Annexation of Hyderabad: Difference between revisions

 

 

| date              = 13–18 September 1948

* Annexation of [[State of Hyderabad|Hyderabad]] to Union of India

At the time of [[Partition of India|Partition]] in 1947, the [[princely state]]s of India, who in principle had self-government within their own territories, were subject to [[subsidiary alliance]]s with the British, giving them control of their external relations. With the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]], the British abandoned all such alliances, leaving the states with the option of opting for full independence.<ref name=Mehotra>{{cite book |last1=Mehrotra |first1=S.R. |title=Towards Indias Freedom And Partition |date=1979 |publisher=Vikash Publishing House |location=Delhi |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.100154/page/n259 247] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.100154 |access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref><ref>See Section 7 (1) (b): "the suzerainty of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in force at the date of the passing of this Act between His Majesty and the rulers of Indian States, all functions exercisable by His Majesty at that date with respect to Indian States, all obligations of His Majesty existing at that date towards Indian States or the rulers thereof, and all powers, rights, authority or jurisdiction exercisable by His Majesty at that date in or in relation to Indian States by treaty, grant, usage, sufferance or otherwise."</ref> However, by 1948 almost all had [[Instrument of Accession|acceded]] to either India or Pakistan. One major exception was that of the wealthiest and most powerful principality, Hyderabad, where the Nizam, ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'' [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII]], a Muslim ruler who presided over a largely Hindu population, chose independence and hoped to maintain this with an [[Hyderabad army|irregular army]].<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2006">{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC|year=2006|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521682251}}</ref>{{rp|224}} The Nizam was also beset by the [[Telangana uprising]], which he was unable to subjugate.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2006"/>{{rp|224}}

In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] with the Dominion of India, continuing all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state. Fearing the establishment of a Communist state in Hyderabad<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-15|title=Delhi felt Razakars, communists a threat to India|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/150918/delhi-felt-razakars-communists-a-threat-to-india.html|access-date=2021-02-04|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ernst|first=Waltraud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9eKbW3ukh9oC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA212&dq=azad+hyderabad&hl=en|title=India's Princely States: People, Princes and Colonialism|last2=Pati|first2=Biswamoy|date=2007-10-18|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-11988-2|language=en}}</ref> and the rise of militant [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]], India invaded the state in September 1948 following a crippling economic blockade.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New book on Hyderabad's Invasion, 1948's Police Action|url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/13-books/15587-new-book-on-hyderabad-s-invasion-1948-s-police-action/|access-date=2021-02-04|website=The Milli Gazette — Indian Muslims Leading News Source|language=en}}</ref><ref name=ShermanLSE/> Subsequently, the Nizam signed an instrument of accession, joining India.{{sfn|Chandra|Mukherjee|Mukherjee|2008|p=96}}

The operation led to massive violence on communal lines, often perpetrated by the Indian Army.<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/> The Indian prime minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], appointed a commission known as the '''Sunderlal Committee'''. Its report, which was not released until 2013, concluded that "as a very reasonable & modest estimate...the total number of deaths in the state...somewhere between 30,000 & 40,000."<ref name=Sunderlal>{{harvnb|Noorani|2014|loc=Appendix 15: Confidential notes attached to the Sunderlal Committee Report, pp.&nbsp;372–373}}</ref> Other responsible observers estimated the number of deaths to be 200,000 or higher.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=46}}<section end=Lead />

After the [[Siege of Golconda]] by the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] in 1687, the region was renamed as ''Deccan [[Subah (country subdivision)|Subah]]'' (due to its geographical proximity in the [[Deccan Plateau]]) and in 1713 [[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I|Qamar-ud-din Khan]] (later known as ''Asaf Jah I'' or ''Nizam I'') was appointed its [[Subahdar]] and bestowed with the title of ''Nizam-ul-Mulk'' by the Mughal Emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]]. Hyderabad's nominal independence is dated to 1724, when the Nizam won a military victory over a rival military appointee.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Leonard|first1=Karen|title=The Hyderabad Political System and its Participants|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|date=May 1971|volume=XXX|issue=3|pages=569–570|url=http://www.socsci.uci.edu/~kbleonar/bio/Karen%20Hyderabad%20Political%20System%20and%20its%20Participants.pdf|doi=10.2307/2052461|jstor=2052461}}</ref> In 1798, Hyderabad became the first Indian [[princely state]] to accede to British protection under the policy of [[Subsidiary Alliance]] instituted by [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]], and was thus named as the [[State of Hyderabad]].

Hyderabad state had been steadily becoming more theocratic since the beginning of the 20th century. In 1926, Mahmud Nawazkhan, a retired Hyderabad official, founded the [[Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]] (also known as Ittehad or MIM). Its objectives were to unite the Muslims in the State in support of Nizam and to reduce the Hindu majority by large-scale conversion to Islam.<ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.73">Kate, P. V., Marathwada Under the Nizams, 1724–1948, Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1987, p.73</ref> The MIM became a powerful communal organization, with the principal focus to marginalize the political aspirations of the Hindus and moderate Muslims.<ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.73"/>

According to the writer [[A. G. Noorani]], Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]]'s concern was to defeat what he called Hyderabad's "secessionist venture", but he favoured talks and considered military option as a last resort. [[Vallabhbhai Patel|Sardar Patel]] of the [[Indian National Congress]], however, took a hard line, and had no patience with talks.{{sfn|Noorani|2014|pp=213–4}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=VENKATESHWARLU|first1=K.|title=Destructive merger|journal=Frontline|issue=19 September 2014|url=http://www.frontline.in/books/destructive-merger/article6365005.ece?homepage=true}}</ref>

Accordingly, the Indian government offered Hyderabad a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] which made an assurance that the status quo would be maintained and no military action would be taken for one year. According to this agreement India would handle Hyderabad's foreign affairs, but Indian Army troops stationed in Secunderabad would be removed.<ref name=ShermanLSE/> In Hyderabad city there was huge demonstration by Razakars led by Syed Qasim Razvi in October 1947, against the administration's decision to sign Standstill Agreement. This demonstration in front of the houses of the main negotiators, the Prime Minister, [[Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari|the Nawab of Chattari]], Sir [[Walter Monckton]], advisor to the Nizam, and Minister Nawab Ali Nawaz Jung, forced them to call off their Delhi visit to sign the agreement at that time.<ref>{{Cite news |first=K. |last=Venkateshwarlu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/how-the-nizam-lost-hyderabad-in-1948/article3765710.ece|title=How the Nizam lost Hyderabad in 1948|date=14 August 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=20 June 2018}}</ref>

According to Taylor C. Sherman, "India claimed that the government of Hyderabad was edging towards independence by divesting itself of its Indian securities, banning the Indian currency, halting the export of ground nuts, organising illegal gun-running from Pakistan, and inviting new recruits to its army and to its irregular forces, the Razakars." The Hyderabadi envoys accused India of setting up armed barricades on all land routes and of attempting to economically isolate their nation.<ref name=ShermanLSE/>

In the summer of 1948, Indian officials, especially Patel, signaled an intention to invade; Britain encouraged India to resolve the issue without the use of force, but refused Nizam's requests to help.<ref name=ShermanLSE />

The Nizam also made unsuccessful attempts to seek intervention of the United Nations.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Hyderabad Question|url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/46-51/Chapter%208/46-51_08-19-The%20Hyderabad%20question.pdf|website=United Nations|access-date=23 September 2014}}</ref>

In late 1945, there started a peasant uprising in [[Telangana]] area, led by communists. The communists drew their support from various quarters. Among the poor peasants, there were grievances against the [[jagirdari]] system, which covered 43% of land holding. Initially they also drew support from wealthier peasants who also fought under the communist banner, but by 1948, the coalition had disintegrated.<ref name=ShermanLSE/> According to the Indian intelligence Bureau Deputy Director, the social and economic programs of the communists were "positive and in some cases great...The communists redistributed land and livestock, reduced rates, ended forced labour and increased wages by one hundred percent. They inoculated the population and built public latrines; they encouraged women's organisations, discouraged sectarian sentiment and sought to abolish untouchability."<ref name=ShermanLSE/>

Initially, in 1945, the communists targeted [[zamindars]] and even the Hindu [[Deshmukh]]s, but soon they launched a full-fledged revolt against the Nizam. Starting mid-1946, the conflict between the Razakars and the [[Communist]]s became increasingly [[violent]], with both sides resorting to increasingly brutal methods.  According to an Indian government pamphlet, the communists had killed about 2,000 people by 1948.<ref name=ShermanLSE/>

According to an account by Mohammed Hyder, a civil servant in Osmanabad district, a variety of armed militant groups, including ''Razakars'' and ''Deendars'' and ethnic militias of [[Pathans]] and [[Arabs]] claimed to be defending the Islamic faith and made claims on the land. "From the beginning of 1948 the [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]] had extended their activities from Hyderabad city into the towns and rural areas, murdering Hindus, abducting women, pillaging houses and fields, and looting non-Muslim property in a widespread reign of terror."<ref>By Frank Moraes, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mumbai: Jaico.2007, p.394</ref><ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.84">Kate, P. V., Marathwada Under the Nizams, 1724–1948, Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1987, p.84</ref> "Some women became victims of rape and kidnapping by Razakars. Thousands went to jail and braved the cruelties perpetuated by the oppressive administration. Due to the activities of the Razakars, thousands of Hindus had to flee from the state and take shelter in various camps".<ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.84"/> Precise numbers are not known, but 40,000 refugees have been received by the [[Central Provinces]].<ref name=ShermanLSE />{{rp|8}} This led to terrorizing of the Hindu community, some of whom went across the border into independent India and organized raids into Nizam's territory, which further escalated the violence. Many of these raiders were controlled by the Congress leadership in India and had links with extremist religious elements in the [[Hindutva]] fold.{{sfn|Muralidharan|2014|p=132}} In all, more than 150 villages (of which 70 were in Indian territory outside Hyderabad State) were pushed into violence.

Hyder mediated some efforts to minimize the influence of the Razakars.{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}} Razvi, while generally receptive, vetoed the option of disarming them, saying that with the Hyderabad state army ineffective, the Razakars were the only means of self-defence available. By the end of August 1948, a full blown invasion by India was imminent.{{sfn|Muralidharan|2014|p=134}}

The attack from [[Vijaywada|Vijayawada]] was led by Major General [[Ajit Rudra]] and comprised the 2/5 Gurkha Rifles, one squadron of the [[The Poona Horse|17th (Poona) Horse]], and a troop from the [[19th Field Battery]] along with engineering and ancillary units. In addition, four infantry battalions were to neutralize and protect lines of communication. Two squadrons of [[Hawker Tempest]] aircraft were prepared for air support from the [[Pune]] base.

Indian forces entered the state at 4 a.m.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Note|url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1948-JULY-DEC-MIN-OF-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1948-09-13_170.pdf|website=Press Information Bureau of India – Archive|date=13 September 1948|access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref> The first battle was fought at [[Naldurg]] Fort on the Solapur Secundarabad Highway between a defending force of the [[Hyderabad Infantry, Indian State Forces|1st Hyderabad Infantry]] and the attacking force of the 7th Brigade. Using speed and surprise, the 7th Brigade managed to secure a vital bridge on the Bori river intact, following which an assault was made on the Hyderabadi positions at Naldurg by the 2nd Sikh Infantry. The bridge and road secured, an armoured column of the 1st Armoured Brigade – part of the Smash force – moved into the town of [[Jalkot]], 8&nbsp;km from Naldurg, at 0900 hours, paving the way for the Strike Force units under Lt. Col Ram Singh Commandant of [[Dogra Regiment|9 Dogra]] (a motorised battalion) to pass through. This armoured column reached the town of [[Umarge]], 61&nbsp;km inside Hyderabad by 1515 hours, where it quickly overpowered resistance from Razakar units defending the town.

In the East, forces led by Lt. Gen A.A. Rudra met with fierce resistance from two armoured car cavalry units of the Hyderabad State Forces. equipped with [[Humber armoured car]]s and [[T17E1 Staghound|Staghounds]], namely the 2nd and 4th Hyderabad Lancers,<ref name="Prasad1972">{{cite book|last=Prasad|first=Dr. S. N.|title=Operation Polo: The Police Action Against Hyderabad, 1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlQdAAAAMAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Historical Section, Ministry of Defence, Government of India; distributors: Manager of Publications, Government of India, Delhi|page=75}}</ref> but managed to reach the town of [[Kodad|Kodar]] by 0830 hours. Pressing on, the force reached [[Mungala]] by the afternoon.

The force that had camped at Umarge proceeded to the town of [[Rajeshwar]], 48&nbsp;km east. As aerial reconnaissance had shown well entrenched ambush positions set up along the way, the air strikes from squadrons of [[Hawker Tempest|Tempests]] were called in. These air strikes effectively cleared the route and allowed the land forces to reach and secure Rajeshwar by the afternoon.

There were reports of [[looting]], [[mass murder]] and [[rape]] of Muslims in reprisals by Hyderabadi Hindus.<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/><ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.84"/> Jawaharlal Nehru appointed a mixed-faith committee led by Pandit [[Sunder Lal]] to investigate the situation. The findings of the report ('''Pandit Sunderlal Committee Report''') were not made public until 2013 when it was accessed from the [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library|Nehru Memorial Museum and Library]] in [[New Delhi]].<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/><ref>{{citation |title=Lessons to learn from Hyderabad's past |newspaper=The Times of India |date=16 December 2013 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Lessons-to-learn-from-Hyderabads-past/articleshow/27390337.cms |id={{proquest|1468149022}}}}</ref>

The Indian military detained thousands of people during the operation, including Razakars, Hindu militants, and communists. This was largely done on the basis of local informants, who used this opportunity to settle scores. The estimated number of people detained was close to 18,000, which resulted in overcrowded jails and a paralyzed criminal system.

The Indian government set up Special Tribunals to prosecute these. These strongly resembled the colonial governments earlier, and there were many legal irregularities, including denial or inability to access lawyers and delayed trials – about which the Red Cross was pressuring Nehru.

The viewpoint of the government was: "in political physics, Razakar action and Hindu reaction have been almost equal and opposite." A quiet decision was taken to release all Hindus and for a review of all Muslim cases, aiming to let many of them out. Regarding atrocities by Muslims, Nehru considered the actions during the operation as "madness" seizing "decent people", analogous to experience elsewhere during the [[Partition of India#Independence.2C population transfer.2C and violence|partition of India]]. Nehru was also concerned that disenfranchised Muslims would join the communists.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

The government was under pressure to not prosecute participants in communal violence, which often made communal relations worse. Patel had also died in 1950. Thus, by 1953 the Indian government released all but a few persons.<ref name=ShermanLSE />{{rp|12–16}}

* {{citation |first=Lucien D. |last=Benichou |title=From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938-1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Loiq3YrFy40C&pg=PA214 |year=2000 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-1847-6 |ref={{sfnref|Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration|2000}}}}

* {{citation |first=Mohammed |last=Hyder |title=October Coup, A Memoir of the Struggle for Hyderabad |publisher=Roli Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-8174368508 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdumBAAAQBAJ}}

* [https://archive.today/20121209165321/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:pQ9_Olx6aCYJ:www.haftamag.com/index2.php?option%3Dcom_content%26do_pdf%3D1%26id%3D176+operation+polo&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=us|The Armchair Historian – Operation Polo (Monday, 18 September 2006) – Contributed by Sidin Sunny Vadukut – Last Updated (Monday, 18 September 2006)]

[[Category:September 1948 events]]