Yama: Difference between revisions

[[File:Guardians of the eight directions 04.JPG|thumb|Yama, the [[Hindu]] god of death and Lord of [[Naraka (Hinduism)|Naraka]] (hell). He was subsequently adopted by [[Buddhist mythology|Buddhist]], [[Chinese mythology|Chinese]], [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]], [[Korean mythology|Korean]], and [[Japanese mythology]] as the king of hell.]]

'''Yama''' ([[Devanagari]]: यम) or '''Yamarāja''' (यमराज), is a deity of death, [[dharma]], the south direction, and the [[underworld]] who predominantly features in [[deva (Hinduism)|Hindu]] and [[deva (Buddhism)|Buddhist]] religion,<ref>Ancient History Encyclopedia. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Yama/ Yama].</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=January 2022}} belonging to an early stratum of [[Rigvedic deities|Rigvedic Hindu deities]]. In Sanskrit, his name can be interpreted to mean "twin".<ref>{{cite book|last=Puhvel|first=Jaan|title=Comparative Mythology|year=1989|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore and London|isbn=978-0801839382|pages=285–286}}</ref>

He is also an important deity worshipped by the [[Kalash people|Kalasha]] and formerly by the [[Nuristan]]i peoples, indicating his prominence in [[ancient Hinduism]].<ref name="Bezhan2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/28439107.html|title=Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans Get Their Due|last=Bezhan|first=Frud|date=19 April 2017|publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|access-date=11 July 2017|quote=About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.}}</ref><ref name="BarringtonKendrick2006">{{cite book|last1=Barrington|first1=Nicholas|last2=Kendrick|first2=Joseph T.|last3=Schlagintweit|first3=Reinhard|title=A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the Mysterious Afghan Hinterland|year=2006|publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]]|language=en |isbn=978-1845111755|page=111|quote=Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.}}</ref><ref name="WeissMaurer2012">{{cite book|last1=Weiss|first1=Mitch|last2=Maurer|first2=Kevin|title=No Way Out: A Story of Valor in the Mountains of Afghanistan|date= 2012|publisher=Berkley Caliber|language=en |isbn=978-0425253403|page=299|quote=Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword}}</ref><ref>[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KalashaReligion.pdf Michael Witzel] Harvard University</ref><ref name="Jamil2019">{{cite web |last1=Jamil |first1=Kashif |title=Uchal — a festival of shepherds and farmers of the Kalash tribe |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/450469/uchal-a-festival-of-shepherds-and-farmers-of-the-kalash-tribe/ |publisher=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]] |access-date=23 January 2020 |page=English |date=19 August 2019 |quote=Some of their deities who are worshiped in Kalash tribe are similar to the Hindu god and goddess like Mahadev in Hinduism is called Mahandeo in Kalash tribe. ... All the tribal also visit the Mahandeo for worship and pray. After that they reach to the gree (dancing place).}}</ref><ref name="West2010">{{cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA357|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|year=2010|publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]]|language=en|isbn=978-1438119137|page=357|quote=The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghani and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to [[Islam]]. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the ancient Greeks... given their Indo-Aryan language, ... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article-amp/opinion/save-the-kalash-114021700863_1.html|title = Save the Kalash!|newspaper = Business Standard India|date = 17 February 2014|last1 = Ghai|first1 = Rajat}}</ref>

[[File:Bhuvanesvar002.jpg|thumb|225x225px|Yamaraj depicted with a buffalo and surrounded by attendants.]]

'''Yama''' ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: यम), is the Hindu god of Death and [[Justice]], and is responsible for the dispensation of [[Ṛta|law]] and punishment of sinners in his abode, [[Naraka (Hinduism)|Yamaloka]]. Yama is also one of the oldest deities in the pantheon and some of his earliest appearances are found in the [[Rigveda]]. From there, he has remained a significant deity, appearing in some of the most important texts of Hinduism which include the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Puranas]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yama: The History of an Ancient God|url=http://citragupta.com/yama-the-history-of-an-ancient-god.html|access-date=2021-03-17|website=Citragupta|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Yama|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Yama/|access-date=2021-03-17|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref>

Yama is also one of the [[Lokapala]]s (guardians of the directions), appointed as the protector of the southern direction. Yama is described as having four arms, protruding fangs, and complexion of storm clouds with a wrathful expression; surrounded by a garland of flames; dressed in red, yellow, or blue garments; riding a water-buffalo and holding a sword, noose and a mace to capture the souls of those who have sinned.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warrier |first1=Shrikala |title=Kamandalu: The Seven Sacred Rivers of Hinduism |date=December 20, 2014 |publisher=Mayur University London; First edition |isbn=978-0953567973 |pages=291}}</ref> Legends describe him as the twin of [[Yamuna in Hinduism|Yamuna]], a river goddess associated with life, and the son of the Sun god [[Surya]] and [[Saranyu]]. Other than Yamuna, he also has many siblings, such as the [[Ashvins]], [[Shani]], [[Shraddhadeva Manu]], [[Revanta]] and [[Tapati]]. Some of his major appearances include in the tales of the [[Pandavas]], [[Savitri and Satyavan|Savitri Satyavan]] and the sage [[Markandeya]]. His assistant is [[Chitragupta]], another deity associated with death.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-05|title=Lord Chitragupta - Who helps Lord Yamaraj to maintain karmic accounts|url=https://detechter.com/lord-chitragupta-who-helps-lord-yamaraj-to-maintain-karmic-accounts/|access-date=2021-03-17|website=Detechter|language=en-US}}</ref>

Yama can be found in one of the oldest Japanese religious works called [[Nihon Ryōiki|Nipponkoku Genpō Zen'aku Ryōiki]], a literary work compiled by the Monk [[Keisai Eisen|Keikai]] in 822. Yama was introduced to Japan through Buddhism, where he was featured as a Buddhist divinity. He holds the same position title as other works depict him – a judge who imposes decisions on the dead who have mistreated others.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hindu Gods and Goddesses in Japan|last=Chaudhuri|first=Saroj Kumar|publisher=Vedams|year=2003|isbn=8179360091}}</ref>

In Sikhism, Yamaraja is referred to as Dharam Rai, Dharam Raj and Dharam Raja (in which, dharma is spelt as dharam instead). In Sikhism, Dharam Rai is considered to be a servant of god instead of a god, who works for god. It is believed that the [[Waheguru|supreme god, Waheguru]] had seated Dharam Rai with the task of reading out the being's deeds after the being dies and then assigns them into [[Svarga|heaven]] or [[Naraka|hell]] accordingly. After the perhaps being has spent time in [[Svarga|heaven]] or [[Naraka|hell]] accordingly, then they are assigned to re-enter the 8.4 million life-form cycle again in which they will reincarnate through various lifeforms until they re-attain the human life again. Some Sikhs interpret Dharam Raj literally, however, there are many interpretations where Dharam Raj is representative of the role of the divine judge of actions. The imagery of Yama would have been used in order to explain such a concept to followers of the Sikh Gurus who came from Hindu backgrounds: there is also imagery of the Islamic angel of death that was also used to help followers from Islamic backgrounds. Sikhism does not focus all that much on any type mythology, and rather believes that all mythologies are creations of Waheguru: thus there is not a large focus on them and their details, as Waheguru is the only being to be worshipped. Thus, within the doctrine of Sikhism, Yama represents a divine judge who reads records of people's actions: references to him are more conceptual, rather than the more literal depiction of him in Hindu scripture

There is a door-god Yamadipati in Javanese culture,<ref name="Johns2011">{{cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H. |title=The Role of Structural Organisation and Myth in Javanese Historiography |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=24 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=91–99 |issn=0021-9118 |doi=10.2307/2050416 |jstor=2050416|s2cid=163139226 }}</ref> preserved especially in [[wayang]]. The word ''adipati'' means ''ruler'' or ''commander''. When Hinduism first came to [[Java]], Yama was still the same as Yama in Hindu myth. Later, as [[Islam]] replaced Hinduism as the majority religion of Java, Yama was demystified by [[Walisanga]], who ruled at that time. So, in Javanese, Yama became a new character. He is the son of Sanghyang Ismaya and Dewi Sanggani. In the [[Wayang]] legend, Yamadipati married Dewi Mumpuni. Unfortunately, Dewi Mumpuni fell in love with Nagatatmala, son of Hyang Anantaboga, who rules the earth. Dewi Mumpuni eventually left Yamadipati, however.

In the Buddhism of the Far East, Yama is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, who are found in or around Buddhist shrines ([[:ja:十二天|Jūni-ten]], 十二天).<ref>[http://www.emuseum.jp/detail/100031/000/000?mode=detail&d_lang=en Twelve Heavenly Deities (Devas)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201634/http://www.emuseum.jp/detail/100031/000/000?mode=detail&d_lang=en |date=4 March 2016 }} Nara National Museum, Japan</ref> In Japan, he has been called "Enma-Ten".<ref name="biswas184" /> He joins these other eleven Devas of Buddhism, found in Japan and other parts of southeast Asia: Indra (Taishaku-ten), Agni (Ka-ten), Yama (Emma-ten), Nirrti (Rasetsu-ten), Vayu (Fu-ten), Ishana (Ishana-ten), Kubera (Tamon-ten), Varuna (Sui-ten) Brahma (Bon-ten), Prithvi (Chi-ten), Surya (Nit-ten), Chandra (Gat-ten).<ref name="biswas184">S Biswas (2000), Art of Japan, Northern, {{ISBN|978-8172112691}}, p. 184</ref><ref>Willem Frederik Stutterheim et al (1995), Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia, {{ISBN|978-8170172512}}, pp.  xiv–xvi</ref><ref>[[Adrian Snodgrass]] (2007), The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807815}}, pp.  120–124, 298–300</ref>