Shiva: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox deity

| type = Hindu

| script_name = [[Devanagari]]

| script = {{lang|sa|शिव}}

| day = [[Monday]]

| gender = Male

| symbols = [[Lingam]],{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}} [[Crescent]] Moon, [[Damaru]] (Drum), [[Vasuki]]

| abode = [[Mount Kailash]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}}<br>Cremation grounds ([[Shmashana Adhipati]])

| mount = [[Nandi (bull)]]{{sfn|Javid|2008|pp=20–21}}

| festivals = [[Maha Shivaratri]], [[Shraavana]], [[Kartik Purnima]], [[Bhairava Ashtami]]{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=137, 186}}

| member_of = [[Trimurti]]

}}

{{Saivism}}

{{Main|Shiva Sahasranama}}

[[File:Elephanta Caves Trimurti.jpg|thumb|200px|An ancient sculpture of Shiva at the [[Elephanta Caves]], Maharashtra. 6th century CE]]

== Historical development and literature ==

==== Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal ====

{{Main|Pashupati seal}}

[[Gavin Flood]] states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva [[iconographic]] themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a [[bull]].{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=28–29|Flood|2003|2pp=204–205}} John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=14}} Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|p=181}}

==== Proto-Indo-European elements ====

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised [[Proto-Indo-European religion]],<ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=242–}}</ref> and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] link for Shiva,<ref name=woodward60 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC |year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-374-2|pages=49–50}}, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".</ref> or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Namita Gokhale|title=The Book of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-306761-0|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India], East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71–80</ref> His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god [[Dionysus]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Long | first=J. Bruce | title=Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss | journal=Numen | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=180–209 | year=1971 | doi=10.2307/3269768 | jstor=3269768 }}</ref> as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.<ref name=flahertyds81 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Laude|title=Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-8058-8|pages=41–60}}</ref> The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus as ''"god of the Orient"''.<ref name=flahertyds81>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths], History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. – Nov., 1980), pages 81–111</ref> Similarly, the use of phallic symbol{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}} as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walter Friedrich Otto|author2=Robert B. Palmer|title=Dionysus: Myth and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 |year=1965|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-20891-2|page=164}}</ref>) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.<ref name=woodward60>{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC |year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=60–67, 79–80}}</ref> Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.{{sfn|Sircar|1998|pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}}

==== Rudra ====

[[File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD]]

According to Sadasivan, during the development of the [[Hindu synthesis]] attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with [[Rudra]].{{Sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=148}} The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1–2}} Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva).{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=7}}

==== Agni ====

==== Indra ====

Indra himself was adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454-455}} According to Anthony,

=== Development ===

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' (400–200 BC), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and [[Saṃsāra|liberator of Selfs]] from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' presents pluralism, [[pantheism]], or [[henotheism]], rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.{{sfnm|Hume|1921|1pp=399, 403|Hiriyanna|2000|2pp=32–36|3a1=Kunst|3y=1968|Srinivasan|1997|4loc=pp. 96–97 and Chapter 9}}

The [[Puranas#Classification|Shaiva Puranas]], particularly the [[Shiva Purana]] and the [[Linga Purana]], present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'') associated with him.{{sfnm|Flood|2003|1pp=205–206|Rocher|1986|2pp=187–188, 222–228}} The Shiva-related [[Tantra]] literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as [[Sruti]]. Dualistic [[Āgama (Hinduism)#Philosophy|Shaiva Agamas]] which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, ''dvaita''), are the foundational texts for [[Shaiva Siddhanta]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208–212}} Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, ''advaita''), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1990|pp=9–14}}; {{harvnb|Davis|1992|loc=p. 167 note 21}}, ''Quote (page 13):'' "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".</ref> In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.<ref>Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805958}}, pages 43–44</ref><ref>JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120804074}}, pages 252, 259</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–169}}

== Position within Hinduism ==

=== Shaivism ===

{{Main|Shaivism}}

The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=216}} The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (''Advaita'') and devotional traditions (''Dvaita'') such as Tamil [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Lingayatism]] with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=216–218}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC |year=1973|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-81-208-0416-6|pages=17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161}}</ref>

The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female ([[Devi]]),{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1, 53–56, 280}}{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=426}}{{Sfn|Kinsley|1988|pp=101–105}} but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.{{sfnm|Kinsley|1988|1pp=50, 103–104|Pintchman|2015|2pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} This partner is Shiva.{{sfn|Pintchman|2014|pp=85–86, 119, 144, 171}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=19–24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232}}

The ''[[Devi Upanishad]]'' in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=77}}{{Sfn|Warrier|1967|pp=77–84}} Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'', a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}<ref>{{cite book|author=David R. Kinsley|title=The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C |year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02675-9|pages=102 with footnote 42}}, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that [[Durga]] is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".</ref> The [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gupteshwar Prasad|title=I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 |year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-37-6|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|page=xix}}</ref>

=== Yoga ===

Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of [[Yogi]]s, and the teacher of [[Yoga]] to sages.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/22 22]}} As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme [[guru]] who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (''atman'') with the ultimate reality (''brahman'')."{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/23 23] }} Shiva is also an archetype for ''samhara'' ({{lang-sa|संहार}}) or ''dissolution'' which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of ''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', which is why Shiva is associated with [[Yoga]].<ref name="inv07">{{cite book|first1=Krishnan|last1=Ramaswamy|first2=Antonio|last2=de Nicolas|first3=Aditi|last3=Banerjee|title=Invading the Sacred|page=59|isbn=978-81-291-1182-1|publisher=Rupa Publication|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samhara|title=Samhara, Saṃhāra: 18 definitions|date=3 August 2014}}</ref>

=== Trimurti ===

{{Main|Trimurti}}

== Attributes ==

[[File:6 Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. 1800 (circa) BM.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the [[Ganges]] flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin.]]

[[File:Indian - Festival Image of Shiva - Walters 543084.jpg|thumb|A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.]]

* '''Ashes''': Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, [[vibhuti]]).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}<ref>This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=92, 161}}</ref> The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.<ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004178960}}, pages 182–183</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7|pages=775–776, 789–790, 551}}</ref>

* '''Meditating yogi''': his iconography often shows him in a [[Yoga]] pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}

* '''Tiger skin''': Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}

* '''Serpents''': Shiva is often shown garlanded with a [[Nāga|snake]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}

* '''Trident''': Shiva typically carries a [[trident]] called ''[[Trishula]]''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.{{sfn | Wayman | Singh | 1991 | p=266}} As a symbol, the ''Trishul'' represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",{{sfn|Suresh Chandra|1998|p=309}} or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three [[Gunas]] of "sattva, rajas and tamas".{{sfn|Sitansu S. Chakravarti|1991|p=51}}

* '''Axe''' (''[[Parashu]]'') and '''Deer''' are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Indian Bronzes|last=C. Sivaramamurti|publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi|year=1963|pages=41}}</ref>

* '''Rosary beads''': he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of ''[[Rudraksha]]''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.<ref>{{cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 |year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3067-5|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Prabhavati C. Reddy|title=Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-80631-8|pages=114–115}}</ref>

* '''Varanasi:''' [[Varanasi]] (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=33}}

== Forms and depictions ==

According to [[Gavin Flood]], "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=150}}</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

| footer = Shiva is represented in his many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=25–26}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]] icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]].

}}

=== Ascetic and householder ===

[[File:2 image collage of Shiva as yogi and householder.jpg|thumb|Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with goddess [[Parvati]].|276x276px]]

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of [[Mohini]], Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] – identified with regional deities [[Ayyappan]] and [[Aiyanar]] – is born.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doniger|first= Wendy |title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&q=mohini+Vishnu&pg=PA263|pages= 263–5 | isbn=978-0-226-15641-5}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |author2=Kidwai, Saleem  |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-29324-6|page = 69}}</ref><ref name="P71">{{cite book |title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt |year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-56023-181-3|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=mohini&pg=PA71|page = 71}}</ref><ref>See [[Mohini#Relationship with Shiva]] for details</ref> In outskirts of Ernakulam in [[Kerala]], a deity named [[Vishnumaya]] is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.<ref name=Saletore>{{cite book|author=RN Saletore|title=Indian Witchcraft|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETz3_bv8t0cC&pg=PA93 |year=1981| publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0-391-02480-9|pages=93}}</ref> In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess [[Manasa]] and [[Ashokasundari]].{{sfn|McDaniel|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/offeringflowersf00mcda/page/n166 156]}}<ref name="mani">{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/62 62], 515–6}}</ref> According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons [[Andhaka]] and [[Jalandhara]] as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.<ref name=doniger1>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=The Bedtrick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfA9ByNVjZ8C&pg=PA72 |year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-15643-9|pages=72, 206}}</ref>

=== Iconographic forms ===

[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]])]]

[[Kalyanasundara]]-murti (Sanskrit कल्याणसुन्दर-मूर्ति, literally "icon of beautiful marriage") is the depiction of Shiva's marriage to [[Parvati]]. The divine couple are often depicted performing the ''[[Hindu wedding#Panigrahana|panigrahana]]'' (Sanskrit "accepting the hand") ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies. [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] texts like the ''Amsumadbhedagama'', the ''Uttara-kamaikagama'' and the ''Purva-Karanagama'' prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao, (1916). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I. Madras: Law Printing House |first=T.A. Gopinatha |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I |publisher=Law Printing House |year=1916 |location=Madras |pages=338–343}}</ref> The most basic form of this ''murti'' consists of only Shiva and Parvati together, but in more elaborate forms they are accompanied by other persons, sometimes including Parvati's parents, as well as deities (often with Vishnu and Lakshmi standing as Parvati's parents, Brahma as the officiating priest, and various other deities as attendants or guests).

[[Somaskanda]] is the depiction of Shiva, Parvati, and their son Skanda ([[Kartikeya]]), popular during the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] Dynasty in southern India.

[[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia]]

{| border="0pt"

||

* [[Bhairava|Aghora]]

|}

{{blockquote|Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=184}}}}

According to the ''[[Pañcabrahma Upanishad]]'':

In the hymn of [[Manikkavacakar]]'s [[Thiruvasagam]], he testifies that at [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]] had, by the pre-[[Chola]] period, an abstract or 'cosmic' symbolism linked to [[Pancha Bhoota|five elements (Pancha Bhoota)]] including ether.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|p=446}} Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of [[Brahman]] and a dance posture of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book |author=James C. Harle |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/309 309]–310}}</ref> [[Sharada Srinivasan]] notes that, [[Nataraja]] is described as [[Satcitananda]] or "Being, Consciousness and Bliss" in the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] text ''Kunchitangrim Bhaje'', resembling the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita doctrine]], or "abstract monism," of [[Adi Shankara]], "which holds the individual Self ([[Jiva|Jīvātman]]) and supream Self ([[Paramatman|Paramātmā]]) to be one," while "an earlier hymn to Nataraja by Manikkavachakar identifies him with the unitary supreme consciousness, by using Tamil word '''Or Unarve''', rather than [[Sanskrit]] '''Chit'''." This may point to an "osmosis" of ideas in [[medieval India]], states Srinivasan.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|pp=447}}<!-- Major other forms list needed: Other forms include [[Virabhadra]] and [[Sharabha]]. -->

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.{{sfnm|Michaels|2004|1p=216|Flood|1996|2p=29}}<ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49–52.</ref> These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the ''yoni'', symbolism for the goddess Shakti.<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> In Shiva temples, the ''linga'' is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.<ref name=britannicalingam /> According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, ''linga'' literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-980-1|pages=572–573}}</ref>

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book  | last = Harding  | first = Elizabeth U.  | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar  | chapter = God, the Father  | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass  | year = 1998  | pages = 156–157  | isbn = 978-81-208-1450-9}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book  | last = Vivekananda  | first = Swami  | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda  | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions  | chapter-url = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm  | volume = 4}}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress" />

=== Buddhism ===

[[File:Tibetan thangka from AD 1500, Mahakala, Protector of the Tent, Central Tibet. Distemper on cloth- (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Mahakala]], c. 1500 CE Tibetan Thangka]]

In [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], Shiva, better known there as [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Maheśvara]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 大自在天; [[pinyin]]: Dàzìzàitiān; or [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 摩醯首羅天 [[pinyin]]: Móxīshǒuluótiān) is considered one of the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty Devas]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 二十諸天, [[pinyin]]: Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty-Four Devas]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 二十四諸天, [[pinyin]]: Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are a group of ''[[dharmapala]]s'' that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/275253538|title=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index|date=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|first1=Lewis |last1=Hodous |first2=William Edward |last2=Soothill|isbn=0-203-64186-8|location=London|oclc=275253538}}</ref> Statues of him are often enshrined in the [[Mahavira Hall]]s of [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] [[Buddhist temple|temples]] along with the other ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]''. In addition, he is also regarded as one of thirty-three manifestations of [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokitesvara]] in the [[Lotus Sutra]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Watson, Burton|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/247391640|title=The lotus sutra|date=1999|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications|isbn=81-7030-633-7|oclc=247391640}}</ref> In [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist cosmology]], Maheśvara resides in [[Akaniṣṭha]], highest of the Śuddhāvāsa ("[[Pure Abodes]]") wherein [[Anāgāmi]] ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to [[Arhat]]hood and who will attain enlightenment are born.

In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in art, films, books, tattoos, etc. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/lord-shiva-god-of-cool-things-wendy-doniger/1/261983.html|title=Shiva, the god of cool things|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> and a "bonafide rock hero".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/onmyplate/shiva-the-brand-god-who-never-fails/|title=Shiva, the brand God who never fails|work=Economic Times Blog|access-date=2017-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

Popular video games featuring Shiva include the [[Shin Megami Tensei]] series and especially [[Smite (video game)|Smite]]. The god is also depicted as the mascot for the Washington Commanders in the popular animated series, Gridiron Heights.

* {{cite book|last=Coburn|first=Thomas B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC|title=Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1991|isbn=0-7914-0446-3}}

* {{cite book|last=Coburn|first=Thomas B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC|title=Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition|publisher=South Asia Books|year=2002|isbn=81-208-0557-7}}

* {{cite book |last1=Cush |first1=Denise |last2=Robinson |first2=Catherine A. |last3=York |first3=Michael |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 }}

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* {{cite book |last=Gonda |first=Jan |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ |year=1975 |author-link=Jan Gonda |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-04330-6}}

* {{cite journal |last=Granoff |first=Phyllis |year=2003 |jstor=41913237 |title=Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali |volume=77, Fasc. 1/4 |pages=95–114}}

* {{cite book|last=Gupta|first=Shakti M.|title=Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva|year=1988|publisher=Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=Bombay|isbn=81-7039-186-5}}

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* {{cite book|last=Kramrisch|first=Stella|title=The Presence of Śiva|url=https://archive.org/details/presenceofsiva0000kram|url-access=registration|year=1994a|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=0-691-01930-4}}

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* {{cite book |last=Lochtefeld |first=James |year=2002 |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1 & 2|publisher=Rosen Publishing|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Rajarajan |first=R.K.K. |year=1996 |title=Vṛṣabhavāhanamūrti in Literature and Art |url=https://www.academia.edu/12964639 |journal=Annali del Istituto Orientale, Naples |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=305–10}}

* {{cite book |last=Rocher |first=Ludo |year=1986|author-link=Ludo Rocher|title=The Puranas|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02522-5}}

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* {{citation|first=Sarvapalli|last=Radhakrishnan |year=1953|url=https://archive.org/stream/PrincipalUpanishads/129481965-The-Principal-Upanishads-by-S-Radhakrishnan#page/n929/mode/2up |title=The Principal Upanishads| location=New Delhi| publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India (1994 Reprint)| isbn=81-7223-124-5|author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan}}

* {{cite book|last=Sastri|first=A Mahadeva|year=1898|publisher=Thomson & Co.|title=Amritabindu and Kaivalya Upanishads with Commentaries|url=https://archive.org/stream/amritabindukaiva00mahauoft#page/70/mode/2up}}

* {{cite book |last=Scharf |first=Peter M. |year=1996 |title=The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā |publisher=American Philosophical Society |isbn=978-0-87169-863-6}}

* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564441-8}}

* {{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ram Karan|year=1988|title=Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata|place=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|edition=Second|isbn=81-208-0544-5}}

* {{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Debabrata Sen |title=The philosophy of sādhanā : with special reference to the Trika philosophy of Kashmir |date=1990 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791403471}}

* {{cite journal |last=Singh |first=S. P. |title=Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo-Daro |journal=Puratattva |volume=19 |pages=19–26 |year=1989}}

* {{cite book |last=Sircar |first=Dineschandra |title=The Śākta Pīṭhas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I969qn5fpvcC&pg=PA3 |year=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0879-9 }}

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