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{{English language}} | {{English language}} | ||
'''English''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] of the [[Indo-European language family]], originally spoken by the inhabitants of [[early medieval England]].{{sfn|The Routes of English}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}} It is named after the [[Angles]], one of the ancient [[Germanic peoples]] that migrated from [[Anglia (peninsula)|Anglia]], a peninsula on the [[Baltic Sea]] (not to be confused with [[East Anglia]]), to the area of [[Great Britain]] later named after them: [[England]]. The closest living relatives of English include [[Scots language|Scots]], followed by the [[Low German|Low Saxon]] and [[Frisian languages]]. While English is [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genealogically]] [[West Germanic language|West Germanic]], its vocabulary is also distinctively influenced by [[Old Norman French]] and [[Latin]], as well as by [[Old Norse]] (a [[North Germanic language]]).<ref name="Wolff">{{cite book |last=Finkenstaedt |first=Thomas |author2=Dieter Wolff |title=Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon |publisher=C. Winter |year=1973 |isbn=978-3-533-02253-4}}</ref>{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}}{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=39}} Speakers of English are called [[Anglophone]]s. | '''English''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] of the [[Indo-European language family]], originally spoken by the inhabitants of [[early medieval England]].{{sfn|The Routes of English}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}} It is named after the [[Angles]], one of the ancient [[Germanic peoples]] that migrated from [[Anglia (peninsula)|Anglia]], a peninsula on the [[Baltic Sea]] (not to be confused with [[East Anglia]] in England), to the area of [[Great Britain]] later named after them: [[England]]. The closest living relatives of English include [[Scots language|Scots]], followed by the [[Low German|Low Saxon]] and [[Frisian languages]]. While English is [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genealogically]] [[West Germanic language|West Germanic]], its vocabulary is also distinctively influenced by [[Old Norman French]] and [[Latin]], as well as by [[Old Norse]] (a [[North Germanic language]]).<ref name="Wolff">{{cite book |last=Finkenstaedt |first=Thomas |author2=Dieter Wolff |title=Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon |publisher=C. Winter |year=1973 |isbn=978-3-533-02253-4}}</ref>{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}}{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=39}} Speakers of English are called [[Anglophone]]s. | ||
The earliest forms of English, evolved from a group of West Germanic ([[Ingvaeonic]]) dialects brought to Great Britain by [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon settlers]] in the 5th century and further mutated by Norse-speaking [[Viking]] settlers starting in the 8th and 9th centuries | The earliest forms of English, collectively known as [[Old English]], evolved from a group of West Germanic ([[Ingvaeonic]]) dialects brought to Great Britain by [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon settlers]] in the 5th century and further mutated by Norse-speaking [[Viking]] settlers starting in the 8th and 9th centuries. [[Middle English]] began in the late 11th century after the [[Norman conquest of England]], when considerable French (especially [[Old Norman]]) and [[Latin influence in English|Latin-derived]] [[Foreign language influences in English|vocabulary]] was incorporated into English over some three hundred years.<ref name="Ian Short 2007. p. 193">Ian Short, ''A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'', "Language and Literature", Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2007. (p. 193)</ref>{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=30}} [[Early Modern English]] began in the late 15th century with the start of the [[Great Vowel Shift]] and the [[Renaissance]] trend of borrowing further Latin and Greek words and roots into English, concurrent with the introduction of the [[printing press]] to [[London]]. This era notably culminated in the [[King James Bible]] and [[Shakespeare's plays|plays of William Shakespeare]].<ref>{{cite web|title=How English evolved into a global language|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753|date=20 December 2010|publisher=BBC|access-date=9 August 2015|archive-date=25 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Crystal, David; Potter, Simeon (editors). "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/English-language.https://www.britannica.com/topic/English-language/Historical-background English language: Historical background]". ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Dec. 2021.</ref> | ||
[[Modern English]] has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of the worldwide influence of the [[British Empire]] and the United States. Through all types of printed and electronic media of these countries, English has become the leading language of international [[discourse]] and the ''[[lingua franca]]'' in many regions and professional contexts such as science, [[navigation]] and law.{{sfn|The Routes of English}} Modern [[English grammar]] is the result of a gradual change from a typical [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[Dependent-marking language|dependent-marking]] pattern, with a rich [[inflection]]al [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and relatively [[free word order]], to a mostly [[Analytic language|analytic]] pattern with little inflection, and a fairly fixed [[subject–verb–object]] word order.{{sfn|König|1994|page=539}} Modern English relies more on [[auxiliary verb]]s and [[word order]] for the expression of complex [[grammatical tense|tenses]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]], as well as [[passive voice|passive constructions]], [[interrogative]]s and some [[Negation (linguistics)|negation]]. | [[Modern English]] has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of the worldwide influence of the [[British Empire]] and the [[United States of America]]. Through all types of printed and electronic media of these countries, English has become the leading language of international [[discourse]] and the ''[[lingua franca]]'' in many regions and professional contexts such as science, [[navigation]] and law.{{sfn|The Routes of English}} Modern [[English grammar]] is the result of a gradual change from a typical [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[Dependent-marking language|dependent-marking]] pattern, with a rich [[inflection]]al [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and relatively [[free word order]], to a mostly [[Analytic language|analytic]] pattern with little inflection, and a fairly fixed [[subject–verb–object]] word order.{{sfn|König|1994|page=539}} Modern English relies more on [[auxiliary verb]]s and [[word order]] for the expression of complex [[grammatical tense|tenses]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]], as well as [[passive voice|passive constructions]], [[interrogative]]s and some [[Negation (linguistics)|negation]]. | ||
English is the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most spoken language]] in the world (if Chinese is divided into variants)<ref>{{e22|eng|English}}</ref> and the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|third-most spoken native language]] in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish.{{sfn|Ethnologue|2010}} It is the most widely learned [[second language]] and is either the official language or one of the official languages in [[list of territorial entities where English is an official language| | English is the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most spoken language]] in the world (if [[Chinese language|Chinese]] is divided into variants)<ref>{{e22|eng|English}}</ref> and the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|third-most spoken native language]] in the world, after [[Standard Chinese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Ethnologue|2010}} It is the most widely learned [[second language]] and is either the official language or one of the official languages in [[list of territorial entities where English is an official language|59 sovereign states]]. There are more people who have learned English as a second language than there are native speakers. {{As of|2005}}, it was estimated that there were over 2 billion speakers of English.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Two thousand million?|journal=English Today|volume=24|issue=1|pages=3–6|language=en-US|doi=10.1017/S0266078408000023|last1=Crystal|first1=David|year=2008|s2cid=145597019}}</ref> English is the majority native language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, [[New Zealand]] (see [[Anglosphere]]) and the [[Republic of Ireland]], and is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Oceania.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} It is a [[Official languages of the United Nations|co-official language of the United Nations]], [[Languages of the European Union|the European Union]] and many other world and regional international organisations. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch. There is much variability among the many [[Regional accents of English|accents]] and [[List of dialects of English|dialects of English]] used in different countries and regions in terms of [[phonetics]] and [[phonology]], and sometimes also [[vocabulary]], [[idioms]], [[grammar]], and [[spelling]], but it does not typically prevent understanding by speakers of other dialects and accents, although [[mutual unintelligibility]] can occur at extreme ends of the [[dialect continuum]]. | ||
== Classification == | == Classification == | ||
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Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a [[foreign language]].{{sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a}} In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than Ireland and [[Malta]]). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll (conducted when the UK was still a member of the EU), 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.{{sfn|European Commission|2012|pp=21, 19}} | Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a [[foreign language]].{{sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a}} In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than Ireland and [[Malta]]). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll (conducted when the UK was still a member of the EU), 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.{{sfn|European Commission|2012|pp=21, 19}} | ||
[[File:Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject.svg|center|thumb|850x850px|'''Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject'''{{legend|#99d9ea|English is the dominant language}}{{legend|#00a2e8|English is a mandatory subject}}{{legend|#ffc90e|English is an optional subject}}{{legend|#ababab|No data}}]] | |||
A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine{{sfn|Alcaraz Ariza|Navarro|2006}} and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by ''Chemical Abstracts'' in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995.{{sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006|pp=694–95}} | A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine{{sfn|Alcaraz Ariza|Navarro|2006}} and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by ''Chemical Abstracts'' in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995.{{sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006|pp=694–95}} | ||
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{{Main|English clause syntax}} | {{Main|English clause syntax}} | ||
In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may, in turn, be composed of one or more phrases (e.g. Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, and Prepositional Phrases). A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence, there is always at least one main clause (or matrix clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase ''I think (that) you are lying'', the main clause is headed by the verb ''think'', the subject is ''I'', but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause ''(that) you are lying''. The subordinating conjunction ''that'' shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted.{{sfn|Miller|2002|pages=60–69}} [[Relative clause]]s are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause: For example, in the sentence ''I saw the letter that you received today'', the relative clause ''that you received today'' specifies the meaning of the word ''letter'', the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns ''who'', ''whose'', ''whom'' and ''which'' as well as by ''that'' (which can also be omitted.){{sfn|König|1994|page=545}} In contrast to many other Germanic languages there | In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may, in turn, be composed of one or more phrases (e.g. Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, and Prepositional Phrases). A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence, there is always at least one main clause (or matrix clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase ''I think (that) you are lying'', the main clause is headed by the verb ''think'', the subject is ''I'', but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause ''(that) you are lying''. The subordinating conjunction ''that'' shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted.{{sfn|Miller|2002|pages=60–69}} [[Relative clause]]s are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause: For example, in the sentence ''I saw the letter that you received today'', the relative clause ''that you received today'' specifies the meaning of the word ''letter'', the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns ''who'', ''whose'', ''whom'' and ''which'' as well as by ''that'' (which can also be omitted.){{sfn|König|1994|page=545}} In contrast to many other Germanic languages there are no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses.{{sfn|König|1994|page=557}} | ||
==== Auxiliary verb constructions ==== | ==== Auxiliary verb constructions ==== | ||
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English writing also includes a system of [[punctuation]] marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud.{{sfn|Lawler|2006|p=290}} | English writing also includes a system of [[punctuation]] marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud.{{sfn|Lawler|2006|p=290}} | ||
== Dialects, accents | == Dialects, accents and varieties == | ||
{{Main|List of dialects of the English language|World Englishes|regional accents of English}} | {{Main|List of dialects of the English language|World Englishes|regional accents of English}} | ||
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**{{cite journal |author=Beau Brock |date=July 2011 |title=The English language in Canada: Status, history and comparative analysis (review) |journal=The Canadian Journal of Linguistics |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages= 277–279|doi=10.1353/cjl.2011.0015|s2cid=144445944 }} | **{{cite journal |author=Beau Brock |date=July 2011 |title=The English language in Canada: Status, history and comparative analysis (review) |journal=The Canadian Journal of Linguistics |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages= 277–279|doi=10.1353/cjl.2011.0015|s2cid=144445944 }} | ||
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-->* {{cite web |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Bosworth |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |title=Engla land |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) |date=1921 |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Charles University]] |archive-date= | -->* {{cite web |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Bosworth |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |title=Engla land |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) |date=1921 |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Charles University]] |archive-date=21 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212612/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |url-status=live }} | ||
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Brinton |first1=Laurel J. |last2=Brinton |first2=Donna M. |date=2010 |title=The linguistic structure of modern English |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-8824-0 |url=https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501194533/https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |url-status=live }} | -->* {{cite book |last1=Brinton |first1=Laurel J. |last2=Brinton |first2=Donna M. |date=2010 |title=The linguistic structure of modern English |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-8824-0 |url=https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501194533/https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |url-status=live }} | ||