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{{Science and technology in India}} | {{Science and technology in India}} | ||
[[Astronomy]] has long history in [[Indian subcontinent]] stretching from pre-historic to modern times. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of [[Indus Valley | [[Astronomy]] has long history in [[Indian subcontinent]] stretching from pre-historic to modern times. Some of the earliest roots of '''Indian astronomy''' can be dated to the period of [[Indus Valley civilisation]] or earlier.<ref name=question>{{cite book|title=A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy|page=197|author1=Pierre-Yves Bely |author2=Carol Christian |author3=Jean-René Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbLPel3zRdEC&q=%22Indian+astronomy%22&pg=PA197|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521180665|date=2010-03-11}}</ref><ref name=wiley>{{cite journal|title= Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x | volume=21|issue = 2|journal=Centaurus|pages=149–193|bibcode=1977Cent...21..149A|year = 1977|last1 = Ashfaque|first1 = Syed Mohammad}}</ref> Astronomy later developed as a discipline of [[Vedanga]], or one of the "auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the [[Veda]]s,<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind>Sarma (2008), ''Astronomy in India''</ref> dating 1500 BCE or older.<ref>The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188</ref> The oldest known text is the ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha]]'', dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700 to 600 BCE).<ref name=Cosmic>{{cite book|last=Subbarayappa|first=B. V.|editor=Biswas, S. K. |editor2=Mallik, D. C. V. |editor3=Vishveshwara, C. V. |editor3-link=C. V. Vishveshwara |title=Cosmic Perspectives|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFTGKi8fjvoC&pg=FA25|date=14 September 1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-34354-1|pages=25–40|chapter=Indian astronomy: An historical perspective}}</ref> | ||
Indian astronomy was influenced by [[Greek astronomy]] beginning in the 4th century BCE<ref name="Andersen">Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC&pg=PA721&dq=yavanajataka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7l0YUfGMNuibygHmiIDgCg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=yavanajataka&f=false]</ref><ref name="Leverington">Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [https://books.google.com/books?id=6Hpi202ybn8C&pg=PA41&dq=greek+astronomy+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zlsYUcn9MtHbqwGFvoCoBw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=greek%20astronomy%20india&f=false]</ref><ref name=Evans>The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [https://books.google.com/books?id=LVp_gkwyvC8C&pg=PA393&dq=greek+astronomy+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zlsYUcn9MtHbqwGFvoCoBw&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=greek%20astronomy%20india&f=false]</ref> and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the [[Yavanajataka]]<ref name="Andersen"/> and the ''[[Romaka Siddhanta]]'', a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.<ref name="Naskar">Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SuEBGgRHHuIC&pg=PA57&dq=greek+astronomy+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zlsYUcn9MtHbqwGFvoCoBw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=greek%20astronomy%20india&f=false]</ref> | Indian astronomy was influenced by [[Greek astronomy]] beginning in the 4th century BCE<ref name="Andersen">Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC&pg=PA721&dq=yavanajataka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7l0YUfGMNuibygHmiIDgCg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=yavanajataka&f=false]</ref><ref name="Leverington">Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [https://books.google.com/books?id=6Hpi202ybn8C&pg=PA41&dq=greek+astronomy+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zlsYUcn9MtHbqwGFvoCoBw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=greek%20astronomy%20india&f=false]</ref><ref name=Evans>The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [https://books.google.com/books?id=LVp_gkwyvC8C&pg=PA393&dq=greek+astronomy+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zlsYUcn9MtHbqwGFvoCoBw&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=greek%20astronomy%20india&f=false]</ref> and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the [[Yavanajataka]]<ref name="Andersen"/> and the ''[[Romaka Siddhanta]]'', a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.<ref name="Naskar">Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SuEBGgRHHuIC&pg=PA57&dq=greek+astronomy+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zlsYUcn9MtHbqwGFvoCoBw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=greek%20astronomy%20india&f=false]</ref> | ||
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==History== | ==History== | ||
Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of [[Indus Valley | Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of [[Indus Valley civilisation]], or earlier.<ref name=question/><ref name=wiley/> Some cosmological concepts are present in the [[Vedas]], as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies and the course of the year.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> The Rig Veda is one of the oldest pieces of Indian literature. Rig Veda 1-64-11 & 48 describes time as a wheel with 12 parts and 360 spokes (days), with a remainder of 5, making reference to the solar calendar.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sidharth |first=B.G |date=1998 |title=The Calendric Astronomy of the Vedas |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1998BASI...26..107S/0000108.000.html |journal=Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India |volume=26 |pages=108 |via=NASA Astrophysics Data System}}</ref> As in other traditions, there is a close association of [[astronomy and religion]] during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated by spatial and temporal requirements of [[orthopraxy|correct performance]] of religious ritual. Thus, the ''[[Shulba Sutras]]'', texts dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy.<ref name=abraham08/> ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha]]'' is another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy,<ref>{{cite book|title=Kalaprakasika|author= N. P. Subramania Iyer|publisher=Asian Educational Services|page=3}}</ref> it includes the details about the Sun, Moon, [[nakshatra]]s, [[lunisolar calendar]].<ref>Ōhashi (1993)</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War|page=33|author=Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta|publisher=Pearson Education India}}</ref> The Vedanga Jyotisha describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, in a ''yuga'' or "era", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835 sidereal days and 62 synodic months.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kak |first=Shubash |date=1995 |title=The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=36 |pages=385–395}}</ref> | ||
Greek astronomical ideas began to enter India in the 4th century BCE following the [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|conquests of Alexander the Great]].<ref name="Andersen"/><ref name="Leverington"/><ref name="Evans"/><ref name="Naskar"/> By the early centuries of the Common Era, [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]] influence on the astronomical tradition is visible, with texts such as the [[Yavanajataka]]<ref name="Andersen"/> and ''[[Romaka Siddhanta]]''.<ref name="Naskar"/> | Greek astronomical ideas began to enter India in the 4th century BCE following the [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|conquests of Alexander the Great]].<ref name="Andersen"/><ref name="Leverington"/><ref name="Evans"/><ref name="Naskar"/> By the early centuries of the Common Era, [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]] influence on the astronomical tradition is visible, with texts such as the [[Yavanajataka]]<ref name="Andersen"/> and ''[[Romaka Siddhanta]]''.<ref name="Naskar"/> | ||
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J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the [[calendar]]s in India: | J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the [[calendar]]s in India: | ||
{{Quotation|1=The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BCE. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text {{IAST|Taittirīya Saṃhitā}} 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'', the fourth of the Vedas, 19.7.1.) days. The resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month every 60 months. Time was reckoned by the position marked off in constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from [[New Moon]] to New Moon) and the Sun rises monthly in the course of one year. These [[constellations]] ({{IAST|nakṣatra}}) each measure an arc of 13° | {{Quotation|1=The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BCE. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text {{IAST|Taittirīya Saṃhitā}} 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'', the fourth of the Vedas, 19.7.1.) days. The resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month every 60 months. Time was reckoned by the position marked off in constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from [[New Moon]] to New Moon) and the Sun rises monthly in the course of one year. These [[constellations]] ({{IAST|nakṣatra}}) each measure an arc of 13° 20{{prime}} of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable, and those of the Sun inferred from the Moon's position at Full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the {{IAST|nakṣatra}} that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that {{IAST|nakṣatra}}.<ref name=van_Buitenen08/>}} | ||
==Astronomers== | ==Astronomers== | ||
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| [[Vedanga Jyotisha|Lagadha]] || 1st millennium BCE || The earliest astronomical text—named ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha|{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}]]'' details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.<ref name= Subbaarayappa/> The ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.<ref name= Subbaarayappa>Subbaarayappa (1989)</ref> Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' has connections with [[Indian astrology]] and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of ''Adhimāsa''.<ref name=Tripathi08>Tripathi (2008)</ref> ''[[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtú]]s'' are also described as ''[[yugāṃśa]]s'' (or parts of the ''[[yuga]]'', i.e. conjunction cycle) .<ref name=Tripathi08/> Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'<ref name=Tripathi08/> | | [[Vedanga Jyotisha|Lagadha]] || 1st millennium BCE || The earliest astronomical text—named ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha|{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}]]'' details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.<ref name= Subbaarayappa/> The ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.<ref name= Subbaarayappa>Subbaarayappa (1989)</ref> Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' has connections with [[Indian astrology]] and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of ''Adhimāsa''.<ref name=Tripathi08>Tripathi (2008)</ref> ''[[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtú]]s'' are also described as ''[[yugāṃśa]]s'' (or parts of the ''[[yuga]]'', i.e. conjunction cycle) .<ref name=Tripathi08/> Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'<ref name=Tripathi08/> | ||
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|[[Aryabhata|Āryabhaṭa]] || 476–550 CE ||Āryabhaṭa was the author of the ''[[Aryabhatiya|Āryabhatīya]]'' and the ''Āryabhaṭasiddhānta'', which, according to Hayashi (2008), | |[[Aryabhata|Āryabhaṭa]] || 476–550 CE ||Āryabhaṭa was the author of the ''[[Aryabhatiya|Āryabhatīya]]'' and the ''Āryabhaṭasiddhānta'', which, according to Hayashi (2008), "circulated mainly in the northwest of India and, through the [[Sassanian Dynasty]] (224–651) of [[Iran]], had a profound influence on the development of [[Islamic astronomy]]. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of Varāhamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhāskara I (flourished c. 629), Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each day to midnight."<ref name="Hayashi08Aryabhata"/> Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the Earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/> In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).<ref>Indian Astronomy. (2013). In D. Leverington, ''Encyclopedia of the history of Astronomy and Astrophysics''. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/cupaaa/indian_astronomy/0</nowiki></ref> Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/> Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in [[South India]], where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the Earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> | ||
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| [[Brahmagupta]] || 598–668 CE || ''[[Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta]]'' (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both [[Indian mathematics]] and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: "It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on [[Islamic mathematics]] and astronomy".<ref name=Hayashi08-Brhgupt>Hayashi (2008), Brahmagupta</ref> In ''Khandakhadyaka'' (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.<ref name=Hayashi08-Brhgupt/> ''Brahmagupta'' also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for [[parallax]], and some information related to the computation of eclipses.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> His works introduced Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the [[Arab world]].<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to the earth.<ref>Brahmagupta, ''Brahmasphutasiddhanta'' (628) ([[cf.]] [[Al-Biruni]] (1030), ''Indica'')</ref> | | [[Brahmagupta]] || 598–668 CE || ''[[Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta]]'' (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both [[Indian mathematics]] and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: "It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on [[Islamic mathematics]] and astronomy".<ref name=Hayashi08-Brhgupt>Hayashi (2008), Brahmagupta</ref> In ''Khandakhadyaka'' (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.<ref name=Hayashi08-Brhgupt/> ''Brahmagupta'' also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for [[parallax]], and some information related to the computation of eclipses.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> His works introduced Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the [[Arab world]].<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to the earth.<ref>Brahmagupta, ''Brahmasphutasiddhanta'' (628) ([[cf.]] [[Al-Biruni]] (1030), ''Indica'')</ref> | ||
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===Indian and Greek astronomy=== | ===Indian and Greek astronomy=== | ||
According to [[David Pingree]], there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre- | According to [[David Pingree]], there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy.<ref name = "Pingree (1976)">{{cite journal | first=David | last=Pingree | title=The Recovery of early Greek Astronomy from India | publisher=Science History Publications Ltd. | journal= Journal for the History of Astronomy | volume=7 | issue = 19 | date=1976 | pages=109–123 | bibcode=1976JHA.....7..109P| doi=10.1177/002182867600700202 | s2cid=68858864 }}</ref> Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian astronomy. One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to astronomy, astrology and calendar are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation between those days, planets (including Sun and Moon) and gods.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} | ||
With the rise of [[Hellenistic period|Greek culture in the east]], [[Greek astronomy#Hellenistic astronomy|Hellenistic astronomy]] filtered eastwards to India, where it profoundly influenced the local astronomical tradition.<ref name="Andersen"/><ref name="Leverington"/><ref name="Evans"/><ref name="Naskar"/><ref name="Pingree (1978), 533, 554f."/> For example, [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] astronomy is known to have been practiced near India in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of [[Ujjain]] have been found in archaeological excavations there.<ref>Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p269 [https://books.google.com/books?id=xJFtQgAACAAJ&dq=afghanistan,+les+tresors+retrouves&hl=en&ei=t7ssTsL0EI2usAOSg8TMCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA]</ref> | With the rise of [[Hellenistic period|Greek culture in the east]], [[Greek astronomy#Hellenistic astronomy|Hellenistic astronomy]] filtered eastwards to India, where it profoundly influenced the local astronomical tradition.<ref name="Andersen"/><ref name="Leverington"/><ref name="Evans"/><ref name="Naskar"/><ref name="Pingree (1978), 533, 554f."/> For example, [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] astronomy is known to have been practiced near India in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of [[Ujjain]] have been found in archaeological excavations there.<ref>Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p269 [https://books.google.com/books?id=xJFtQgAACAAJ&dq=afghanistan,+les+tresors+retrouves&hl=en&ei=t7ssTsL0EI2usAOSg8TMCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA]</ref> | ||
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===Indian and Islamic astronomy=== | ===Indian and Islamic astronomy=== | ||
Many Indian works on astronomy and astrology were translated into [[Middle Persian]] in [[Gundeshapur]] the [[Sasanian Empire]] and later translated from Middle Persian into Arabic{{ | Many Indian works on astronomy and astrology were translated into [[Middle Persian]] in [[Gundeshapur]] the [[Sasanian Empire]] and later translated from Middle Persian into Arabic{{citation needed|reason=There is reason to believe the [[House of wisdom|Bayt al-Ḥikmah]] translated many sanskrit works into arabic, but we need good citations to confirm that|date=December 2021}} | ||
In the 17th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for planetary theory, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred ''[[Zij]]'' treatises. [[Humayun]] built a personal observatory near [[Delhi]], while [[Jahangir]] and [[Shah Jahan]] were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, it was a Hindu king, [[Jai Singh II of Amber]], who attempted to revive both the Islamic and Hindu traditions of astronomy which were stagnating in his time. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called [[Yantra Mandir]]s in order to rival [[Ulugh Beg]]'s [[Samarkand]] [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|observatory]] and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the ''Siddhantas'' and Islamic observations in ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]''. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.<ref>Sharma (1995), 8–9</ref><ref>Baber, 82–89</ref> | In the 17th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for planetary theory, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred ''[[Zij]]'' treatises. [[Humayun]] built a personal observatory near [[Delhi]], while [[Jahangir]] and [[Shah Jahan]] were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, it was a Hindu king, [[Jai Singh II of Amber]], who attempted to revive both the Islamic and Hindu traditions of astronomy which were stagnating in his time. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called [[Yantra Mandir]]s in order to rival [[Ulugh Beg]]'s [[Samarkand]] [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|observatory]] and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the ''Siddhantas'' and Islamic observations in ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]''. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.<ref>Sharma (1995), 8–9</ref><ref>Baber, 82–89</ref> | ||
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Following the arrival of the British [[East India Company]] in the 18th century, the Hindu and Islamic traditions were slowly displaced by European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonising these traditions. The Indian scholar [[Mir Muhammad Hussain]] had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777, he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the heliocentric model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of [[universe]]s (''awalim''), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the [[omnipotence]] of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a [[galaxy]], thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars.<ref>{{citation|title=History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997|author=S. M. Razaullah Ansari|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4020-0657-9|pages=133–4}}</ref> | Following the arrival of the British [[East India Company]] in the 18th century, the Hindu and Islamic traditions were slowly displaced by European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonising these traditions. The Indian scholar [[Mir Muhammad Hussain]] had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777, he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the heliocentric model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of [[universe]]s (''awalim''), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the [[omnipotence]] of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a [[galaxy]], thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars.<ref>{{citation|title=History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997|author=S. M. Razaullah Ansari|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4020-0657-9|pages=133–4}}</ref> | ||
The last known ''Zij'' treatise was the ''Zij-i Bahadurkhani'', written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer [[Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri]] (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to [[Bahadur Khan]]. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the ''Zij'' tradition.<ref>{{citation|title=History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997|author=S. M. Razaullah Ansari|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4020-0657-9|page=138}}</ref> | The last known ''Zij'' treatise was the ''Zij-i Bahadurkhani'', written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer [[Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri]] (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to [[Bahadur Khan]]. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the ''Zij'' tradition.<ref>{{citation|title=History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997|author=S. M. Razaullah Ansari|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4020-0657-9|page=138}}</ref> | ||
==ISRO== | ==ISRO== | ||
{{Further|Indian Space Research Organisation}} | {{Further|Indian Space Research Organisation}} | ||
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It launched [[Mangalyaan]] in 2014 with mission costed 10 times lower than [[NASA|US]] and was successful at first attempt. | It launched [[Mangalyaan]] in 2014 with mission costed 10 times lower than [[NASA|US]] and was successful at first attempt. | ||
==Jantar Mantar== | ==Jantar Mantar== | ||
{{Further|Jantar Mantar}} | {{Further|Jantar Mantar}} | ||
{{See also|Jantar Mantar, Jaipur}} | {{See also|Jantar Mantar, Jaipur}} | ||
Jantar Mantar is a huge complex with 19 different astronomical devices.Jantar(means Yantra or machine)Mantar(means to calculate),literally meaning machine that calculate. [[Jai Singh II]] in 18 th century started taking interest in science and astronomy and made [[Jantar Mantar]] in [[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur|Jaipur]],[[Jantar Mantar, New Delhi|Delhi]],[[Jantar Mantar, Ujjain|Ujjain]], [[Jantar Mantar, Varanasi|Varanasi]] and [[Mathura]].There are machine to know time, eclipse, location of constellation,etc. [[Astronomer | Jantar Mantar is a huge complex with 19 different astronomical devices.Jantar(means Yantra or machine)Mantar(means to calculate),literally meaning machine that calculate. [[Jai Singh II]] in 18 th century started taking interest in science and astronomy and made [[Jantar Mantar]] in [[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur|Jaipur]], [[Jantar Mantar, New Delhi|Delhi]], [[Jantar Mantar, Ujjain|Ujjain]], [[Jantar Mantar, Varanasi|Varanasi]] and [[Mathura]].There are machine to know time, eclipse, location of constellation,etc. [[Astronomer]]s from different countries were told to visit. | ||
[[File:Jantar Mantar at Jaipur.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)]] observatory.]] | [[File:Jantar Mantar at Jaipur.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)]] observatory.]] | ||
[[File:Jantar Delhi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yantra Mandir]] (completed by 1743 CE), [[Delhi]].]] | [[File:Jantar Delhi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yantra Mandir]] (completed by 1743 CE), [[Delhi]].]] | ||
As brass time calculating devices wasn't perfect,so he built Samrat Yantra, which is the largest sundial in the world. It divides each hour into 15 minutes each, it's divided into 1 minute parts, which is further divided into 6 second and 2 seconds. | |||
[[File:Samrat yantra Zoomed view.jpg|thumb|Division of hours, minutes and seconds]] | |||
[[File:Samrat yantra Zoomed view.jpg|thumb| | |||
[https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/jaiPrakash/index.html Jai Prakash yantra] | Some of the major devices here are [https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/samrat/index.html Samrat yantra],[https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/nadivalaya/index.html Nadivalaya yantra],[https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/rama/index.html Rama Yantra],[https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/daksinottara%20Bhitti/index.html Daksinottara Bhitti],[https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/unnatamsha/index.html Unnatamsha Yantra],[https://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/instruments/jaiPrakash/index.html Jai Prakash yantra]<nowiki/> | ||
==Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics== | |||
{{Further|Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics}} | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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*[[Jain cosmology]] | *[[Jain cosmology]] | ||
*[[List of numbers in Hindu scriptures]] | *[[List of numbers in Hindu scriptures]] | ||
{{colend}} | {{colend}} | ||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
*[[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and | *[[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and culture]], Monograph series, Volume 3. ''Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition'' edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar | ||
*{{Citation|last=Brennand|first=William |title=Hindu Astronomy|url=https://archive.org/stream/hinduastronomy00brenuoft#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1896|publisher=Chas.Straker & Sons, London}} | *{{Citation|last=Brennand|first=William |title=Hindu Astronomy|url=https://archive.org/stream/hinduastronomy00brenuoft#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1896|publisher=Chas.Straker & Sons, London}} | ||
* {{Citation|last=Maunder|first=E. Walter |title=The Indian Eclipse 1898|url=https://archive.org/stream/indianeclipserep00britrich#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1899|publisher=Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London}} | * {{Citation|last=Maunder|first=E. Walter |title=The Indian Eclipse 1898|url=https://archive.org/stream/indianeclipserep00britrich#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1899|publisher=Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London}} | ||