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 The three ancient Tamil dynasties namely [[Chera Empire|Chera]], [[Chola Empire|Chola]], and [[Pandyan Empire|Pandya]] were of ancient origins. Together they ruled over this land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of [[Sangam Literature|some of the oldest extant literature]] in the world.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other vying for hegemony over the land. Invasion by the [[Kalabhras]] during the 3rd century disturbed the traditional order of the land, displacing the three ruling kingdoms. These occupiers were overthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and the [[Pallavas]], who restored the traditional kingdoms. The Cholas who re-emerged from obscurity in the 9th century by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the entire southern peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} At its height the Chola empire spanned almost 3,600,000&nbsp;km² (1,389,968 sq mi) straddling the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} The [[Chola Navy|Chola navy]] held sway over the [[Sri Vijaya]] kingdom in Southeast Asia.
-Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|incursions of Muslim armies]] from the northwest and the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the 14th century,  The [[Madras Presidency]], comprising most of southern India, was created in the 18th century and was ruled directly by the [[British Empire|British]]. After the [[Indian independence struggle|independence of India]], after the Telugu and Malayalam parts of Madras state were separated from Tamilagam state in 1956, it was renamed as [[Tamil Nadu]] in 1968 by the state government.
+Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|incursions of Muslim armies]] from the northwest and the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the 14th century,  The [[Madras Presidency]], comprising most of southern India, was created in the 18th century and was ruled directly by the [[British Empire|British]]. After the [[Indian independence struggle|independence of India]], after the Telugu and Malayalam parts of Madras state were separated from Tamilagam state in 1956, it was renamed as [[Tamil Nadu]] on [[14 January 1969]] by the state government.
 == Pre-historic period ==
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 === Iron Age ===
-During the [[Iron Age]] humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by [[Megalithic]] burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places.<ref>One such was found at [[Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri|Krishnagiri]] in Tamil Nadu— {{cite news | title= Steps to preserve megalithic burial site   |date=6 October 2006 | url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/06/stories/2006100617521000.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080918094106/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/06/stories/2006100617521000.htm | url-status= dead | archive-date= 18 September 2008 | access-date=15 November 2006 | work= [[The Hindu]]   | location=Chennai, India }}</ref> On the bases of both some excavations and the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south.  Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.<ref>K.A.N. Sastri, ''A History of South India'' Tamilnadu is stated as Kalabhras, pp. 49–51</ref>
+During the [[Iron Age]] humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by [[Megalithic]] burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places.<ref>One such was found at [[Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri|Krishnagiri]] in Tamil Nadu— {{cite news | title= Steps to preserve megalithic burial site   |date=6 October 2006 | url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/06/stories/2006100617521000.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080918094106/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/06/stories/2006100617521000.htm | url-status= dead | archive-date= 18 September 2008 | access-date=15 November 2006 | work= [[The Hindu]]   | location=Chennai, India }}</ref> On the basis of both some excavations and the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south.  Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.<ref>K.A.N. Sastri, ''A History of South India'' Tamilnadu is stated as Kalabhras, pp. 49–51</ref>
 The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1800 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at [[Adichanallur]], 24&nbsp;km from [[Tirunelveli]], where archaeologists from the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] unearthed 157 urns, including 15 containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and [[Neolithic]] [[Celt (tool)|Celts]]. One urn has writing inside, which, according to archaeologists from the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], resembles early [[Tamil-Brahmi]] script, confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago.<ref>Subramanian T.S. (17 February 2005) The Hindu. Retrieved 31 July 2007 [http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/17/stories/2005021704471300.htm ''Rudimentary Tamil-Brahmi script' unearthed at Adichanallur''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527021014/http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/17/stories/2005021704471300.htm |date=27 May 2014 }}</ref> Adhichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.<ref>Subramanian T.S. (26 May 2004 ) The Hindu. Retrieved 31 July 2007 [http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/26/stories/2004052602871200.htm ''Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil Nadu''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207124706/http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/26/stories/2004052602871200.htm |date=7 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>'The most interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered at Adichanallur. There is a series of urn burials. seem to be related to the megalithic complex. – Zvelebil, K.A., Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature – pp 21–22, Brill Academic Publishers.</ref>
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 The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the [[Pillars of Ashoka]] (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to [[Ashoka]], were on friendly terms with him.<ref>'Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the [[Velirs|Satyaputras]], the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni...' —{{cite web|title=Ashoka's second minor rock edict |url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |publisher=Colorado State University |access-date=15 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028175927/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |archive-date=28 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="asoka">K.A.N. Sastri, ''The CōĻas'', 1935 p 20</ref> The king of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], [[Kharavela]], who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.<ref>{{cite web | title= Hathigumpha Inscription | work= Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp 86–89 | url= http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/HathigumphaInscription.htm|publisher=Missouri Southern State University | access-date=15 November 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061117151339/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/HathigumphaInscription.htm |archive-date = 17 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-[[Karikala Chola]] was the most famous [[Early Cholas|early Chola]]. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the [[Sangam literature|Sangam poetry]].<ref>''[[Pattinappaalai]]'', ''[[Porunaraatruppadai]]'' and a number of individual poems in ''Akananuru'' and ''[[Purananuru]]'' have been the main source for the information we attribute now to Karikala. See also K.A.N. Sastri, ''The Colas'', 1935</ref> In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'' and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of the river [[Kaveri]] with the aid of his feudatories.<ref>''Cilappatikaram'' (c. 6th century CE) which attributes northern campaigns and conquests to all the three monarchs of the Tamil country, gives a glorious account of the northern expeditions of Karikala, which took him as far north as the Himalayas and gained for him the alliance and subjugation of the kings of [[Vajji|Vajra]], [[Magadha]] and Avanti countries. There is no contemporary evidence either in Sangam literature or from the north Indian source for such an expedition.</ref> These legends, however, are conspicuous by their absence in the Sangam poetry. [[Kocengannan]] was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a [[Saiva]] saint during the medieval period.<ref>{{cite web | title= 63 Nayanmars | url= http://www.tamilnation.co/sathyam/east/saivaism/63nayanmars.htm | publisher=Tamilnation.org |access-date=15 November 2006}}</ref>
+[[Karikala Chola]] was the most famous [[Early Cholas|early Chola]]. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the [[Sangam literature|Sangam poetry]].<ref>''[[Pattinappaalai]]'', ''[[Porunaraatruppadai]]'' and a number of individual poems in ''Akananuru'' and ''[[Purananuru]]'' have been the main source for the information we attribute now to Karikala. See also K.A.N. Sastri, ''The Colas'', 1935</ref> In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'' and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of the river [[Kaveri]] with the aid of his feudatories.<ref>''Cilappatikaram'' (c. 6th century CE) which attributes northern campaigns and conquests to all the three monarchs of the Tamil country, gives a glorious account of the northern expeditions of Karikala, which took him as far north as the Himalayas and gained for him the alliance and subjugation of the kings of [[Vajjika League|Vajra]], [[Magadha]] and Avanti countries. There is no contemporary evidence either in Sangam literature or from the north Indian source for such an expedition.</ref> These legends, however, are conspicuous by their absence in the Sangam poetry. [[Kocengannan]] was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a [[Saiva]] saint during the medieval period.<ref>{{cite web | title= 63 Nayanmars | url= http://www.tamilnation.co/sathyam/east/saivaism/63nayanmars.htm | publisher=Tamilnation.org |access-date=15 November 2006}}</ref>
 Pandyas ruled initially from [[Korkai]], a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to [[Madurai]]. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. [[Megasthenes]] in his ''Indika'' mentions the Pandyan kingdom.<ref>In Megasthenes' account (350 BCE – 290 BCE), the Pandya kingdom is ruled by Pandaia, a daughter of [[Herakles]] —K.A.N. Sastri, ''A History of South India'', p 23</ref> The Pandyas controlled the present districts of Madurai, [[Tirunelveli]], and parts of south Kerala. They had trading contacts with [[Greece]] and [[Roman commerce|Rome]].<ref>{{cite web | title= 'Roman Maps and the Concept of Indian Gems | url= http://www.thebeadsite.com/UNI-MAPS.html|publisher=The Bead Museum, Inc. | access-date=15 May 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321084351/http://www.thebeadsite.com/UNI-MAPS.html <!--Added by H3llBot--> | archive-date=21 March 2006}}</ref> With the other kingdoms of Tamilakam, they maintained trading contacts and marital relationships with Tamil merchants from [[Eelam]]. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam literature. Among them, Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam' deserves a special mention. Besides several short poems found in the ''[[Akananuru]]'' and the ''Purananuru'' collections, there are two major works—''[[Mathuraikkanci]]'' and the ''[[Netunalvatai]]'' (in the collection of ''[[Pattupattu]]'') that give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. The [[Early Pandyan Kingdom|early Pandyas]] went into obscurity at the end of the 3rd century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.