from Eisenhower to Nehru, dated 27 November 1958, read: <Blockquote>Universally you are recognised as one of the most powerful influences for peace and conciliation in the world. I believe that because you are a world leader for peace in your individual capacity, as well as a representative of the largest neutral nation....<ref>{{Cite web|series=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, South and Southeast Asia, Volume XV – Office of the Historian|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v15/d222|access-date=31 July 2021|title=Letter From President Eisenhower to Prime Minister Nehru|date=27 November 1958|website=history.state.gov}}</ref></blockquote> In 1955, Churchill called Nehru, the light of Asia, and a greater light than [[Gautama Buddha]].<ref name="Sahgal2010">{{cite book|author=Nayantara Sahgal|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Civilizing a Savage World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KycnN-MlfY4C&pg=PP9|year=2010|publisher=[[Penguin Books India]]|isbn=978-0-670-08357-2|page=59}}</ref> Nehru is time and again described as a charismatic leader with a rare charm.{{efn|<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ian Hall|first=The Conversation|title=Nehru, the architect of modern India, also helped discredit European imperialism|url=https://scroll.in/article/1002353/nehru-the-architect-of-modern-india-also-helped-discredit-european-imperialism|access-date=15 November 2021|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=How the ANC could fade away – OPINION {{!}} Politicsweb|url=https://www.politicsweb.co.za/opinion/how-the-anc-could-fade-away|access-date=15 November 2021|website=www.politicsweb.co.za|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=15 November 2021|title=UP Next: How Nehru, Swami Prabhu Dutt Brahmachari's ideas of India resonate in 2022 polls|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/up-next-how-nehru-swami-prabhu-dutt-brahmacharis-ideas-of-india-resonate-in-2022-polls-10136981.html|access-date=15 November 2021|website=Firstpost|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=PM Modi is A 'Charismatic' Leader Like Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi: Rajinikanth|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-pm-modi-is-a-chrarismatic-leader-like-jawaharlal-nehru-rajiv-gandhi-rajnikanth/331096|access-date=15 November 2015|website=outlookindia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Tribune News|title=A thousand lies can't dwarf the giant Nehru was|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/a-thousand-lies-cant-dwarf-the-giant-nehru-was-258860|access-date=15 November 2021|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}</ref>}} | In the 1950s, Nehru was admired by world leaders such as British prime minister Winston Churchill, and US president [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. A letter from Eisenhower to Nehru, dated 27 November 1958, read: <Blockquote>Universally you are recognised as one of the most powerful influences for peace and conciliation in the world. I believe that because you are a world leader for peace in your individual capacity, as well as a representative of the largest neutral nation....<ref>{{Cite web|series=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, South and Southeast Asia, Volume XV – Office of the Historian|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v15/d222|access-date=31 July 2021|title=Letter From President Eisenhower to Prime Minister Nehru|date=27 November 1958|website=history.state.gov}}</ref></blockquote> In 1955, Churchill called Nehru, the light of Asia, and a greater light than [[Gautama Buddha]].<ref name="Sahgal2010">{{cite book|author=Nayantara Sahgal|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Civilizing a Savage World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KycnN-MlfY4C&pg=PP9|year=2010|publisher=[[Penguin Books India]]|isbn=978-0-670-08357-2|page=59}}</ref> Nehru is time and again described as a charismatic leader with a rare charm.{{efn|<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ian Hall|first=The Conversation|title=Nehru, the architect of modern India, also helped discredit European imperialism|url=https://scroll.in/article/1002353/nehru-the-architect-of-modern-india-also-helped-discredit-european-imperialism|access-date=15 November 2021|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=How the ANC could fade away – OPINION {{!}} Politicsweb|url=https://www.politicsweb.co.za/opinion/how-the-anc-could-fade-away|access-date=15 November 2021|website=www.politicsweb.co.za|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=15 November 2021|title=UP Next: How Nehru, Swami Prabhu Dutt Brahmachari's ideas of India resonate in 2022 polls|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/up-next-how-nehru-swami-prabhu-dutt-brahmacharis-ideas-of-india-resonate-in-2022-polls-10136981.html|access-date=15 November 2021|website=Firstpost|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=PM Modi is A 'Charismatic' Leader Like Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi: Rajinikanth|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-pm-modi-is-a-chrarismatic-leader-like-jawaharlal-nehru-rajiv-gandhi-rajnikanth/331096|access-date=15 November 2015|website=outlookindia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Tribune News|title=A thousand lies can't dwarf the giant Nehru was|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/a-thousand-lies-cant-dwarf-the-giant-nehru-was-258860|access-date=15 November 2021|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}</ref>}} | ||
Nehru as an able statesman has been noted for his openness towards criticism from the opposition.<ref>{{cite book | last=Mehrotra | first=R.R. | title=Nehru: Man Among Men | publisher=Mittal Publications | year=1990 | isbn=978-81-7099-196-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4_O8ZlGzkEC&pg=PA125 | page=125}}</ref> [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], a prominent leader of the then opposition party [[Jan Sangh]] and the 10th Prime Minister of India, once recalled that during a debate in the parliament he commented on Nehru that "Panditji, you have a dual personality. You show characteristics of both [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]]." Vajpayee said Nehru appreciated for his words. Vajpayee added that such kinds of criticisms were only possibly in those times.<ref>{{cite web | title=When Atal Bihari Vajpayee Got Nehru's Portrait Restored In South Block | website=NDTV.com | date=2019-02-22 | url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/when-atal-bihari-vajpayee-got-jawaharlal-nehrus-portrait-restored-in-south-block-1901693}}</ref> That time, Nehru had predicted that Vajpayee would become Prime Minister of India one day.<ref>{{cite book | last=NP | first=Ullekh | title=The Untold Vajpayee: Politician and Paradox | publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited | year=2018 | isbn=978-93-85990-81-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4LZDQAAQBAJ | page=45}}</ref> Other admirers of Nehru from opposing parties included [[George Fernandes]] who joined the socialist movement subject to the precondition that Nehru would not be replaced.<ref>{{cite web | last=Singh | first=Ajay | title=Review: The Life and Times of George Fernandes is a tale of how youthful idealism gives way to compromises | website=The Indian Express | date=2022-10-08 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/review-the-life-and-times-of-george-fernandes-many-peaks-of-a-political-life-is-a-tale-of-how-youthful-idealism-gives-way-to-compromises-8196595/}}</ref> | |||
== Vision and governing policies == | == Vision and governing policies == | ||
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According to [[Bhikhu Parekh]], Nehru can be regarded as the founder of the modern Indian state. Parekh attributes this to the national philosophy Nehru formulated for India. For him, modernisation was the national philosophy, with seven goals: national unity, parliamentary democracy, industrialisation, socialism, development of the scientific temper, and non-alignment. In Parekh's opinion, the philosophy and the policies that resulted from this benefited a large section of society such as public sector workers, industrial houses, middle and upper peasantry. However, it failed to benefit the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the [[Hindu fundamentalist]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parekh |first=Bhiku |date=1991 |title=Nehru and the National Philosophy of India |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=26 |issue=5–12 Jan 1991 |pages=35–48 |jstor=4397189}}</ref> | According to [[Bhikhu Parekh]], Nehru can be regarded as the founder of the modern Indian state. Parekh attributes this to the national philosophy Nehru formulated for India. For him, modernisation was the national philosophy, with seven goals: national unity, parliamentary democracy, industrialisation, socialism, development of the scientific temper, and non-alignment. In Parekh's opinion, the philosophy and the policies that resulted from this benefited a large section of society such as public sector workers, industrial houses, middle and upper peasantry. However, it failed to benefit the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the [[Hindu fundamentalist]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parekh |first=Bhiku |date=1991 |title=Nehru and the National Philosophy of India |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=26 |issue=5–12 Jan 1991 |pages=35–48 |jstor=4397189}}</ref> | ||
After the exit of Subhash Chandra Bose from mainstream Indian politics (because of his support of violence in driving the British out of India),<ref>{{Cite news|first=Narendra|last=Kaushik|date=11 October 2016|title=How Gandhi softened stance towards Bose|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/mobi/news/comment/how-gandhi-softened-stance-towards-bose/307731.htmlc|access-date=2 October | After the exit of Subhash Chandra Bose from mainstream Indian politics (because of his support of violence in driving the British out of India),<ref>{{Cite news|first=Narendra|last=Kaushik|date=11 October 2016|title=How Gandhi softened stance towards Bose|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/mobi/news/comment/how-gandhi-softened-stance-towards-bose/307731.htmlc|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> the power struggle between the socialists and conservatives in the Congress party balanced out. However, the death of Vallabhbhai Patel in 1950 left Nehru as the sole remaining iconic national leader, and soon the situation became such that Nehru could implement many of his basic policies without hindrance<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Triangle_India_Nepal_China/5rtGvnMrCTQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The+death+of+Vallabhbhai+Patel+in+1950+left+Nehru+as+the+sole+remaining+iconic+national+leader&pg=PA506&printsec=frontcover|title=Across The Himalayan Gap|date=1998|pages=506|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|editor=Tan Chung|isbn=81-212-0585-9}}</ref> Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, was able to fulfil her father's dream by the [[Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India|42nd amendment]] (1976) of the Indian constitution by which India officially became "socialist" and "secular", during the state of [[The Emergency (India)|emergency]] she imposed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=THE Constitution (Amendment)|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend42.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328040620/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend42.htm|archive-date=28 March 2015|access-date=18 May 2017|first=H. R.|last=Gokhale|website=indiacode.nic.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 December 2017|first=Adrija|last=Roychowdhury|title=Secularism: Why Nehru dropped and Indira inserted the S-word in the Constitution|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/anant-kumar-hegde-secularism-constitution-india-bjp-jawaharlal-nehru-indira-gandhi-5001085/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> | ||
=== Economic policies === | === Economic policies === | ||
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Nehru implemented policies based on [[Import substitution industrialization|import substitution industrialisation]] and advocated a [[mixed economy]] where the government-controlled [[public sector]] would co-exist with the [[private sector]].{{sfn|Ghose|1993|p=243}} He believed the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key [[Public sector undertakings in India|public sector]] industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies.{{sfn| Kopstein|2005|p=364}} | Nehru implemented policies based on [[Import substitution industrialization|import substitution industrialisation]] and advocated a [[mixed economy]] where the government-controlled [[public sector]] would co-exist with the [[private sector]].{{sfn|Ghose|1993|p=243}} He believed the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key [[Public sector undertakings in India|public sector]] industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies.{{sfn| Kopstein|2005|p=364}} | ||
The policy of non-alignment during the [[Cold War]] meant that Nehru received financial and technical support from both power blocs in building India's industrial base from scratch.<ref name="Walsh">{{Cite book |url={{Google books|iekF9X3OwwMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A Brief History of India |last=Walsh |first=Judith E. |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4381-0825-4 |page=190}}</ref> [[Steel mill]] complexes were built at [[Bokaro Steel City|Bokaro]] and [[Rourkela Steel Plant|Rourkela]] with assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] and [[West Germany]]. There was substantial industrial development.<ref name="Walsh" /> Industry grew 7.0% annually between 1950 and 1965—almost trebling industrial output and making India the world's seventh largest [[Industrial nation|industrial country]].<ref name="Walsh" /> Nehru's critics, however, contended that India's import substitution industrialisation, which was continued long after the Nehru era, weakened the international competitiveness of its manufacturing industries.<ref name="Yokokawa">{{Cite book |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=213 |url={{Google books |mypg8XYiwxUC |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-1-134-09387-8 |last=Yokokawa |first=Nobuharu |author2=Jayati Ghosh |author3=Bob Rowthorn |title=Industrialization of China and India: Their Impacts on the World Economy |year= | The policy of non-alignment during the [[Cold War]] meant that Nehru received financial and technical support from both power blocs in building India's industrial base from scratch.<ref name="Walsh">{{Cite book |url={{Google books|iekF9X3OwwMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A Brief History of India |last=Walsh |first=Judith E. |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4381-0825-4 |page=190}}</ref> [[Steel mill]] complexes were built at [[Bokaro Steel City|Bokaro]] and [[Rourkela Steel Plant|Rourkela]] with assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] and [[West Germany]]. There was substantial industrial development.<ref name="Walsh" /> Industry grew 7.0% annually between 1950 and 1965—almost trebling industrial output and making India the world's seventh largest [[Industrial nation|industrial country]].<ref name="Walsh" /> Nehru's critics, however, contended that India's import substitution industrialisation, which was continued long after the Nehru era, weakened the international competitiveness of its manufacturing industries.<ref name="Yokokawa">{{Cite book |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=213 |url={{Google books |mypg8XYiwxUC |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-1-134-09387-8 |last=Yokokawa |first=Nobuharu |author2=Jayati Ghosh |author3=Bob Rowthorn |title=Industrialization of China and India: Their Impacts on the World Economy |year=2013}}</ref> India's share of world trade fell from 1.4% in 1951–1960 to 0.5% between 1981 and 1990.<ref name="Grabowski">{{Cite book| publisher = [[M.E. Sharpe]]| page = 161|url={{Google books|5W2IMK7ivigC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-1-134-09387-8| last = Grabowski| first = Richard| author2=Sharmistha Self |author3=Michael P. Shields| title = Economic Development: A Regional, Institutional, And Historical Approach| year = 2007}}</ref> However, India's export performance is argued to have showed actual sustained improvement over the period. The volume of exports grew at an annual rate of 2.9% in 1951–1960 to 7.6% in 1971–1980.<ref name="Shand">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Edward Elgar Publishing]]| page = 39|url={{Googlebooks|2Su6YPIgUBsC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-1-78195-943-5| last = Shand| first = R. Richard Tregurtha| author2 = K. P. Kalirajan |author3=Ulaganathan Sankar| title = Economic Reform and the Liberalisation of the Indian Economy: Essays in Honour of Richard T. Shand; papers Presented at a Major Conference on Second Generation Reforms in Chennai from 8 – 10 December 1999| year = 2003}}</ref> | ||
GDP and [[Gross national income|GNP]] grew 3.9 and 4.0% annually between 1950 and 1951 and 1964–1965.<ref name="Thakur">{{Cite book| publisher = Deep and Deep Publications| page = 14|url={{Google books|qH4FFyi4-i4C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-8450-272-5| last = Thakur| first = Anil Khumar| author2=Debes Mukhopadhayay| title = Economic Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru| year = | GDP and [[Gross national income|GNP]] grew 3.9 and 4.0% annually between 1950 and 1951 and 1964–1965.<ref name="Thakur">{{Cite book| publisher = Deep and Deep Publications| page = 14|url={{Google books|qH4FFyi4-i4C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-8450-272-5| last = Thakur| first = Anil Khumar| author2=Debes Mukhopadhayay| title = Economic Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru| year = 2010}}</ref><ref name="Chandra">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Penguin Books India]]| page = 449|url={{Google books|dE9qEg-NgHMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-14-310409-4| last = Chandra| first = Bipan| author2=Aditya Mukherjee |author3=Mridula Mukherjee| title = India Since Independence| year = 2008}}</ref> It was a radical break from the British colonial period,<ref name="Kapila1">{{Cite book| publisher = Academic Foundation| page = 132|url={{Google books|KTbA2R_6gjAC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-7188-711-8 | last = Kapila| first = Uma| title = Indian Economic Developments Since 1947 (3Rd Ed.)| year = 2009}}</ref> but the growth rates were considered anaemic at best compared to other industrial powers in Europe and East Asia.<ref name="Grabowski" /><ref name="Kapila2">{{Cite book| publisher = Academic Foundation| page =66|url={{Google books|KTbA2R_6gjAC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-7188-711-8| last = Kapila| first = Uma| title = Indian Economic Developments Sinc 1947 (3Rd Ed.)| year = 2009}}</ref> India lagged behind the miracle economies (Japan, West Germany, France, and Italy).<ref name="Giersch">{{Cite book | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]| page = 4|url={{Google books|kkXGk_HyIBAC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-521-35869-9| last = Giersch | first = Herbert| author2 = Karl-Heinz Paqué| author3 = Holger Schmieding| title = The Fading Miracle: Four Decades of Market Economy in Germany| year = 1994 | ||
}}</ref> State planning, controls, and regulations were argued to have impaired economic growth.{{sfn| Kopstein|2005|p=366}} While India's economy grew faster than both the United Kingdom and the United States, low initial income and rapid population increase meant that growth was inadequate for any sort of catch-up with rich income nations.<ref name="Kapila2" /><ref name="Giersch" /><ref name="Parker">{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| page = 306|url={{Google books|9ydqHszxqEEC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-415-67703-5| last = Parker| first = Randall E.| author2=Robert M. Whaples| title = The Routledge Handbook of Major Events in Economic History| year = | }}</ref> State planning, controls, and regulations were argued to have impaired economic growth.{{sfn| Kopstein|2005|p=366}} While India's economy grew faster than both the United Kingdom and the United States, low initial income and rapid population increase meant that growth was inadequate for any sort of catch-up with rich income nations.<ref name="Kapila2" /><ref name="Giersch" /><ref name="Parker">{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| page = 306|url={{Google books|9ydqHszxqEEC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-415-67703-5| last = Parker| first = Randall E.| author2=Robert M. Whaples| title = The Routledge Handbook of Major Events in Economic History| year = 2013}}</ref> | ||
Nehru's preference for big state-controlled enterprises created a complex system of quantitative regulations, quotas and tariffs, industrial licenses, and a host of other controls. This system, known in India as [[Licence Raj]], was responsible for economic inefficiencies that stifled entrepreneurship and checked economic growth for decades until the liberalisation policies initiated by the Congress government in 1991 under [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]].<ref name="Permit Raj">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNYzPUhXhJYC&pg=PR20 |title=The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy |last1=Daniel Yergin |last2=Joseph Stanislaw |date=15 June 2002 |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-7432-2963-0}}</ref> | Nehru's preference for big state-controlled enterprises created a complex system of quantitative regulations, quotas and tariffs, industrial licenses, and a host of other controls. This system, known in India as [[Licence Raj]], was responsible for economic inefficiencies that stifled entrepreneurship and checked economic growth for decades until the liberalisation policies initiated by the Congress government in 1991 under [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]].<ref name="Permit Raj">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNYzPUhXhJYC&pg=PR20 |title=The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy |last1=Daniel Yergin |last2=Joseph Stanislaw |date=15 June 2002 |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-7432-2963-0}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2023}} | ||
=== Agriculture policies === | === Agriculture policies === | ||
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[[File:Queen Elizabeth II and the Prime Ministers of the Commonwealth Nations, at Windsor Castle (1960 Commonwealth Prime Minister's Conference).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of Queen Elizabeth II with Nehru and other Commonwealth leaders |[[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] with Nehru and other Commonwealth leaders, taken at the [[1960 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference|1960 Commonwealth Conference]], [[Windsor Castle]]]] | [[File:Queen Elizabeth II and the Prime Ministers of the Commonwealth Nations, at Windsor Castle (1960 Commonwealth Prime Minister's Conference).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of Queen Elizabeth II with Nehru and other Commonwealth leaders |[[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] with Nehru and other Commonwealth leaders, taken at the [[1960 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference|1960 Commonwealth Conference]], [[Windsor Castle]]]] | ||
After independence, Nehru wanted to maintain good relations with Britain and other British commonwealth countries. As prime minister of the [[Dominion of India]], he signed the 1949 [[London Declaration]], under which India agreed to remain within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] after becoming a republic in January 1950, and to recognise the British monarch as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGU-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265 |title=The Journal of Korean Studies, Volume 18, Number 2 (Fall 2013) |last1=Sorensen |first1=Clark W. |last2=Baker |first2=Donald |date=10 December 2013 |isbn=978-1-4422-3336-2|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref><ref name="Srinivasan2005">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FbNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR2 |title=The Rise, Decline and Future of the British Commonwealth |last=K. Srinivasan |date=7 November 2005 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK |isbn=978-0-230-24843-4 |page=11}}</ref> The other nations of the Commonwealth recognised India's continuing membership of the association.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration|title = London Declaration|date = 16 May | After independence, Nehru wanted to maintain good relations with Britain and other British commonwealth countries. As prime minister of the [[Dominion of India]], he signed the 1949 [[London Declaration]], under which India agreed to remain within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] after becoming a republic in January 1950, and to recognise the British monarch as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGU-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265 |title=The Journal of Korean Studies, Volume 18, Number 2 (Fall 2013) |last1=Sorensen |first1=Clark W. |last2=Baker |first2=Donald |date=10 December 2013 |isbn=978-1-4422-3336-2|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref><ref name="Srinivasan2005">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FbNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR2 |title=The Rise, Decline and Future of the British Commonwealth |last=K. Srinivasan |date=7 November 2005 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK |isbn=978-0-230-24843-4 |page=11}}</ref> The other nations of the Commonwealth recognised India's continuing membership of the association.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration|title = London Declaration|date = 16 May 2019|access-date = 22 August 2021|archive-date = 4 July 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210704130811/https://thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration|url-status = dead}}</ref> | ||
==== Non-aligned movement ==== | ==== Non-aligned movement ==== | ||
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"I do believe that, where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." "I would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she should in a cowardly manner become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonour." – All Men Are Brothers Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words. UNESCO. pp. 85–108.</ref></blockquote> | "I do believe that, where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." "I would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she should in a cowardly manner become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonour." – All Men Are Brothers Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words. UNESCO. pp. 85–108.</ref></blockquote> | ||
Nehru entrusted [[Homi J. Bhabha]], a nuclear physicist, with complete authority over all nuclear-related affairs and programs and answerable only to the prime minister.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">{{cite web |last = Sublet |first = Carrie |title = Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha |work = nuclearweaponarchive.org |url = http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Bhabha.html |access-date = 8 August 2011|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110807160029/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Bhabha.html |archive-date = 7 August | Nehru entrusted [[Homi J. Bhabha]], a nuclear physicist, with complete authority over all nuclear-related affairs and programs and answerable only to the prime minister.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">{{cite web |last = Sublet |first = Carrie |title = Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha |work = nuclearweaponarchive.org |url = http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Bhabha.html |access-date = 8 August 2011|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110807160029/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Bhabha.html |archive-date = 7 August 2011}}</ref> | ||
Many hailed Nehru for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of [[nuclear weapon]]s after the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953).<ref>{{Cite book | publisher = Panchsheel Publishers| page = 131| last = Bhatia| first = Vinod| title = Jawaharlal Nehru, as Scholars of Socialist Countries See Him| year = 1989}}</ref> He commissioned the first study of the [[effects of nuclear explosions on human health]] and campaigned ceaselessly for the [[Nuclear disarmament|abolition]] of what he called "these frightful engines of destruction". He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearization, fearing a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = [[C. Hurst & Co.]] Publishers| pages = 141, 261|url={{Google books|X90G8gnoqv4C|page=PA141|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-1-85065-180-2| last = Dua| first = B. D. | author2=James Manor| title = Nehru to the Nineties: The Changing Office of Prime Minister in India| year = 1994}}</ref> | Many hailed Nehru for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of [[nuclear weapon]]s after the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953).<ref>{{Cite book | publisher = Panchsheel Publishers| page = 131| last = Bhatia| first = Vinod| title = Jawaharlal Nehru, as Scholars of Socialist Countries See Him| year = 1989}}</ref> He commissioned the first study of the [[effects of nuclear explosions on human health]] and campaigned ceaselessly for the [[Nuclear disarmament|abolition]] of what he called "these frightful engines of destruction". He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearization, fearing a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = [[C. Hurst & Co.]] Publishers| pages = 141, 261|url={{Google books|X90G8gnoqv4C|page=PA141|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-1-85065-180-2| last = Dua| first = B. D. | author2=James Manor| title = Nehru to the Nineties: The Changing Office of Prime Minister in India| year = 1994}}</ref> | ||
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In 1953, Nehru orchestrated the ouster and arrest of [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the prime minister of Kashmir, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; [[Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad]] replaced him.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/A-fateful-arrest/article15401893.ece |title=A fateful arrest |first=Ramachandra|last=Guha|date=2 August 2008|access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref name="Ghose1993">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUeyUhVGIDMC&pg=PA1 |title=Jawaharlal Nehru, a Biography |last=Sankar Ghose |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=978-81-7023-369-5 |pages=1888–190}}</ref> | In 1953, Nehru orchestrated the ouster and arrest of [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the prime minister of Kashmir, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; [[Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad]] replaced him.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/A-fateful-arrest/article15401893.ece |title=A fateful arrest |first=Ramachandra|last=Guha|date=2 August 2008|access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref name="Ghose1993">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUeyUhVGIDMC&pg=PA1 |title=Jawaharlal Nehru, a Biography |last=Sankar Ghose |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=978-81-7023-369-5 |pages=1888–190}}</ref> | ||
Menon was instructed to deliver an unprecedented eight-hour speech defending India's stand on Kashmir in 1957; to date, the speech is the longest ever delivered in the [[United Nations Security Council]], covering five hours of the 762nd meeting on 23 January, and two hours and forty-eight minutes on the 24th, reportedly concluding with Menon's collapse on the Security Council floor.<ref name="nytimes1974" /> During the [[filibuster]], Nehru moved swiftly and successfully to consolidate Indian power in Kashmir (then under great unrest). Menon's passionate defence of Indian sovereignty in Kashmir enlarged his base of support in India and led to the Indian press temporarily dubbing him the "Hero of Kashmir". Nehru was then at the peak of his popularity in India; the only (minor) criticism came from the far-right.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8272473.stm |title=A short history of long speeches |date=25 September 2009 |work=[[BBC News]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305174645/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8272473.stm |archive-date=5 March | Menon was instructed to deliver an unprecedented eight-hour speech defending India's stand on Kashmir in 1957; to date, the speech is the longest ever delivered in the [[United Nations Security Council]], covering five hours of the 762nd meeting on 23 January, and two hours and forty-eight minutes on the 24th, reportedly concluding with Menon's collapse on the Security Council floor.<ref name="nytimes1974" /> During the [[filibuster]], Nehru moved swiftly and successfully to consolidate Indian power in Kashmir (then under great unrest). Menon's passionate defence of Indian sovereignty in Kashmir enlarged his base of support in India and led to the Indian press temporarily dubbing him the "Hero of Kashmir". Nehru was then at the peak of his popularity in India; the only (minor) criticism came from the far-right.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8272473.stm |title=A short history of long speeches |date=25 September 2009 |work=[[BBC News]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305174645/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8272473.stm |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Majid, Amir A. |year=2007 |title=Can Self Determination Solve the Kashmir Dispute? |url=http://www.ier.ro/documente/rjea_vol7_no3/RJEA_Vol7_No3_Can_Self_Determination_Solve_the_Kashmir_Dispute.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Romanian Journal of European Affairs |volume=7 |issue=3 |page=38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316211935/http://www.ier.ro/documente/rjea_vol7_no3/RJEA_Vol7_No3_Can_Self_Determination_Solve_the_Kashmir_Dispute.pdf |archive-date=16 March 2012}}</ref> | ||
==== China ==== | ==== China ==== | ||
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[[File:President John F. Kennedy Meets with Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru (1).jpg|right|thumb|Nehru with John F. Kennedy at the White House, 7 November 1961]] | [[File:President John F. Kennedy Meets with Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru (1).jpg|right|thumb|Nehru with John F. Kennedy at the White House, 7 November 1961]] | ||
In 1956, Nehru criticised the joint invasion of the [[Suez Canal]] by the British, French, and Israelis. His role, both as Indian prime minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, was significant; he tried to be even-handed between the two sides while vigorously denouncing [[Anthony Eden]] and co-sponsors of the invasion. Nehru had a powerful ally in the US president Dwight Eisenhower who, if relatively silent publicly, went to the extent of using America's clout at the [[International Monetary Fund]] to make Britain and France back down. During the [[Suez crisis]], Nehru's right-hand man, Menon attempted to persuade a recalcitrant [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamal Nasser]] to compromise with the West and was instrumental in moving Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser might prove willing to compromise.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/indias-moment-in-the-suez-canal-crisis/article9320638.ece|title=India's moment in the Suez Canal crisis|first=Swapna Kona|last=Nayudu|date=8 November 2016|access-date=15 August 2021|website=[[Business Line]]}}</ref> | In 1956, Nehru criticised the joint invasion of the [[Suez Canal]] by the British, French, and Israelis. His role, both as Indian prime minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, was significant; he tried to be even-handed between the two sides while vigorously denouncing [[Anthony Eden]] and co-sponsors of the invasion. Nehru had a powerful ally in the US president Dwight Eisenhower who, if relatively silent publicly, went to the extent of using America's clout at the [[International Monetary Fund]] to make Britain and France back down. During the [[Suez crisis]], Nehru's right-hand man, Menon attempted to persuade a recalcitrant [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamal Nasser]] to compromise with the West and was instrumental in moving Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser might prove willing to compromise.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/indias-moment-in-the-suez-canal-crisis/article9320638.ece|title=India's moment in the Suez Canal crisis|first=Swapna Kona|last=Nayudu|date=8 November 2016|access-date=15 August 2021|website=[[Business Line]]}}</ref> | ||
== Assassination attempts and security == | == Assassination attempts and security == | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Nehru's health began declining steadily | Nehru's health began declining steadily in 1962. In the spring of 1962, he was affected with viral infection over which he spent most of April in bed.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Sarvepalli Gopal]] | title=Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography Volume 3 1956-1964 | publisher=Random House | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-4735-2189-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pd-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT293 | page=293}}</ref> In the next year, through 1963, he spent months recuperating in Kashmir. Some writers attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Asian History">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Asia Society |title=Jawaharlal Nehru |editor-last=Embree |editor-first=Ainslie T. |editor-link=Ainslie Embree |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Asian History |year=1988 |volume=3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr/page/98 98–100] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr/page/98 |location=New York |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |isbn=978-0-684-18899-7}}</ref> Upon his return from [[Dehradun]] on 26 May 1964, he was feeling quite comfortable and went to bed at about 23:30 as usual. He had a restful night until about 06:30. Soon after he returned from the bathroom, Nehru complained of pain in the back. He spoke to the doctors who attended on him for a brief while, and almost immediately he collapsed. He remained unconscious until he died at 13:44.<ref>{{Cite news |author=[[Raj Kanwar (journalist)|Kanwar Raj]]|title=The evening 58 years ago when I saw off Nehru on his last flight |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/the-evening-58-years-ago-when-i-saw-off-nehru-on-his-last-flight-1112895.html |access-date=27 May 2022 |newspaper=Deccan Herald}}</ref> His death was announced in the [[Lok Sabha]] at 14:00 local time on 27 May 1964; the cause of death was believed to be a heart attack.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/27/newsid_3690000/3690019.stm BBC ON THIS DAY {{!}} 27 {{!}} 1964: Light goes out in India as Nehru dies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811052528/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/27/newsid_3690000/3690019.stm |date=11 August 2013 }}. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved 17 March 2011.</ref> Draped in the Indian national Tri-colour flag, the body of Jawaharlal Nehru was placed for public viewing. "''[[Raghupati Raghava Rajaram]]''" was chanted as the body was placed on the platform. On 28 May, Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the [[Raj Ghat and associated memorials|Shantivan]] on the banks of the [[Yamuna]], witnessed by 1.5 million mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/29/1-5-million-view-rites-for-nehru.html |title=1.5 Million View Rites for Nehrus; Procession Route Jammed as Indians and Foreigners Pay Last Respects |last=Brady|first=Thomas F.|date=29 May 1964 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=18 May 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802130344/http://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/29/1-5-million-view-rites-for-nehru.html |archive-date=2 August 2017 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> | ||
Nehru's death left India with no clear political heir to his leadership | US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] remarked on his death:- | ||
<blockquote>History has already recorded his monumental contribution to the molding of a strong and independent India. And yet, it is not just as a leader of India that he has served humanity. Perhaps more than any other world leader he has given expression to man's yearning for peace. This is the issue of our age. In his fearless pursuit of a world free from war he has served all humanity.<ref>{{cite web | title=Letter to the President of India on the Death of Prime Minister Nehru. | website=The American Presidency Project | date=1964-05-27 | url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/letter-the-president-india-the-death-prime-minister-nehru | access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
[[USSR|Soviet]] Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] remarked:- | |||
<blockquote>He was a passionate fighter for peace in the whole world and an ardent champion of the realization of the principles of peaceful coexistence of states; he was the inspirer of the policy of Non-Alignment promoted by the Indian Government. This reasonable policy won India respect and due to it, India is now occupying a worthy place in the international arena.<ref>{{cite book | title=Contemporary Indian Literature | author=S.L. Shastry | issue=v. 4-5 | year=1964 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mvVAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2023-02-21 | page=14}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
Nehru's death left India with no clear political heir to his leadership. [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] later succeeded Nehru as the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite news|date=28 May 2014|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/nehru-india-death-1964-archive|title=From the archive, 28 May 1964: The death of Mr Nehru, hero and architect of modern India|access-date=14 August 2021|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> | |||
The death was announced to the Indian parliament in words similar to Nehru's own at the time of Gandhi's assassination: "[[The light has gone out of our lives|The light is out]]."<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url={{Google books|XUEEAAAAMBAJ|page=PA32|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A Man Who, with All His Mind and Heart, Loved India |date=5 June 1964 |magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life Magazine]] |publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|pages=32 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0527.html |title=India Mourning Nehru, 74, Dead of a Heart Attack; World Leaders Honor Him |work=The New York Times |access-date=28 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322235121/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0527.html |archive-date=22 March 2017 }}</ref> India's future prime minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] famously delivered Nehru an acclaimed eulogy.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pathak|first=Vikas|date=17 August 2018|title=Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the orator: Speech that sounded like poetry|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/atal-bihari-vajpayee-the-orator/article24710175.ece|access-date=7 January 2022|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He hailed Nehru as [[Bharat Mata]]'s "favourite prince" and likened him to the Hindu [[god]] [[Rama]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 August 2018|title=Vajpayee on Nehru's death: Bharat Mata has lost her favourite prince|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/vajpayee-on-nehrus-death-bharat-mata-has-lost-her-favourite-prince/99455/|access-date=7 January 2022|website=ThePrint|language=en-US|quote=In the Ramayana, Maharashi Valmiki has said of Lord Rama that he brought the impossible together. In Panditji's life, we see a glimpse of what the great poet said. He was a devotee of peace and yet the harbinger of revolution, he was a devotee of non-violence but advocated every weapon to defend freedom and honour.}}</ref> | |||
==Positions held== | ==Positions held== | ||
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Vallabhbhai Patel served as home minister in the interim government. He was instrumental in getting the Congress party working committee to vote for partition. He is also credited with integrating peacefully most of the princely states of India. Patel was a long-time comrade to Nehru but died in 1950, leaving Nehru as the unchallenged leader of India until his own death in 1964.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=376oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |title=Vision and Strategy in Indian Politics: Jawaharlal Nehru's Policy Choices and the Designing of Political Institutions |last=Jivanta Schoettli |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-136-62787-3 |page=88}}</ref> | Vallabhbhai Patel served as home minister in the interim government. He was instrumental in getting the Congress party working committee to vote for partition. He is also credited with integrating peacefully most of the princely states of India. Patel was a long-time comrade to Nehru but died in 1950, leaving Nehru as the unchallenged leader of India until his own death in 1964.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=376oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |title=Vision and Strategy in Indian Politics: Jawaharlal Nehru's Policy Choices and the Designing of Political Institutions |last=Jivanta Schoettli |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-136-62787-3 |page=88}}</ref> | ||
[[Maulana Azad]] was the First Minister of Education in the Indian government [[Minister of Human Resource Development]] (until 25 September 1958, Ministry of Education). His contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognised by celebrating his birthday as National Education Day across India.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news|title=International Urdu conference from Nov. 10|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/11/07/stories/2010110754680500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111204425/http://www.hindu.com/2010/11/07/stories/2010110754680500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 November 2010|date=7 November 2010|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Chawla, Muhammad |title=Maulana Azad and the Demand for Pakistan: A Reappraisal|journal=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society|year= 2016|volume= 64|issue=3|pages= 7–24|url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-4269551701/maulana-azad-and-the-demand-for-pakistan-a-reappraisal}}</ref> | |||
[[Jagjivan Ram]] became the youngest minister in Nehru's Interim government of India, a [[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)|labour minister]] and also a member of the Constituent Assembly of India, where, as a member of the [[dalit]] caste, he ensured that [[social justice]] was enshrined in the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]]. He went on to serve as a minister with various portfolios during Nehru's tenure and in Shastri and Indira Gandhi governments.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=Jagjivan+Ram+became+the+youngest+minister+in+Nehru%27s+Interim+government+of+India+a+Labour+Minister+and+also+a+member+of+the+Constituent+Assembly+of+India,+where,+as+a+member+from+the+dalit+caste,+he+ensured+that+social+justice+was+enshrined+in+the+Constitution.&pg=PT591|title = Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn = 978-93-5266-769-7|last1 = Singh|first1 = Pradyuman|date = 19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan}}</ref> | [[Jagjivan Ram]] became the youngest minister in Nehru's Interim government of India, a [[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)|labour minister]] and also a member of the Constituent Assembly of India, where, as a member of the [[dalit]] caste, he ensured that [[social justice]] was enshrined in the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]]. He went on to serve as a minister with various portfolios during Nehru's tenure and in Shastri and Indira Gandhi governments.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=Jagjivan+Ram+became+the+youngest+minister+in+Nehru%27s+Interim+government+of+India+a+Labour+Minister+and+also+a+member+of+the+Constituent+Assembly+of+India,+where,+as+a+member+from+the+dalit+caste,+he+ensured+that+social+justice+was+enshrined+in+the+Constitution.&pg=PT591|title = Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn = 978-93-5266-769-7|last1 = Singh|first1 = Pradyuman|date = 19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan}}</ref> | ||
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certain tenure and vice versa.With Nehru's age and health failing in the early 1960s, Desai was considered as a possible contender for the position of Prime Minister.<ref name="HaqqiAssociation1986">{{cite book|author1=Anwarul Haque Haqqi|author2=Indian Political Science Association|title=Indian Democracy at the Crossroads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk7c6O2XlGwC&pg=PA150|year=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|page=123|id=GGKEY:X2U27GYQ2L1}}</ref><ref name="Singh1981a">{{cite book|author=Mahendra Prasad Singh|title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOQRWuMXyRMC&pg=PAPR5|year=1981|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-140-9|page=50}}</ref> Later Desai alleged that Nehru used the Kamaraj Plan to remove all possible contenders ‘from the path of his daughter, Indira Gandhi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Da |first1=S |title=The Nehru years in Indian politics |journal=Edinburgh Papers in South Asian Studies |date=2001 |volume=16 |page=24 |url=http://www.issti.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38480/WP16_Suranjan_Das.pdf |access-date=10 September 2021 |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910183407/http://www.issti.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38480/WP16_Suranjan_Das.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Desai succeeded Indira Gandhi as the prime minister in 1977 when he was selected by the victorious Janata alliance as their parliamentary leader.<ref name="Mirchandani2003">{{cite book|author=G.G. Mirchandani|title=320 Million Judges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xj0g8euumQC&pg=PA11|date=June 2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-061-7|pages=177–178}}</ref> | certain tenure and vice versa.With Nehru's age and health failing in the early 1960s, Desai was considered as a possible contender for the position of Prime Minister.<ref name="HaqqiAssociation1986">{{cite book|author1=Anwarul Haque Haqqi|author2=Indian Political Science Association|title=Indian Democracy at the Crossroads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk7c6O2XlGwC&pg=PA150|year=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|page=123|id=GGKEY:X2U27GYQ2L1}}</ref><ref name="Singh1981a">{{cite book|author=Mahendra Prasad Singh|title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOQRWuMXyRMC&pg=PAPR5|year=1981|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-140-9|page=50}}</ref> Later Desai alleged that Nehru used the Kamaraj Plan to remove all possible contenders ‘from the path of his daughter, Indira Gandhi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Da |first1=S |title=The Nehru years in Indian politics |journal=Edinburgh Papers in South Asian Studies |date=2001 |volume=16 |page=24 |url=http://www.issti.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38480/WP16_Suranjan_Das.pdf |access-date=10 September 2021 |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910183407/http://www.issti.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38480/WP16_Suranjan_Das.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Desai succeeded Indira Gandhi as the prime minister in 1977 when he was selected by the victorious Janata alliance as their parliamentary leader.<ref name="Mirchandani2003">{{cite book|author=G.G. Mirchandani|title=320 Million Judges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xj0g8euumQC&pg=PA11|date=June 2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-061-7|pages=177–178}}</ref> | ||
Govind Ballabh Pant (1887–1961) was a key figure in the [[Indian independence movement]] and later a pivotal figure in the politics of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and in the Indian Government. Pant served in Nehru's cabinet as Union home minister from 1955 until his death in 1961.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-09-10/india/27791764_1_floral-tributes-homage-vice-president-bhairon-singh-shekhawat |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701135017/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-09-10/india/27791764_1_floral-tributes-homage-vice-president-bhairon-singh-shekhawat |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 July 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Nation pays homage to Govind Ballabh Pant |date=10 September 2006 }}</ref> As home minister, his chief achievement was the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|re-organisation of states along linguistic lines]]. He was also responsible for the establishment of [[Hindi]] as an official language of the [[Government of India|central government]] and a few states.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gbpec.net/gbpant.html |title=Govind Ballabh Pant Engineering College, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand |publisher=Gbpec.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225073145/http://www.gbpec.net/gbpant.html |archive-date=25 December 2012 |access-date=1 January | Govind Ballabh Pant (1887–1961) was a key figure in the [[Indian independence movement]] and later a pivotal figure in the politics of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and in the Indian Government. Pant served in Nehru's cabinet as Union home minister from 1955 until his death in 1961.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-09-10/india/27791764_1_floral-tributes-homage-vice-president-bhairon-singh-shekhawat |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701135017/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-09-10/india/27791764_1_floral-tributes-homage-vice-president-bhairon-singh-shekhawat |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 July 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Nation pays homage to Govind Ballabh Pant |date=10 September 2006 }}</ref> As home minister, his chief achievement was the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|re-organisation of states along linguistic lines]]. He was also responsible for the establishment of [[Hindi]] as an official language of the [[Government of India|central government]] and a few states.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gbpec.net/gbpant.html |title=Govind Ballabh Pant Engineering College, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand |publisher=Gbpec.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225073145/http://www.gbpec.net/gbpant.html |archive-date=25 December 2012 |access-date=1 January 2013}}</ref> During his tenure as the home minister, Pant was awarded the [[Bharat Ratna]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf |title=Padma Awards Directory (1954–2007) |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410024701/http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2009 |access-date=26 November 2010}}</ref> | ||
[[C. D. Deshmukh]] was one of five members of the Planning Commission when it was constituted in 1950 by a cabinet resolution.<ref name="google106">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=376oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 |title=Vision and Strategy in Indian Politics: Jawaharlal Nehru's Policy Choices and the Designing of Political Institutions |last=Jivanta Schoettli |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-136-62787-3 |location=Oxon |page=106}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_2KeZsYcjQC&pg=PT84 |title=Development Administration |last=S. A. Palekar |publisher=PHI Learning |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-203-4582-9 |location=New Delhi |page=74}}</ref> Deshmukh succeeded [[John Mathai]] as the [[Finance minister of India|Union Finance Minister]] in 1950 after Mathai resigned in protest over the transfer of certain powers to the Planning Commission.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/once-upon-a-plan/ |title=Once upon a plan |first=Inder |last=Malhotra |date=26 September 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=11 July | [[C. D. Deshmukh]] was one of five members of the Planning Commission when it was constituted in 1950 by a cabinet resolution.<ref name="google106">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=376oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 |title=Vision and Strategy in Indian Politics: Jawaharlal Nehru's Policy Choices and the Designing of Political Institutions |last=Jivanta Schoettli |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-136-62787-3 |location=Oxon |page=106}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_2KeZsYcjQC&pg=PT84 |title=Development Administration |last=S. A. Palekar |publisher=PHI Learning |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-203-4582-9 |location=New Delhi |page=74}}</ref> Deshmukh succeeded [[John Mathai]] as the [[Finance minister of India|Union Finance Minister]] in 1950 after Mathai resigned in protest over the transfer of certain powers to the Planning Commission.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/once-upon-a-plan/ |title=Once upon a plan |first=Inder |last=Malhotra |date=26 September 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=11 July 2016}}</ref> As finance minister, Deshmukh remained a member of the Planning Commission.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/history/ref_man03032011.pdf |title=Reference Material 2010 Notes of the Functioning of Various DiviionsI |date=2010 |publisher=Planning Commission of India |access-date=11 July 2016 |archive-date=8 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208211549/http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/history/ref_man03032011.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Deshmukh's tenure—during which he delivered six budgets and an interim budget<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.newcenturypublications.com/servlet/ncpGetBiblio?bno=000106 |title=India: Central Government Budgets – 1947–48 to 2003–04 |last=M M Sury |date=2003 |publisher=New Century Publications |access-date=20 July 2016}}</ref>—is noted for the effective management of the Indian economy and its steady growth which saw it recover from the impacts of the events of the 1940s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/specials/north-block-mavericks-197030101130_1.html |title=North Block Mavericks |date=1 March 1997 |work=[[Business Standard]] |access-date=11 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDmPKwQQdokC&pg=PA134 |title=The Politics of Poverty: Planning India's Development |last=D K Rangnekar |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-321-0902-0 |location=New Delhi |page=134}}</ref> During Deshmukh's tenure, the [[State Bank of India]] was formed in 1955 through the nationalisation and amalgamation of the [[Imperial Bank of India|Imperial Bank]] with several smaller banks.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/12/21/stories/2004122100050902.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221085824/http://www.thehindu.com/2004/12/21/stories/2004122100050902.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 December 2016 |title=dated December 21, 1954: State Bank of India |date=21 December 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=12 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030420/spectrum/book11.htm |title=Tracing history of the SBI |first=B. S.|last=Thaur |date=20 April 2003 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=12 July 2016}}</ref> He accomplished the nationalisation of insurance companies and the formation of the [[Life Insurance Corporation of India]] through the Life Insurance Corporation of India Act, 1956.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDqppvb19TsC&pg=PT180 |title=India: The Emerging Giant |last=Arvind Panagariya |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-989014-9 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KlN819nQS-wC&pg=PT41 |title=Insurance in India: Changing Policies and Emerging Opportunities |last1=P S Palande |last2=R S Shah |publisher=Response Books |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7619-9747-4 |location=New Delhi |page=31}}</ref> Deshmukh resigned over the Government's proposal to move a bill in Parliament bifurcating [[Bombay State]] into [[Gujarat]] and Maharashtra while designating the city of [[Mumbai|Bombay]] a Union territory.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzNnwUasQ3wC&pg=PA280 |title=Dr. Zakir Hussain, Quest for Truth |last=Ziaul Hasan Faruqi |publisher=APH Publishing |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-7648-056-7 |location=Delhi |page=280}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/vSENKsR3LEwbCgaG4zMw8K/The-anxiety-that-lingers.html |title=The anxiety that lingers |last=Niranjan Rajadhyaksha |date=7 December 2012 |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |access-date=11 July 2016}}</ref> | ||
[[Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon|V. K. Krishna Menon]] (1896–1974) was a close associate of Nehru, and has been described by some as the second most powerful man in India during Nehru's tenure as prime minister. Under Nehru, he served as India's high commissioner to the UK, UN ambassador, and union minister of defence. He was | [[Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon|V. K. Krishna Menon]] (1896–1974) was a close associate of Nehru, and has been described by some as the second most powerful man in India during Nehru's tenure as prime minister. Under Nehru, he served as India's high commissioner to the UK, UN ambassador, and union minister of defence. He was resigned after the debacle of the 1962 China war.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{Cite news|first=Norman D.|last=Palmer|date=12 January 2007|url= http://www.cs.nyu.edu/~kandathi/vkkm1962.pdf |title=The 1962 Election in North Bombay|access-date=14 August 2021 |url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120318032815/http://www.cs.nyu.edu/~kandathi/vkkm1962.pdf |archive-date= 18 March 2012 |work= [[New York University|cs.nyu.edu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ&q=vengalil+landowner&pg=PR6 |title=The Nayars today – Christopher John Fuller |last=Fuller |first=C. J. |date=30 December 1976 |isbn=978-0-521-29091-3 |access-date=11 July 2012 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>Michael Brecher, and Janice Gross Stein, eds., '' India and world politics: Krishna Menon's view of the world'' ([[Praeger Publishing]], 1968).</ref> | ||
In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira Gandhi for managing his personal affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|EZIBxpeRXxsC|page=PR7|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Women in power : the personalities and leadership styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher |last=Steinberg |first=Blema S. |date=2008 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7735-3356-1 |location=Montreal |page=20 |access-date=2 December | In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira Gandhi for managing his personal affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|EZIBxpeRXxsC|page=PR7|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Women in power : the personalities and leadership styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher |last=Steinberg |first=Blema S. |date=2008 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7735-3356-1 |location=Montreal |page=20 |access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the world. She would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|EZIBxpeRXxsC|page=PR7|keywords=indira%20nehru%20hostess|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Women in power : the personalities and leadership styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher |last=Steinberg |first=Blema S. |date=2008 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7735-3356-1 |location=Montreal |page=20 |access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> Towards the end of the 1950s, Indira Gandhi served as the president of the Congress. In that capacity, she was instrumental in getting the Communist led [[Government of Kerala|Kerala]] State Government dismissed in 1959.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Upadhyaya |first=Prakash Chandra |date=1989 |title=Review of Marxist State Governments in India, Politics, Economics and Society by T. J. Nossiter |journal=Social Scientist |volume=17 |issue=1/2 January – February 1989 |pages=84–91 |doi=10.2307/3520112 |jstor=3520112}}</ref> Indira was elected as Congress party president in 1959, which aroused criticism for alleged [[nepotism]], although Nehru had actually disapproved of her election, partly because he considered that it smacked of "dynasticism"; he said, indeed it was "wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing", and refused her a position in his cabinet.<ref name="Frank">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin]] Books| page = 250|url={{Google books|0eolM37FUWYC|page=PA250|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-395-73097-3| last = Frank| first = Katherine| title = Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi| year = 2002}}</ref> Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the [[Congress Working Committee]] to push through the dismissal of the [[Communist Party of India]] government in the state of [[Kerala]], over his own objections.<ref name="Frank" /> Nehru began to be embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition and was "hurt" by what he saw as assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father.<ref name="Marlay 1999 368">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield]]| page = 368| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7i0jGxysUUcC&pg=PAPA368| isbn = 978-0-8476-8442-7| last = Marlay| first = Ross| author2 = Clark D. Neher| title = Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders| year = 1999| access-date = 19 August 2021| archive-date = 5 February 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210205064008/https://books.google.com/books?id=7i0jGxysUUcC&pg=PAPA368| url-status = dead}}</ref> | ||
== Relationships == | == Relationships == | ||
After Kamala's death in 1936, Nehru was rumoured to have relationships with | After Kamala's death in 1936, Nehru was rumoured to have relationships with certain women from time to time. These included Shraddha Mata,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/if-i-werent-a-sanyasin-he-would-have-married-me/223036 |title=If I Weren't A Sanyasin, He Would Have Married Me |last=Reddy |first=Sheela |date=23 February 2004 |access-date=14 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150808052023/http://www.outlookindia.com/article/if-i-werent-a-sanyasin-he-would-have-married-me/223036 |archive-date=8 August 2015 |publisher=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]}}</ref> [[Padmaja Naidu]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/mar/01nehru.htm |title=The Rediff Interview / Stanley Wolpert 'I have tried to tell Nehru's story as honestly as possible' |last=Srinivasan |first=Rajeev |access-date=6 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924160656/http://www.rediff.com/news/mar/01nehru.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |work=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|Cg9uAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Nehru: A Tryst with Destiny |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |date=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-510073-0 |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |access-date=6 August 2015}}</ref> and [[Edwina Mountbatten, Countess Mountbatten of Burma|Edwina Mountbatten]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=15 July 2007|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/nehruedwina-were-in-deep-love-says-daughter/205099/ |title=Nehru-Edwina were in deep love, says daughter|access-date=13 August 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813142417/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/nehruedwina-were-in-deep-love-says-daughter/205099/ |archive-date=13 August 2021 |work= [[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> Countess Mountbatten's daughter [[Lady Pamela Hicks]] acknowledged Nehru's platonic relationship with Lady Mountbatten.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-21/people/28137788_1_lady-edwina-mountbatten-lord-mountbatten-edwina-and-nehru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811065740/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-21/people/28137788_1_lady-edwina-mountbatten-lord-mountbatten-edwina-and-nehru |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 August 2011 |title=Love, longing & politics! |date=21 April 2010 |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2 September 2012}}</ref> | ||
[[File:NehruEd.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption |Prime Minister Nehru with Edwina Mountbatten in 1951]] | [[File:NehruEd.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption |Prime Minister Nehru with Edwina Mountbatten in 1951]] | ||
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== Religion and personal beliefs == | == Religion and personal beliefs == | ||
[[File:Nehru sweets oratarians Nongpoh.jpg|thumb| | [[File:Nehru sweets oratarians Nongpoh.jpg|thumb|Nehru distributes sweets among children at [[Nongpoh]], Meghalaya]] | ||
Described as a [[Hindus|Hindu]] [[Agnosticism| | Described as a [[Hindus|Hindu]] [[Agnosticism|agnostic]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Volume 3; Volumes 1956–1964 |last=Sarvepalii|first=Gopal|page=17|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|quote=Nehru was still an agnostic, but a Hindu agnostic.|authorlink=Sarvepalli Gopal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2013/may/28/death-of-nehru-archive-1964|title = The death of Nehru: From the archive, 28 May 1964|website = [[TheGuardian.com]]|date = 28 May 2013}}</ref> and styling himself as a "[[secular humanism|scientific humanist]]",<ref>{{cite web|work=[[Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Nehrus-Scientific-Humanism/articleshow/8590304.cms|title=Nehru's Scientific Humanism|last=Vohra | first=Ashok |date=27 May 2011|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> Nehru thought that religious taboos were preventing India from moving forward and adapting to modern conditions: "No country or people who are slaves to dogma and dogmatic mentality can progress, and unhappily our country and people have become extraordinarily dogmatic and little-minded."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ypZ-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP103|title=Jawaharlal Nehru;a Biography Volume 1 1889–1947|author=[[Sarvepalli Gopal]]|date=8 January 2015|isbn=978-1-4735-2187-2|publisher=[[Random House]]}}</ref> | ||
{{blockquote|sign=|source=''[[An Autobiography (Nehru)|Toward Freedom: The Autobiography of Jawaharlal Nehru]]'' (1936); pp. 240–241.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|abcfAAAAIAAJ|page=PA1|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Hindu-Muslim Relations in British India: A Study of Controversy, Conflict, and Communal Movements in Northern India 1923–1928 |last=Thursby |first=Gene R. |date=1975 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-04380-0 |pages=1 |language=en}}</ref>|The spectacle of what is called religion, or at any rate organised religion, in India and elsewhere, has filled me with horror and I have frequently condemned it and wished to make a clean sweep of it. Almost always it seemed to stand for blind belief and reaction, dogma and bigotry, superstition, exploitation and the preservation of vested interests.}} | {{blockquote|sign=|source=''[[An Autobiography (Nehru)|Toward Freedom: The Autobiography of Jawaharlal Nehru]]'' (1936); pp. 240–241.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|abcfAAAAIAAJ|page=PA1|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Hindu-Muslim Relations in British India: A Study of Controversy, Conflict, and Communal Movements in Northern India 1923–1928 |last=Thursby |first=Gene R. |date=1975 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-04380-0 |pages=1 |language=en}}</ref>|The spectacle of what is called religion, or at any rate organised religion, in India and elsewhere, has filled me with horror and I have frequently condemned it and wished to make a clean sweep of it. Almost always it seemed to stand for blind belief and reaction, dogma and bigotry, superstition, exploitation and the preservation of vested interests.}} | ||
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As a humanist, Nehru considered that his afterlife was not in some mystical heaven or reincarnation but in the practical achievements of a life lived fully with and for his fellow human beings: “…Nor am I greatly interested in life after death. I find the problems of this life sufficiently absorbing to fill my mind,” he wrote.<ref name="auto4" /> In his Last Will and Testament he wrote: “I wish to declare with all earnestness that I do not want any religious ceremonies performed for me after my death. I do not believe in such ceremonies, and to submit to them, even as a matter of form, would be hypocrisy and an attempt to delude ourselves and others.”<ref name="auto4" /> | As a humanist, Nehru considered that his afterlife was not in some mystical heaven or reincarnation but in the practical achievements of a life lived fully with and for his fellow human beings: “…Nor am I greatly interested in life after death. I find the problems of this life sufficiently absorbing to fill my mind,” he wrote.<ref name="auto4" /> In his Last Will and Testament he wrote: “I wish to declare with all earnestness that I do not want any religious ceremonies performed for me after my death. I do not believe in such ceremonies, and to submit to them, even as a matter of form, would be hypocrisy and an attempt to delude ourselves and others.”<ref name="auto4" /> | ||
In his autobiography, he analysed | In his autobiography, he analysed Abrahamic and Indian religions<ref>{{Cite book |title=Secularism and Hindutva, a Discursive Study |last=A. A. Parvathy |year=1994 |page=42|publisher=Codewood Process & Printing}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Babri Masjid: a tale untold |last=Mohammad Jamil Akhtar |page=359|publisher=Genuine Publications}}</ref> and their impact on India. He wanted to model India as a [[secular state|secular country]]; his [[secularism|secularist]] policies remain a subject of debate.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Communal Threat to Secular Democracy |last=Ram Puniyani |year=1999 |page=113|publisher=Kalpaz Publications}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Jawaharlal Nehru, a Biography |last=Sankar Ghose |year=1993 |page=210|publisher=Alied Publishers}}</ref> | ||
== Legacy == | == Legacy == | ||
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[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru statue in Aldwych 1.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=See Caption |Bust of Nehru at [[Aldwych]], London]] | [[File:Jawaharlal Nehru statue in Aldwych 1.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=See Caption |Bust of Nehru at [[Aldwych]], London]] | ||
[[File:Jawaharlal nehru Palais de la Paix Peace Palace Den Haag The Hague La Haye.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=See Caption|Bust of Nehru at [[Peace Palace]], [[The Hague]]]] | |||
As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, | Jawaharlal Nehru, next to Mahatma Gandhi, is regarded as the most significant figure of the [[Indian independence movement]] that successfully ended the British rule over Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Gail Omvedt]]| title=We Will Smash this Prison!.: Indian Women in Struggle | publisher=Zed Press | series=Women in the Third World series | year=1980 | isbn=978-0-905762-44-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEe3AAAAIAAJ | quote=Jawaharlal Nehru was the most famous leader, next to Mahatma Gandhi, of the Indian independence movement| page=124}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Wiatr | first=J.J. | title=Political Leadership Between Democracy and Authoritarianism: Comparative and Historical Perspectives | publisher=Verlag Barbara Budrich | year=2022 | isbn=978-3-8474-1693-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tcJZEAAAQBAJ | page=71|quote=scholars underline the importance of demographic political culture and its roots in the decades of peaceful struggle for independence (Vidyarthi 1967). Next to Gandhi himself, it was Nehru who deserved credit for such development.|authorlink=Jerzy Wiatr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Patil | first=V.T. | title=Studies on Nehru | publisher=Facet Books International | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-932377-14-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTluAAAAMAAJ | page=117|quote=Among the many giants of the freedom movement , next to Gandhi , Nehru was the tallest}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Cannon | first1=P.G. | last2=Cannon | first2=G. | last3=Brine | first3=K. | title=Objects of Enquiry: The Life, Contributions, and Influences of Sir William Jones, 1746-1794 | publisher=[[New York University Press]] | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-8147-1517-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QvMJ7draBvkC| quote="In the generation that won independence for India and the one following it [...] Jawaharlal Nehru, the second most important Indian nationalist next to Gandhi|page=158}}</ref> | ||
As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|first=Karuna|last=Madan|date=13 November 2014|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/the-relevance-of-jawaharlal-nehru-1.1411887|title=The relevance of Jawaharlal Nehru|website=[[Gulf News|gulfnews.com]]|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education,<ref>{{Cite news|date=September 1997|first=R. M. |last=Pal|url= http://www.pucl.org/from-archives/Academia/primary-education-pm.htm |title= Universal primary education first on the Prime Minster<!--sic-->'s agenda |access-date=13 August 2021 |url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924083134/http://www.pucl.org/from-archives/Academia/primary-education-pm.htm |archive-date= 24 September 2015 |work= [[People's Union for Civil Liberties|pucl.org]]}}</ref> reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions like the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aiims.ac.in/aiims/aboutaiims/aboutaiimsintro.htm |title=Introduction |website=[[AIIMS]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625122618/http://aiims.ac.in/aiims/aboutaiims/aboutaiimsintro.htm |archive-date=25 June 2014}}</ref> Indian Institutes of Technology,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/institute/history.php |title=Institute History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813213137/http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/institute/history.php |archive-date=13 August 2007 |work=[[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]]|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> and the Indian Institutes of Management.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/28/archives/nehru-a-queer-mixture-of-east-and-west-led-the-struggle-for-a.html|title=Nehru, a 'Queer Mixture of East and West,' Led the Struggle for a, Modern India; Devoted His Life to Nation's Cause; Blended Skill in Politics With the Spiritualism of His Mentor, Gandhi|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=28 May 1964}}</ref> | |||
In addition, Nehru's stance as an unfailing nationalist led him to implement policies that stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced, since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary. While differences in culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and organised the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, "Integrate or perish."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harrison, Selig S. |date=July 1956 |title=The Challenge to Indian Nationalism |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=620–636 |doi=10.2307/20031191 |jstor=20031191}}</ref> | In addition, Nehru's stance as an unfailing nationalist led him to implement policies that stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced, since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary. While differences in culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and organised the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, "Integrate or perish."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harrison, Selig S. |date=July 1956 |title=The Challenge to Indian Nationalism |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=620–636 |doi=10.2307/20031191 |jstor=20031191}}</ref> | ||
Called an "architect of Modern India",{{efn|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Architect of modern India|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article25402011.ece|access-date=2021-12-04|website=Frontline|date=8 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title='Architect of modern India': Congress pays tributes to Jawaharlal Nehru on death anniversary|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/may/27/architect-of-modern-india-congress-pays-tributes-to-jawaharlal-nehru-on-death-anniversary-2308208.html|access-date=2021-12-04|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-14|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Architect of modern India|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/inspiring-lives/jawaharlal-nehru-architect-of-modern-india/story-Ch4DgrerxtY448l0yxulTO.html|access-date=2021-12-04|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ian Hall|first=The Conversation|title=Nehru, the architect of modern India, also helped discredit European imperialism|url=https://scroll.in/article/1002353/nehru-the-architect-of-modern-india-also-helped-discredit-european-imperialism|access-date=2021-12-04|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Dixit |first1=J. N. |title=From the archives: How Jawaharlal Nehru shaped India in the 20th century |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/from-the-archives-how-jawaharlal-nehru-shaped-india-in-the-20th-century-1876654-2021-11-14 |date=14 November 2021 |website=India Today |language=en |access-date=2021-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Editorial: Master's voice|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/kangana-ranauts-statement-is-a-testament-to-the-quid-pro-quo-arrangement-between-the-current-regime-and-its-pets/cid/1838908|access-date=2021-12-04|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-26|title=Opinion: Nehruvian legacy is his idea of India|url=https://www.siasat.com/nehruvian-legacy-is-his-idea-of-india-2141877/|access-date=2021-12-04|website=The Siasat Daily|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Tribune News|title=A thousand lies can't dwarf the giant Nehru was|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/a-thousand-lies-cant-dwarf-the-giant-nehru-was-258860|access-date=2021-12-04|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-11-16|title=Nehru, the real architect of modern India|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141116/commentary-op-ed/article/nehru-real-architect-modern-india|access-date=2021-12-04|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>}} he is widely recognized as the greatest figure of modern India after Mahatma Gandhi.<ref name="Subramanian"/><ref name="Malhotra">{{cite book | author=[[Inder Malhotra]]| title=Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography | publisher=Hay House | year=2014 | isbn=978-93-84544-16-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wRxnDwAAQBAJ | page=124|quote=Jawaharlal Nehru, the greatest of all Indians after Gandhi and free India's first prime minister}}</ref> On the occasion of his first death anniversary in 1965, [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] and others described Nehru as the greatest figure of India after Gandhi.<ref>{{cite book | last=Bhatia | first=V. | title=Jawaharlal Nehru, as Scholars of Socialist Countries See Him | publisher=Panchsheel Publishers | year=1989 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-RHAAAAMAAJ | page=105|quote=Jawaharlal Nehru was incomparably the greatest figure after Gandhi in our history - a man of dynamic force, intellectual power and profound vision.}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book | title=Lok Rajya | publisher=Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations. | issue=v. 19, nos. 2-17 | year=1965 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8gdyzTBTrgC | page=40|quote=Nehru was the greatest man produced by the nation after Mahatma Gandhi and the torch he lit must remain burning forever.}}</ref> | |||
[[File:TMstudy.png|thumb|alt=See caption |Nehru's study in [[Teen Murti Bhavan]], which is now converted into a museum.]] | |||
Writing in 2005, [[Ramachandra Guha]] wrote that while no other Indian prime minister was ever close to the challenges that Nehru dealt with and if Nehru had died in 1958 then he would be remembered as the greatest statesman of 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Guha | first=Ramachandra | title=Verdicts on Nehru: Rise and Fall of a Reputation | journal=Economic and Political Weekly | volume=40 | issue=19 | year=2005 | issn=0012-9976 | eissn=2349-8846 | jstor=4416605 | pages=1958–1962 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4416605 | access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> However, in the recent years, Nehru's reputation has seen re-emergence and he is credited for keeping India together contrary to predictions of many that the country was bound to fall apart.<ref>{{cite book | author=Craig Jeffrey, [[John Harriss]]| title=Keywords for Modern India | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-19-966563-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRVCBAAAQBAJ | access-date=2023-02-21 | page=134}}</ref> | |||
=== Commemoration === | === Commemoration === | ||
[[File:1989 CPA 6121.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=See caption |Nehru on a 1989 [[Soviet Union|USSR]] commemorative stamp]] | [[File:1989 CPA 6121.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=See caption |Nehru on a 1989 [[Soviet Union|USSR]] commemorative stamp]] | ||
In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship.<ref name="auto1" /> Nehru's ideals and policies continue shaping the Congress Party's [[manifesto]] and core political philosophy.<ref name="google2010" /> His birthday, 14 November is celebrated in India as ''Bal Divas'' ("[[Children's Day in India|Children's Day]]") in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as ''Chacha Nehru'' ("Uncle Nehru").<ref name="google2010">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtuRMJCIe0cC&pg=PA175 |title=Gandhi Nehru and Globalization |last=Thakur |first=Harish |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-8069-684-8|publisher=Concept Publishing}}</ref> Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory. people often emulate his style of clothing, especially the [[Gandhi cap]] and the [[Nehru jacket]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/290519/remembering-jawaharlal-nehru.html|title=Remembering Jawaharlal Nehru|date=29 May 2019|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/modish-designs/294045|title=Modish Designs|website=outlookindia|date=4 February 2022}}</ref> Nehru's preference for the [[sherwani]] ensured it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Tripti|last=Lahiri|url= http://www.jnmf.in/history.html |title= | In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship.<ref name="auto1" /> Nehru's ideals and policies continue shaping the Congress Party's [[manifesto]] and core political philosophy.<ref name="google2010" /> His birthday, 14 November is celebrated in India as ''Bal Divas'' ("[[Children's Day in India|Children's Day]]") in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as ''Chacha Nehru'' ("Uncle Nehru").<ref name="google2010">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtuRMJCIe0cC&pg=PA175 |title=Gandhi Nehru and Globalization |last=Thakur |first=Harish |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-8069-684-8|publisher=Concept Publishing}}</ref> Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory. people often emulate his style of clothing, especially the [[Gandhi cap]] and the [[Nehru jacket]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/290519/remembering-jawaharlal-nehru.html|title=Remembering Jawaharlal Nehru|date=29 May 2019|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/modish-designs/294045|title=Modish Designs|website=outlookindia|date=4 February 2022}}</ref> Nehru's preference for the [[sherwani]] ensured it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Tripti|last=Lahiri|url= http://www.jnmf.in/history.html |title= A Profile of the Nehru Jacket|date=20 January 2012 |access-date=13 August 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150303195903/http://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/01/20/a-profile-of-the-nehru-jacket/ |archive-date= 3 March 2015 |work= [[The Wall Street Journal|blogs.wsj.com]]}}</ref> | ||
[[File:5 Rupees coin of India commemorating the birth centenary of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India.jpg|thumb|[[Indian 5-rupee coin|Indian 5 rupees coin]], [[Commemorative coin|commemorating]] the birth centenary of Nehru in 1989.]] Many public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The [[Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru University]] in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port]] near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and [[dock (maritime)|dock]] designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the [[Teen Murti House]] now has [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library]], and one of five [[Nehru Planetarium]]s that were set in Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Allahabad and Pune. The complex also houses the offices of the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, established in 1964 under the chairmanship of [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], then president of India. The foundation also gives away the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fellowship, established in 1968.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.jnmf.in/history.html |title= Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund |access-date=13 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151107075119/http://www.jnmf.in/history.html |archive-date= 7 November 2015 }}</ref> The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and [[Swaraj Bhavan]] are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/the-relevance-of-jawaharlal-nehru-1.1411887|title=The relevance of Jawaharlal Nehru|website=gulfnews.com}}</ref> In 2012, Nehru was ranked number four in ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]''{{'}}s poll of [[The Greatest Indian]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Uttam|last=Sengupta|date=20 August 2012|url=https://magazine.outlookindia.com/story/a-measure-of-the-man/281949|title=A Measure Of The Man|website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> | [[File:5 Rupees coin of India commemorating the birth centenary of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India.jpg|thumb|[[Indian 5-rupee coin|Indian 5 rupees coin]], [[Commemorative coin|commemorating]] the birth centenary of Nehru in 1989.]] Many public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The [[Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru University]] in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port]] near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and [[dock (maritime)|dock]] designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the [[Teen Murti House]] now has [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library]], and one of five [[Nehru Planetarium]]s that were set in Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Allahabad and Pune. The complex also houses the offices of the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, established in 1964 under the chairmanship of [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], then president of India. The foundation also gives away the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fellowship, established in 1968.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.jnmf.in/history.html |title= Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund |access-date=13 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151107075119/http://www.jnmf.in/history.html |archive-date= 7 November 2015 }}</ref> The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and [[Swaraj Bhavan]] are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/the-relevance-of-jawaharlal-nehru-1.1411887|title=The relevance of Jawaharlal Nehru|website=gulfnews.com}}</ref> In 2012, Nehru was ranked number four in ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]''{{'}}s poll of [[The Greatest Indian]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Uttam|last=Sengupta|date=20 August 2012|url=https://magazine.outlookindia.com/story/a-measure-of-the-man/281949|title=A Measure Of The Man|website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> | ||
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=== In popular culture === | === In popular culture === | ||
{{See also|:Category:Cultural depictions of Jawaharlal Nehru}} | {{See also|:Category:Cultural depictions of Jawaharlal Nehru}} | ||
There have been many documentaries about Nehru's life, and he has been portrayed in fictionalised films. The canonical performance is probably that of [[Roshan Seth]], who played him three times: in [[Richard Attenborough]]'s 1982 film ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'',<ref name="Donnell2002">{{cite book|author=Suman Bhuchar|editor-link=Alison Donnell|editor=Alison Donnell|title=Companion to Contemporary Black British Culture|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfdpdZ9DwH0C&pg=PA276|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-70025-7|page=276|chapter=Seth, Roshan}}</ref> [[Shyam Benegal]]'s 1988 television series ''[[Bharat Ek Khoj]]'', based on Nehru's ''The Discovery of India'',<ref>{{cite news |title=What makes Shyam special... |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627193719/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 June 2003 |date= 17 January 2003 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=6 June | There have been many documentaries about Nehru's life, and he has been portrayed in fictionalised films. The canonical performance is probably that of [[Roshan Seth]], who played him three times: in [[Richard Attenborough]]'s 1982 film ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'',<ref name="Donnell2002">{{cite book|author=Suman Bhuchar|editor-link=Alison Donnell|editor=Alison Donnell|title=Companion to Contemporary Black British Culture|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfdpdZ9DwH0C&pg=PA276|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-70025-7|page=276|chapter=Seth, Roshan}}</ref> [[Shyam Benegal]]'s 1988 television series ''[[Bharat Ek Khoj]]'', based on Nehru's ''The Discovery of India'',<ref>{{cite news |title=What makes Shyam special... |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627193719/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/01/17/stories/2003011700990100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 June 2003 |date= 17 January 2003 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> and in a 2007 TV film entitled ''The Last Days of the Raj''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/universal-studio-scraps-nehru-edwina-film/668111|title = Universal Studio Scraps Nehru-Edwina Film}}</ref> Benegal directed the 1984 documentary film ''[[Nehru (1984 film)|Nehru]]'', covering his political career.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sharma |first1=Garima |title=Shyam Benegal on his film Nehru |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/shyam-benegal-on-his-film-nehru/articleshow/5651571.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en |date=7 March 2010|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> Indian film director [[Kiran Kumar]] made a film about Nehru titled ''Nehru: The Jewel of India'' in 1990 starring [[Partap Sharma]] in the titular role.<ref>{{cite book|title=Documentary Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIeWcOf-_k8C|year=2010|page=7|publisher=[[Films Division of India|Films Division]], [[Government of India]]}}</ref> In [[Ketan Mehta]]'s film ''[[Sardar (1993 film)|Sardar]]'', [[Benjamin Gilani]] portrayed Nehru.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.culturalindia.net/leaders/jawaharlal-nehru.html |title=Jawaharlal Nehru Biography – Childhood, Facts & Achievements of India's First Prime Minister |access-date=25 August 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813223309/http://www.culturalindia.net/leaders/jawaharlal-nehru.html |archive-date=13 August 2017 |work=culturalindia.net |language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Naunihal]]'' ({{lit|Young man}}), a 1967 Indian Hindi-language drama film by Raj Marbros, follows Raju, an orphan, who believes that Jawaharlal Nehru is his relative and sets out to meet him.<ref>{{cite web |title=Naunihal |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqwfCtoflUk | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609103731/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqwfCtoflUk| archive-date=9 June 2021 | url-status=dead|work=[[Shemaroo]]|publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=22 February 2016}}</ref> | ||
Similarly, in the 1957 film ''[[Ab Dilli Dur Nahin]]'' ({{lit|Now Delhi is not far away}}) by Amar Kumar, Rattan, a young boy, travels to Delhi and seeks to avert the death sentence of his wrongly convicted father by asking Prime Minister Nehru for help.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ab Dilli Dur Nahin (1957) |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/ab-dilli-dur-nahin |website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|access-date=13 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Another 1957 [[English language]] short documentary ''[[Our Prime Minister]]'' was produced, compiled and directed by [[Ezra Mir]], who also directed ''[[Three weeks in the life of Prime Minister Nehru]]'' in 1962.<ref name="RajadhyakshaWillemen2014">{{cite book|author1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha|author2=Paul Willemen|title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA9-PA1979|accessdate=17 August 2015|date=10 July 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-94325-7|pages=9–|chapter=Mir, Ezra}}</ref><ref name="Barsam1992">{{cite book|author=Richard Meran Barsam|title=Nonfiction Film: A Critical History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7p36FdLYdIC&pg=PA271|accessdate=26 February 2013|year=1992|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-20706-7|pages=271}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=India, 1951–1960 |url=http://www.moviemoviesite.com/Countries/Countries%20I/India/india_1951_1960.htm |date=2009–2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113084937/http://www.moviemoviesite.com/Countries/Countries%20I/India/india_1951_1960.htm |archive-date=13 January 2018 |website=Movie Movie |access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref> [[Girish Karnad]]'s historical play, ''[[Tughlaq (play)|Tughlaq]]'' (1962) is an allegory about the Nehruvian era. It was staged by [[Ebrahim Alkazi]] with the [[National School of Drama]] Repertory at [[Purana Qila]], Delhi in the 1970s and later at the Festival of India, London in 1982.<ref name="hin">{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20011230180843/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1603/16031170.htm AWARDS: The multi-faceted playwright]}} ''[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]'', Vol. 16, No. 3, 30 January – 12 February 1999.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Authors speak |last=Sachindananda |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-260-1945-8 |page=58 |chapter=Girish Karnad |chapter-url={{Google books|PGWa7v08JikC|page=PT82|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> | Similarly, in the 1957 film ''[[Ab Dilli Dur Nahin]]'' ({{lit|Now Delhi is not far away}}) by Amar Kumar, Rattan, a young boy, travels to Delhi and seeks to avert the death sentence of his wrongly convicted father by asking Prime Minister Nehru for help.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ab Dilli Dur Nahin (1957) |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/ab-dilli-dur-nahin |website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|access-date=13 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Another 1957 [[English language]] short documentary ''[[Our Prime Minister]]'' was produced, compiled and directed by [[Ezra Mir]], who also directed ''[[Three weeks in the life of Prime Minister Nehru]]'' in 1962.<ref name="RajadhyakshaWillemen2014">{{cite book|author1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha|author2=Paul Willemen|title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA9-PA1979|accessdate=17 August 2015|date=10 July 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-94325-7|pages=9–|chapter=Mir, Ezra}}</ref><ref name="Barsam1992">{{cite book|author=Richard Meran Barsam|title=Nonfiction Film: A Critical History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7p36FdLYdIC&pg=PA271|accessdate=26 February 2013|year=1992|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-20706-7|pages=271}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=India, 1951–1960 |url=http://www.moviemoviesite.com/Countries/Countries%20I/India/india_1951_1960.htm |date=2009–2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113084937/http://www.moviemoviesite.com/Countries/Countries%20I/India/india_1951_1960.htm |archive-date=13 January 2018 |website=Movie Movie |access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref> [[Girish Karnad]]'s historical play, ''[[Tughlaq (play)|Tughlaq]]'' (1962) is an allegory about the Nehruvian era. It was staged by [[Ebrahim Alkazi]] with the [[National School of Drama]] Repertory at [[Purana Qila]], Delhi in the 1970s and later at the Festival of India, London in 1982.<ref name="hin">{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20011230180843/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1603/16031170.htm AWARDS: The multi-faceted playwright]}} ''[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]'', Vol. 16, No. 3, 30 January – 12 February 1999.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Authors speak |last=Sachindananda |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-260-1945-8 |page=58 |chapter=Girish Karnad |chapter-url={{Google books|PGWa7v08JikC|page=PT82|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> | ||
== Writings == | == Writings == | ||
Nehru was a prolific writer in English who wrote ''[[The Discovery of India]]'', ''[[Glimpses of World History]]'', ''[[An Autobiography (Nehru)|An Autobiography]]'' (released in the United States as "Toward Freedom,") and ''[[Letters from a Father to His Daughter]]'', all written in jail.<ref>{{Cite | Nehru was a prolific writer in English who wrote ''[[The Discovery of India]]'', ''[[Glimpses of World History]]'', ''[[An Autobiography (Nehru)|An Autobiography]]'' (released in the United States as "Toward Freedom,") and ''[[Letters from a Father to His Daughter]]'', all written in jail.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/most-searched-products/books/childrens-day-special-popular-books-by-and-on-jawaharlal-nehru/articleshow/72039865.cms|title=Children's Day: Popular Books On and By Jawaharlal Nehru |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=13 November 2020 }}</ref> ''Letters'' comprised 30 letters written to his daughter Indira Priyadarshani Nehru (later Gandhi) who was then 10 years old and studying at a boarding school in [[Mussoorie]]. It attempted to instruct her about natural history and world civilisations.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/yw/2006/08/04/stories/2006080402320600.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112142131/http://www.hindu.com/yw/2006/08/04/stories/2006080402320600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 November 2009 |title=Young World : From dad with love |last=Balakrishnan |first=Anima |date=4 August 2006 |access-date=31 October 2008 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> | ||
Nehru's books have been widely read. ''An Autobiography'', in particular, has been critically acclaimed. [[John Gunther]], writing in ''Inside Asia'', contrasted it with Gandhi's autobiography:<blockquote> The Mahatma's placid story compares to Nehru's as a cornflower to an orchid, a rhyming couplet to a sonnet by MacLeish or Auden, a water pistol to a machine gun. Nehru's autobiography is subtle, complex, discriminating, infinitely cultivated, steeped in doubt, suffused with intellectual passion. Lord Halifax once said that no one could understand India without reading it; it is a kind of 'Education of Henry Adams,' written in superlative prose—hardly a dozen men alive write English as well as Nehru ...<ref name=gunther-inside-asia-nehru>{{citation|last=Gunther|first=John|author-link=John Gunther|title=Inside Asia|page=429|year=1942|publisher=Harper and Brothers | location=New York and London|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275215/page/n451/mode/2up}}</ref></blockquote> | Nehru's books have been widely read. ''An Autobiography'', in particular, has been critically acclaimed. [[John Gunther]], writing in ''Inside Asia'', contrasted it with Gandhi's autobiography:<blockquote> The Mahatma's placid story compares to Nehru's as a cornflower to an orchid, a rhyming couplet to a sonnet by MacLeish or Auden, a water pistol to a machine gun. Nehru's autobiography is subtle, complex, discriminating, infinitely cultivated, steeped in doubt, suffused with intellectual passion. Lord Halifax once said that no one could understand India without reading it; it is a kind of 'Education of Henry Adams,' written in superlative prose—hardly a dozen men alive write English as well as Nehru ...<ref name=gunther-inside-asia-nehru>{{citation|last=Gunther|first=John|author-link=John Gunther|title=Inside Asia|page=429|year=1942|publisher=Harper and Brothers | location=New York and London|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275215/page/n451/mode/2up}}</ref></blockquote> | ||
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Michael Crocker thought ''An Autobiography'' would have given Nehru literary fame had the political fame eluded him:<blockquote>It is to his years in prison that we owe his three main books, ... Nehru's writings illustrate a cerebral life, and a power of self-discipline, altogether out of the ordinary. Words by the million bubbled up out of his fullness of mind and spirit. Had he never been prime minister of India he would have been famous as the author of the ''Autobiography'' and the autobiographical parts of ''The Discovery of India''. ''An Autobiography'', at least with some excisions here and there, is likely to be read for generations. ... There are, for instance, the characteristic touches of truism and anticlimax, strange in a man who could both think and, at his best, write so well ...<ref name=crocker-nehru>{{citation|last=Crocker|first=Walter|title=Nehru: A Contemporary's Estimate|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQ8p4XTRZgEC&pg=PT96|publisher=Penguin Random House India|isbn=9788184002133}}</ref></blockquote> | Michael Crocker thought ''An Autobiography'' would have given Nehru literary fame had the political fame eluded him:<blockquote>It is to his years in prison that we owe his three main books, ... Nehru's writings illustrate a cerebral life, and a power of self-discipline, altogether out of the ordinary. Words by the million bubbled up out of his fullness of mind and spirit. Had he never been prime minister of India he would have been famous as the author of the ''Autobiography'' and the autobiographical parts of ''The Discovery of India''. ''An Autobiography'', at least with some excisions here and there, is likely to be read for generations. ... There are, for instance, the characteristic touches of truism and anticlimax, strange in a man who could both think and, at his best, write so well ...<ref name=crocker-nehru>{{citation|last=Crocker|first=Walter|title=Nehru: A Contemporary's Estimate|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQ8p4XTRZgEC&pg=PT96|publisher=Penguin Random House India|isbn=9788184002133}}</ref></blockquote> | ||
Nehru's speech ''[[Tryst With Destiny|A Tryst With Destiny]]'' was rated by the British newspaper ''[[The Guardian]]'' to be among the great speeches of the 20th-century. Ian Jack wrote in his introduction to the speech: <blockquote>Dressed in a golden silk jacket with a red rose in the buttonhole, Nehru rose to speak. His sentences were finely made and memorable – Nehru was a good writer; his Discovery of India stands well above the level reached by most politician-writers. ... The nobility of Nehru's words – their sheer sweep – provided the new India with a lodestone that was ambitious and humane. Post-colonialism began here as well as Indian democracy, which has since outlived many expectations of its death.<ref name=jack-guardian-tryst>{{citation|last=Jack|first=Ian|title=Noble words|series=Great speeches of the 20th-century: Nehru|publisher=Guardian|date=1 May 2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/01/jawaharlal-nehru-tryst-with-dignity-speech-introduction}}</ref></blockquote> | Nehru's speech ''[[Tryst With Destiny|A Tryst With Destiny]]'' was rated by the British newspaper ''[[The Guardian]]'' to be among the great speeches of the 20th-century. [[Ian Jack]] wrote in his introduction to the speech: <blockquote>Dressed in a golden silk jacket with a red rose in the buttonhole, Nehru rose to speak. His sentences were finely made and memorable – Nehru was a good writer; his Discovery of India stands well above the level reached by most politician-writers. ... The nobility of Nehru's words – their sheer sweep – provided the new India with a lodestone that was ambitious and humane. Post-colonialism began here as well as Indian democracy, which has since outlived many expectations of its death.<ref name=jack-guardian-tryst>{{citation|last=Jack|first=Ian|title=Noble words|series=Great speeches of the 20th-century: Nehru|publisher=Guardian|date=1 May 2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/01/jawaharlal-nehru-tryst-with-dignity-speech-introduction}}</ref></blockquote> | ||
== Awards and honours == | == Awards and honours == | ||
In 1948, Nehru was conferred an honorary doctorate by the [[University of Mysore]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Khan|first=Laiqh A.|date=18 October 2020|title=Nehru's address at UoM convocation in 1948 remains untraceable|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/nehrus-address-at-uom-convocation-in-1948-remains-untraceable/article32887599.ece|access-date=21 July 2021|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He later received honorary doctorates from the [[University of Madras]], [[Columbia University]], and [[Keio University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalcenters.columbia.edu/content/columbia-india|title=Who We Are|website=[[Columbia Global Centers|globalcenters.columbia.edu]]|access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Conferment of Honorary Degree of Doctor: Keio University|url=https://www.keio.ac.jp/en/about/learn-more/honorary-degrees/|access-date=21 July 2021|website=[[Keio University|keio.ac.jp]]|language=en}}</ref> | In 1948, Nehru was conferred an honorary doctorate by the [[University of Mysore]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Khan|first=Laiqh A.|date=18 October 2020|title=Nehru's address at UoM convocation in 1948 remains untraceable|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/nehrus-address-at-uom-convocation-in-1948-remains-untraceable/article32887599.ece|access-date=21 July 2021|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He later received honorary doctorates from the [[University of Madras]], [[Columbia University]], and [[Keio University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalcenters.columbia.edu/content/columbia-india|title=Who We Are|website=[[Columbia Global Centers|globalcenters.columbia.edu]]|access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Conferment of Honorary Degree of Doctor: Keio University|url=https://www.keio.ac.jp/en/about/learn-more/honorary-degrees/|access-date=21 July 2021|website=[[Keio University|keio.ac.jp]]|language=en}}</ref> | ||
In 1955, Nehru was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf |title=Padma Awards Directory (1954–2007) |publisher=Ministry of Home affairs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410024701/http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2009 |access-date=26 November | In 1955, Nehru was awarded the [[Bharat Ratna]], India's highest civilian honour.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf |title=Padma Awards Directory (1954–2007) |publisher=Ministry of Home affairs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410024701/http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2009 |access-date=26 November 2010}}</ref> President [[Rajendra Prasad]] awarded him the honour without taking advice from the Prime Minister as would be the normal constitutional procedure as Nehru himself was Prime Minister then.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.529211/2015.529211.speeches-of#page/n373/mode/2up|title=Speeches of President Rajendra Prasad 1952–1956|last=Prasad|first=Rajendra|publisher=The Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, GOI|year=1958|isbn=|location=|pages=340–341}}: "In doing so, for once, I may be said to be acting unconstitutionally, as I am taking this step on my own initiative and without any recommendation or advice from my Prime Minister ; but I know that my action will be endorsed most enthusiastically not only by my Cabinet and other Ministers but by the country as a whole."</ref> | ||
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== Bibliography == | == Bibliography == | ||
* Gopal, S. | * Gopal, S. and Uma Iyengar, eds ''The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru'' (Oxford University Press, 2003) {{ISBN|978-0-19-565324-3}} | ||
* ''Autobiography: Toward freedom'', [[Oxford University Press]] | * ''Autobiography: Toward freedom'', [[Oxford University Press]] | ||
* ''Letters for a Nation: From Jawaharlal Nehru to His Chief Ministers 1947–1963'' (Penguin UK, 2015). | * ''Letters for a Nation: From Jawaharlal Nehru to His Chief Ministers 1947–1963'' (Penguin UK, 2015). | ||
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* Guha, Ramachandra. "Jawaharlal Nehru." in ''Makers of Modern Asia'' (Harvard University Press, 2014) pp. 117–146. | * Guha, Ramachandra. "Jawaharlal Nehru." in ''Makers of Modern Asia'' (Harvard University Press, 2014) pp. 117–146. | ||
* Heimsath, C.H. and Surjit Mansingh. ''A diplomatic history of modern India'' (1971) [https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000heim online] | * Heimsath, C.H. and Surjit Mansingh. ''A diplomatic history of modern India'' (1971) [https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000heim online] | ||
* {{Cite book |title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order |last=Kopstein, Jeffrey |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-139-44604-4 |ref= | * {{Cite book |title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order |last=Kopstein, Jeffrey |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-139-44604-4 |ref=CITEREFKopstein2005}} | ||
* Louro, Michele L. ''Comrades against imperialism: Nehru, India, and interwar internationalism'' (Cambridge UP, 2018). | * Louro, Michele L. ''Comrades against imperialism: Nehru, India, and interwar internationalism'' (Cambridge UP, 2018). | ||
* Malone, David et al. eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy.'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Indian-Foreign-Handbooks/dp/019874353X excerpt]; a comprehensive overview by over 50 leading experts. | * Malone, David et al. eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy.'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Indian-Foreign-Handbooks/dp/019874353X excerpt]; a comprehensive overview by over 50 leading experts. | ||
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* [https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/collections1/collections2/nehrus-birthday-dinner-programme/ 70th Anniversary of Indian Independence – Nehru's Birthday Dinner Programme – UK Parliament Living Heritage] | * [https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/collections1/collections2/nehrus-birthday-dinner-programme/ 70th Anniversary of Indian Independence – Nehru's Birthday Dinner Programme – UK Parliament Living Heritage] | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151103174317/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/nehru.html Profile of Nehru] in ''[[India Today]]'' | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151103174317/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/nehru.html Profile of Nehru] in ''[[India Today]]'' | ||
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=sI_I-jk8YWsC& | * [https://books.google.com/books?id=sI_I-jk8YWsC&q=nehru+communalism Nehru on Communalism] | ||
* [http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/search/jawaharlal%20nehru Jawaharlal Nehru materials] in the [[South Asian American Digital Archive]] (SAADA) | * [http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/search/jawaharlal%20nehru Jawaharlal Nehru materials] in the [[South Asian American Digital Archive]] (SAADA) | ||
* {{OL author}} | * {{OL author}} | ||