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{{Short description|Venomous snake species from Asia}} | |||
{{About|the snake || King Cobra (disambiguation)}} | |||
{{Distinguish|Indian cobra}} | |||
{{pp|small=yes}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}} | |||
{{Speciesbox | {{Speciesbox | ||
| name = King cobra | | name = King cobra | ||
| Line 5: | Line 10: | ||
| status = VU | | status = VU | ||
| status_system = IUCN3.1 | | status_system = IUCN3.1 | ||
| status_ref =<ref name= | | status_ref =<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Ophiophagus hannah'' |author=Stuart, B. |author2=Wogan, G. |author3=Grismer, L. |author4=Auliya, M. |author5=Inger, R.F. |author6=Lilley, R. |author7=Chan-Ard, T. |author8=Thy, N. |author9=Nguyen, T.Q. |author10=Srinivasulu, C. |author11=Jelić, D. |date=2012 |page=e.T177540A1491874 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T177540A1491874.en |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> | ||
| status2 = CITES_A2 | |||
| status2_system = CITES | |||
| status2_ref = <ref name=iucn/> | |||
| display_parents = 2 | | display_parents = 2 | ||
| genus = Ophiophagus | | genus = Ophiophagus | ||
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}} | }} | ||
The ''' | The '''king cobra''' (''Ophiophagus hannah'') is a [[venomous snake]] species of [[elapids]] [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[jungle]]s in [[South Asia|Southern]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. The [[monotypic|sole member]] of the genus ''Ophiophagus'', it is distinguishable from other [[Naja|cobras]], most noticeably by its size and neck patterns. The king cobra is the world's longest venomous snake, with an average length of {{convert|3.18|to|4|m|abbr=on}},<ref name="mehrtens">{{cite book |last=Mehrtens |first=J. |title=Living Snakes of the World |chapter=King Cobra, Hamadryad (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |year=1987 |publisher=Sterling |location=New York |isbn=0-8069-6461-8 |page=263– |url=https://archive.org/details/livingsnakesofwo00mehr |url-access=registration}}</ref> reaching a maximum of {{convert|5.85|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Chanhome2011" /> Its skin colour varies across the [[habitats]], from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. It preys chiefly on other snakes, including [[Cannibalism|its own species]]. Unlike other snakes, it rarely hunts other [[vertebrates]], such as [[rodents]] and [[lizards]]. | ||
Like most [[cobras]] and [[mamba]]s, the king cobra's [[threat display]] includes spreading its neck-flap, raising its head upright, puffing, and hissing. Despite its fearsome reputation, the king cobra avoids confrontation with humans whenever possible. When provoked, however, it is capable of striking a target at long range and well above the ground. Rather than biting and retreating, it may sustain its bite and inject a large quantity of venom, which is a medical emergency.<ref name="VS" /><ref name="Davidson" /> | |||
Regarded as the national reptile of [[India]],<ref>{{cite web |title=King Cobra – National Reptile of India |url=http://www.indiamapped.com/national-symbols-of-india/national-reptile/ |publisher=indiamapped}}</ref> this species has an eminent position in [[mythology]] and folk traditions of [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Myanmar]].<ref name="Minton">{{cite book |author=Minton, S.A. Jr. and M.R. Minton |year=1980 |title=Venomous reptiles |url=https://archive.org/details/venomousreptiles0000mint |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |isbn=9780684166261}}</ref><ref name="Platt2012">{{cite journal |author=Platt, S.G. |author2=Ko, W.K. and Rainwater, T.R. |year=2012 |title=On the Cobra Cults of Myanmar (Burma) |journal=Chicago Herpetological Society |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=17–20}}</ref> Threatened by [[habitat destruction]], the king cobra has been listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 2010.<ref name=iucn /> | |||
== Taxonomy == | |||
The king cobra is also referred to by the common name "[[hamadryad]]", especially in older literature. ''Hamadryas hannah'' was the [[scientific name]] used by Danish naturalist [[Theodore Edward Cantor]] in 1836 who [[Scientific description|described]] four king cobra specimens, three [[Type locality (biology)|captured in]] the [[Sundarbans]] and one in the vicinity of [[Kolkata]].<ref name=Cantor1836>{{Cite journal |last=Cantor |first=T. E. |year=1836 |title=Sketch of an undescribed hooded serpent, with fangs and maxillar teeth |journal=Asiatic Researches |volume= 19 |pages=87–93 |url=https://archive.org/stream/asiaticresearche181836cal#page/86/mode/2up}}</ref> | |||
''[[Naja]] bungarus'' was proposed by [[Hermann Schlegel]] in 1837 who described a king cobra [[zoological specimen]] from [[Java]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schlegel |first1=H. |year=1837 |title=Essai sur la physionomie des serpens |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Schonekat |pages=476 |chapter=Le Naja Bongare. ''N. bungarus'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/essaisurlaphysio02schl/page/476}}</ref> | |||
In 1838, Cantor proposed the name ''Hamadryas ophiophagus'' for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera ''Naja'' and ''[[Bungarus]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cantor |first=T. E. |year=1838 |title=A notice of the Hamadryas, a genus of hooded serpent with poisonous fangs and maxillary teeth |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |pages= 72–75 |volume=6 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30571131}}</ref> | |||
''Naia vittata'' proposed by [[Walter Elliot (naturalist)|Walter Elliot]] in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near [[Chennai]] that was floating in a basket.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Elliot, W. |year=1840 |title=Description of a New Species of Naga, or Cobra de Capello |journal=Madras Journal of Literature and Science |volume=11 |pages=39–41 |url=https://archive.org/details/madrasjournalofl1118madr/page/n55}}</ref> | |||
''Hamadryas elaps'' proposed by [[Albert Günther]] in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the [[Philippines]] and [[Borneo]]. Günther considered both ''N. bungarus'' and ''N. vittata'' a variety of ''H. elaps''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Günther |first1=A. |title=Catalogue of colubrine snakes in the collection of the British Museum |date=1858 |publisher=Printed by order of the Trustees |location=London |page=219 |url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcolub00brituoft/page/219}}</ref> | |||
The [[Genus (biology)|genus]] ''Ophiophagus'' was proposed by Günther in 1864.<ref>{{cite book |author=Günther, A. C. L. G. |year=1864 |title=The Reptiles of British India |publisher=Ray Society |location=London |chapter=''Ophiophagus'', Gthr. |pages=340–342 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.42645/2015.42645.The-Reptiles-Of-British-India#page/n371/mode/2up}}</ref> The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes.<ref name="OSHEA">{{cite book|last=O'Shea|first= M. |year=2005 |title=Venomous Snakes of the World |pages=96–97 |publisher=Princeton University Press|location= New Jersey, USA |isbn=978-0-691-12436-0}}</ref> | |||
The [[ | ''Naja ingens'' proposed by [[:fr:Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt|Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt]] in 1882 was a king cobra captured near [[Tebing Tinggi]] in northern Sumatra.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Van Hasselt, A. W. M. |year=1882 |title=Eene Monster-Naja |journal=Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen |series=2 |volume=17 |pages=140–143 |url=https://archive.org/details/verslagenenmeded2171koni/page/n157}}</ref> | ||
''Ophiophagus hannah'' was accepted as the [[Valid name (zoology)|valid name]] for the king cobra by [[Charles Mitchill Bogert]] in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from ''Naja'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bogert, C. M. |year=1945 |title=''Hamadryas'' Preoccupied for the King Cobra |journal=Copeia |volume=1945 |issue=1 |page=47 |doi=10.2307/1438180 |jstor=1438180}}</ref> | |||
A [[genetic analysis]] using [[cytochrome b]],<ref>{{cite journal| title=Phylogenetic Relationships of Elapid Snakes Based on Cytochrome b mtDNA Sequences |author-link=Joseph Bruno Slowinski |last1=Slowinski |first1=J. B. |last2=Keogh |first2=J. S. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=15 |issue= 1|pages=157–164 |date=2000 |doi=10.1006/mpev.1999.0725| pmid=10764543 |url=https://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/Scott/2000slowinskikeoghmpe.pdf}}</ref> and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a [[genetic lineage]] giving rise to the [[mamba]]s, rather than the ''Naja'' cobras.<ref name="Figueroa16">{{Cite journal |last1=Figueroa |first1=A. |last2=McKelvy |first2=A. D. |last3=Grismer |first3=L. L. |last4=Bell |first4=C. D. |last5=Lailvaux |first5=S. P. |title=A species-level phylogeny of extant snakes with description of a new colubrid subfamily and genus |journal=PLOS ONE|year=2016 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=e0161070 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161070 |pmid=27603205 |pmc=5014348 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161070F|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
A [[Phylogeny|phylogenetic]] analysis of [[mitochondrial DNA]] showed that specimens from [[Surat Thani Province|Surattani]] and [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Province]]s in southern Thailand form a deeply [[Genetic divergence|divergent]] [[clade]] from those from northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.5372/1905-7415.0802.289 |title=Phylogenetic analysis of the king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in Thailand based on mitochondrial DNA sequences |journal=Asian Biomedicine |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=269–274 |year=2014|last1=Suntrarachun |first1=S. |last2=Chanhome |first2=L. |last3=Sumontha |first3=M.|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
== Description == | |||
[[File:Ophiophagus scalation.png|thumb|Scales of the king cobra]] | |||
[[File:Baby king cobra neck pattern.JPG|thumb|A baby king cobra showing its chevron pattern on the back]] | |||
The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth [[scale (anatomy)|scales]] and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black.<ref name=Cantor1836/> | |||
It has a pair of large [[occipital scales]] on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with [[chevron (insignia)|chevron]] shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head.<ref name=Smith1943>{{cite book |author=Smith, M. A. |year=1943 |title=The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese Subregion |volume=Reptilia and Amphibia. III. – Serpentes |location=London |publisher=Taylor and Francis |pages=436–438 |chapter=''Naja hannah''. Hamadryad, King Cobra |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.62194/page/n447}}</ref> | |||
Adult king cobras are {{convert|3.18|to|4|m|abbr=on}} long. The longest known individual measured {{convert|5.85|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Chanhome2011">{{cite journal |author=Chanhome, L. |author2=Cox, M. J. |author3=Vasaruchapong, T. |author4=Chaiyabutr, N. |author5=Sitprija, V. |year=2011 |title=Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand |journal=Asian Biomedicine 5 |issue=3 |pages=311–328}}</ref> Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.<ref>{{cite book |author=Martin, D. L. |year=2012 |chapter=Identification of Reptile Skin Products Using Scale Morphology |pages=161–199 |title=Wildlife Forensics: Methods and Applications |editor1-last=J. E. Huffman, J. R. Wallace |location=Oxford |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781119954293 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EstjD_GgFvQC&pg=PT187}}</ref> | |||
The king cobra is sexually [[Sexual dimorphism|dimorphic]], with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to {{convert|3.75|m|abbr=on}} and weighed up to {{convert|10|kg|abbr=on}}. Females captured had a maximum length of {{convert|2.75|m|abbr=on}} and a weight of {{convert|5|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Shankar2013/> | |||
The largest known king cobra was {{convert|18|ft|4|in|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} long and captured in Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Burton, R. W. |year=1950 |title=The record hamadryad or king cobra [''Naja hannah'' (Cantor)] and lengths and weights of large specimens |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=49 |pages=561–562 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbo4919501951bomb/page/561}}</ref> | |||
It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.<ref name="VS">{{cite book |title=Venomous snakes of the world |author=O'Shea, M. |year=2008 |isbn=9781847730862 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |location=London, Cape Town, Sydney, Auckland}}</ref> | |||
The head of a mature snake can be quite massive and bulky in appearance. Like most extant snakes, due to macrostomy, it can expand its jaws to swallow large prey items. It has [[proteroglyph]] dentition, meaning it has two short, fixed fangs in the front of the mouth, which channel venom into the prey. These are behind the usual "nine-plate" arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids, and are unique to the king cobra.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} | |||
The king cobra typically weighs about {{convert|6|kg|abbr=on}}. A captive one at the [[London Zoo]] grew to {{convert|5.71|m|abbr=on}} before being [[Animal euthanasia|euthanised]] upon the outbreak of [[World War II]]. The heaviest wild specimen was caught at Royal Island Club in [[Singapore]] in 1951, which weighed {{convert|12|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and measured {{convert|4.8|m|ft|abbr=on}}. An individual kept at [[Bronx Zoo]] weighed {{convert|12.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and was {{convert|4.4|m|abbr=on}} long in 1972.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} | |||
== Distribution and habitat == | |||
The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}} from the [[Terai]] in India and southern Nepal to the [[Brahmaputra River]] basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.<ref name=iucn /> | |||
In northern India, it has been recorded in [[Garhwal Himalaya|Garhwal]] and [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]], and in the [[Sivalik hills|Shivalik]] and [[terai]] regions of [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="GarhwalRecord">{{cite journal |author1=Singh, A. |author2=Joshi, R. |year=2016 |title=A first record of the King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) nest from Garhwal Himalaya, northern India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=31 |pages=9–11}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dolia, J. |year=2018 |title=Notes on the distribution and natural history of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'' Cantor, 1836) from the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand, India |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=11 |pages=217–222 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/viewFile/27841/31999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kanaujia, A., Kumar, A. |author2=Kumar, A. |year=2017 |title=Herpetofauna of Uttar Pradesh, India |journal=Biological Forum |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=118–130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327860961}}</ref> In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern [[West Bengal]], [[Sikkim]], [[Assam]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]] and [[Mizoram]].<ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014">{{cite book |title=Snakes of the world: A catalogue of living and extinct species |last1=Wallach |first1=V. |last2=Williams |first2=K.L. |last3=Boundy |first3=J. |author-link1=Van Wallach |year=2014 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group |location=Florida |isbn=9781482208481 |pages=507–508}}</ref><ref name=SikkimKingCobra>{{cite journal |author1=Bashir, T. |author2=Poudyal, K. |author3=Bhattacharya, T. |author4=Sathyakumar, S. |author5=Subba, J. B. |year=2010 |title=Sighting of King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in Sikkim, India: a new altitude record for the northeast |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=990–991 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.o2438.990-1 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
In the [[Eastern Ghats]], it occurs from [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] to coastal [[Odisha]], and also in [[Bihar]] and southern [[West Bengal]], especially the [[Sundarbans]].<ref name=Cantor1836/><ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Murthy, K.L.N. |author2=Murthy, K.V.R. |year=2012 |title=Sightings of King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in northern coastal Andhra Pradesh |journal=Reptile Rap |volume=14 |pages=29–32}}</ref> In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]], and also in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yadav, O. V. |author2=Yankanchi, S. R. |year=2015 |title=Occurence of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' Cantor, 1836 (Squamata, Elapidae) in Tillari, Maharashtra, India |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=8 |pages=493–494 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/download/12276/16040}}</ref><ref name=Shankar2013>{{cite journal |author1=Shankar, P. G. |author2=Ganesh, S. R. |author3=Whitaker, R. |author4=Prashanth, P. |year=2013 |title=King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Cantor, 1836) encounters in human-modified rainforests of the Western Ghats, India |journal=Hamadryad |issue=36 |pages=62–68 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308419322}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Palot, M. J. |year=2015 |title=A checklist of reptiles of Kerala, India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=7 |issue=13 |pages=8010–8022 |doi=10.11609/jott.2002.7.13.8010-8022 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It also occurs on [[Baratang Island]] in the [[Great Andaman]] chain.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Manchi, S. |author2=Sankaran, R. |year=2009 |title=Predators of swiftlets and their nests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands |journal=Indian Birds |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=118–120}}</ref> | |||
== Behaviour and ecology== | |||
{{multiple image |direction=vertical |align=right |footer=Captive king cobras with their hoods extended | |||
|image1=Ophiophagus hannah2.jpg |image2=King-Cobra.jpg}} | |||
Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its [[forked tongue]], which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor ([[Vomeronasal organ|Jacobson's organ]]) located in the roof of its mouth.<ref name="mehrtens" /> When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne [[vibration]] and detects moving prey almost {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} away.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} | |||
Following [[envenomation]], it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered [[Diurnal animal|diurnal]] because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.<ref name="mehrtens" /> | |||
=== Diet === | |||
[[File:King-Cobra-India.jpg|alt=King cobra in Pune|thumb|King cobra in [[Pune]], India]] | |||
The king cobra is an [[apex predator]] and dominant over all other snakes except large [[Python (genus)|pythons]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Marshall, B.M. |author2=Strine, C.T. |author3=Jones, M.D. |author4=Theodorou, A. |author5=Amber, E. |author6=Waengsothorn, S. |author7=Suwanwaree, P. |author8=Goode, M. |title=Hits close to home: repeated persecution of King Cobras (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in northeastern Thailand |journal=Tropical Conservation Science |year=2018 |volume=11 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1177/1940082918818401 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and [[lizards]], including [[Indian cobra]], [[banded krait]], [[rat snake]], [[Pythonidae|pythons]], [[green whip snake]], [[keelback]], [[Lycodon fasciatus|banded wolf snake]] and [[Blyth's reticulated snake]].<ref name=Wall1924/> | |||
It also hunts [[Malabar pit viper]] and [[hump-nosed pit viper]] by following their odour trails.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bhaisare, D. |author2=Ramanuj, V. |author3=Shankar, P. G. |author4=Vittala, M. |author5=Goode, M. |author6=Whitaker, R. |year=2010 |title=Observations on a wild King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah''), with emphasis on foraging and diet |journal=IRCF Reptiles & Amphibians |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=95–102}}</ref> In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a [[clouded monitor]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kurniawan, A. |author2=Lee, G. |author3=bin Tohed, N. |author4=Low, M.-R. |year=2018 |title=King cobra feeding on a monitor lizard at night |journal=Singapore Biodiversity Records |volume=2018 |page=63 |url=https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2018/01/sbr2018-063.pdf}}</ref> | |||
When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow [[Metabolism|metabolic rate]].<ref name="mehrtens" /><ref name="coborn" /> | |||
=== Defense === | |||
[[File:Elapidae - Ophiophagus hannah.JPG|thumb|upright|A king cobra in its defensive posture (mounted specimen at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]])]] | |||
The king cobra is not considered aggressive.<ref name="Tweedie">{{cite book |last=Tweedie |first=M. W. F. |title=The Snakes of Malaya |year=1983 |publisher=Singapore National Printers Ltd. |location=Singapore |page=142 |oclc=686366097}}</ref> It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the [[hood (cobra anatomy)|hood]], shows the [[fang]]s and hisses loudly.<ref name=Wall1924>{{cite journal |author=Wall, F. |year=1924 |title=The Hamadryad or King Cobra ''Naja hannah'' (Cantor) |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=189–195 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalof301219241925bomb/page/n271}}</ref><ref name="Greene">{{cite book |last=Greene |first=H. W. |title=Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |location=California, USA |isbn=0-520-22487-6 |chapter=Antipredator tactics of snakes |pages=103–111 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=io1TYkFAur8C&pg=PA111-IA1}}</ref> | |||
Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lim, K. K. P. |author2=Leong, T. M. |author3=Lim, L. K. |year= 2011 |title=The king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Cantor) in Singapore (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) |journal=Nature in Singapore |volume=4 |pages=143–156 |url=https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/06/2011nis143-156.pdf}}</ref> | |||
The king cobra possesses a potent neurotoxic venom and death can occur in as little as 30 minutes after being bitten.<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991/> Most victims bitten by king cobras are [[snake charmers]].<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991>{{Cite journal |author=Tin-Myint |author2=Rai-Mra |author3=Maung-Chit |author4=Tun-Pe |author5=Warrell, D. |title=Bites by the king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in Myanmar: Successful treatment of severe neurotoxic envenoming |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Medicine |volume=80 |issue=293 |pages=751–762 |year=1991 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a068624 |pmid=1754675 }}</ref> Hospital records in Thailand indicate that bites from king cobras are very uncommon.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Viravan, C. |author2=Looareesuwan, S. |author3=Kosakarn, W. |author4=Wuthiekanun, V. |author5=McCarthy, C. J. |author6=Stimson, A. F. |author7=Warrell, D. A. |year=1992 |title=A national hospital-based survey of snakes responsible for bites in Thailand |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=100–106 |doi=10.1016/0035-9203(92)90463-m |pmid=1566285 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pochanugool, C. |author2=Wilde, H. |author3=Bhanganada, K. |author4=Chanhome, L. |author5=Cox, M. J. |author6=Chaiyabutr, N. |author7=Sitprija, V. |year=1998 |title=Venomous snakebite in Thailand II: Clinical experience |journal= Military Medicine |volume=163 |issue=5 |pages=318–323 |doi=10.1093/milmed/163.5.318 |pmid=9597849 }}</ref> | |||
The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.<ref name="Davidson">{{cite web |url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Ophiopha.htm |title=Immediate First Aid |access-date=24 September 2011 |last=Davidson |first=T. |publisher=University of California, San Diego}}</ref> | |||
=== Growling hiss === | |||
The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 [[hertz|Hz]] with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal [[diverticulum|diverticula]] that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=B. A. |doi=10.1002/jez.1402600302 |title=Morphological basis of "growling" in the king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' |year=1991 |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |volume=260 |issue=3 |pages=275–287 |pmid=1744612}}</ref> | |||
=== Reproduction === | |||
[[File:Baby king cobra front view.JPG|thumb|upright|A captive juvenile king cobra in its defensive posture]] | |||
The female is [[Gravidity|gravid]] for 50 to 59 days.<ref name="Chanhome2011" /> | |||
The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter, starting from late March to late May.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, N. |author2=Shankar, P. G. |author3=Whitaker, R. |year=2013 |title=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in India |journal=Hamadryad |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=101–107 |url=http://www.academia.edu/download/32064158/Whitaker_et_al_Nesting_Ecology_of_the_King_Cobra_(Ophiophagus_hannah)_in_India.pdf}}</ref> Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to {{convert|55|cm|abbr=on}} high in the center and {{convert|140|cm|abbr=on}} wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hrima, V. L. |author2=Sailo, V. H. |author3=Fanai, Z. |author4=Lalronunga, S. |author5=Lalrinchhana, C. |year=2014 |chapter=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'', (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) in Aizawl District, Mizoram, India |title=Issues and Trends of Wildlife Conservation in Northeast India |pages=268–274 |publisher=Mizo Academy of Sciences |location=Aizawl |editor1=Lalnuntluanga |editor2=Zothanzama, J. |editor3=Lalramliana |editor4=Lalduhthlana |editor5=Lalremsanga, H. T. |isbn=9788192432175 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263008786}}</ref> | |||
Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after [[incubation period]]s of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from {{Convert|13.5|to|37.4|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between {{convert|37.5|and|58.5|cm|abbr=on}} long and weigh {{convert|9|to|38|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013/> | |||
The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.<ref name="VS" /> | |||
The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} | |||
== Venom == | == Venom == | ||
The venom from a | [[File:Ophiophagus hannah skull.jpg|thumb|King cobra skull, lateral view, showing fangs]] | ||
The king cobra's [[venom]] consists of [[cytotoxin]]s and [[neurotoxin]]s, including [[alpha-neurotoxin]]s and [[three-finger toxin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chang, L.-S. |author2=Liou, J.-C. |author3=Lin, S.-R. |author4=Huang, H.-B. |pmid=12056805 |year=2002 |title=Purification and characterization of a neurotoxin from the venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) |volume=294 |issue=3 |pages=574–578 |doi=10.1016/S0006-291X(02)00518-1 |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=He, Y. Y. |author2=Lee, W. H. |author3=Zhang, Y. |year=2004 |title=Cloning and purification of alpha-neurotoxins from king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |journal=Toxicon |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=295–303 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.003|pmid=15302536 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Li, J. |author2=Zhang, H. |author3=Liu, J. |author4=Xu, K. |year=2006 |title=Novel genes encoding six kinds of three-finger toxins in ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) and function characterization of two recombinant long-chain neurotoxins |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=398 |issue=2 |pages=233–342 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060004|pmid=16689684 |pmc=1550305 }}</ref><ref name="HT">{{cite journal |pmid=20071329 |title=Structural and Functional Characterization of a Novel Homodimeric Three-finger Neurotoxin from the Venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) |year=2010 |last1=Roy |first1=A. |last2=Zhou |first2=X. |last3=Chong |first3=M. Z. |last4=d'Hoedt |first4=D. |last5=Foo |first5=C. S. |last6=Rajagopalan |first6=N. |last7=Nirthanan |first7=S. |last8=Bertrand |first8=D. |last9=Sivaraman |first9=J. |volume=285 |issue=11 |pages=8302–8315 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M109.074161 |pmc=2832981 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |last10=Kini|first10=R. M.|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other components have [[cardiotoxic]] effects.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rajagopalan, N. |author2=Pung, Y. F. |author3=Zhu, Y. Z. |author4=Wong, P. T. H. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |title=β-Cardiotoxin: A new three-finger toxin from ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) venom with beta-blocker activity |doi=10.1096/fj.07-8658com |year=2007 |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=21 |issue=13 |pages=3685–3695 |pmid=17616557|s2cid=21235585 }}</ref> Its venom is produced in anatomical glands named postorbital venom glands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vonk|first1=Freek J.|last2=Casewell|first2=Nicholas R.|last3=Henkel|first3=Christiaan V.|last4=Heimberg|first4=Alysha M.|last5=Jansen|first5=Hans J.|last6=McCleary|first6=Ryan J. R.|last7=Kerkkamp|first7=Harald M. E.|last8=Vos|first8=Rutger A.|last9=Guerreiro|first9=Isabel|last10=Calvete|first10=Juan J.|last11=Wüster|first11=Wolfgang|date=2013-12-17|title=The king cobra genome reveals dynamic gene evolution and adaptation in the snake venom system|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=110|issue=51|pages=20651–20656|doi=10.1073/pnas.1314702110|issn=0027-8424|pmid=24297900|pmc=3870661|bibcode=2013PNAS..11020651V|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite,<ref name="LD50"/> with a {{LD50}} toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through [[intravenous injection]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ganthavorn, S. |year=1969 |title=Toxicities of Thailand snake venoms and neutralization capacity of antivenin |journal=Toxicon |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(69)90012-9 |pmid=5358069}}</ref> 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through [[subcutaneous injection]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Broad, A. J. |author2=Sutherland, S. K. |author3=Coulter, A. R. |year=1979 |title=The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom |journal=Toxicon |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=661–664 |url=http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu5/broad1979b.pdf|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(79)90245-9 |pmid=524395 }}</ref> | |||
and 1.644 mg/kg through [[intraperitoneal injection]].<ref name="LD50">{{cite web |url=http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html |title=LD50 (Archived) |author=Séan Thomas |author2=Eugene Griessel – Dec 1999 |name-list-style=amp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201062634/http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html |archive-date=1 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="Engelmann">{{cite book |last=Engelmann |first=Wolf-Eberhard |title=Snakes: Biology, Behavior, and Relationship to Man |year=1981 |publisher=Leipzig Publishing; English version published by Exeter Books (1982) |location=Leipzig; English version NY, USA |isbn=0-89673-110-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/snakesbiologybeh0000enge/page/222 222] |url=https://archive.org/details/snakesbiologybeh0000enge/page/222 }}</ref><ref name="CRC Press">{{cite book |title=Handbook of clinical toxicology of animal venoms and poisons |publisher=CRC Press |volume=236 |year=1995 |location=USA |isbn=0-8493-4489-1}}</ref> For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom was obtained through milking.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Choo Hock|last2=Tan|first2=Kae Yi|last3=Fung|first3=Shin Yee|last4=Tan|first4=Nget Hong|date=2015-09-10|title=Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-015-1828-2|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=16|issue=1|pages=687|doi=10.1186/s12864-015-1828-2|pmid=26358635|issn=1471-2164|pmc=4566206}}</ref> | |||
The toxins affect the victim's [[central nervous system]], resulting in severe pain, blurred vision, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], [[drowsiness]], and eventually [[paralysis]]. If the envenomation is serious, it progresses to [[Cardiovascular system|cardiovascular]] collapse, and the victim falls into a [[coma]]. Death soon follows due to [[respiratory failure]]. The affected person can die within 30 minutes of envenomation.<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991/> Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes [[hypolocomotion]] and [[hyperalgesia]] in mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pung, Y. F. |author2=Kumar, S. V. |author3=Rajagopalan, N. |author4=Fry, B. G. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |pmid=16472942 |year=2006 |title=Ohanin, a novel protein from king cobra venom: Its cDNA and genomic organization |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=246–256 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2005.12.002 |journal=Gene}}</ref> Large quantities of [[antivenom]] may be needed to reverse the progression of symptoms.<ref name="Davidson" /> | |||
Polyvalent [[antivenom]] of [[equine]] origin is produced by [[Haffkine Institute]] and [[King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, R. |author2=Whitaker, S. |year=2012 |title=Venom, antivenom production and the medically important snakes of India |journal=Current Science |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=635–643 |url=http://www.she-india.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/CURRSCI_Venoms-Antivenoms-and-Snakes-of-Med-Imp_RWSW.pdf}}</ref> | |||
A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai [[Red Cross]] Society can effectively neutralize venom of the king cobra.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Leong, P. K. |author2=Sim, S. M. |author3=Fung, S. Y. |author4=Sumana, K. |author5=Sitprija, V. |author6=Tan, N. H. |year=2012 |title=Cross Neutralization of Afro-Asian Cobra and Asian Krait Venoms by a Thai Polyvalent Snake Antivenom (Neuro Polyvalent Snake Antivenom) |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=6 |issue=6 |page=e1672 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001672|pmid=22679522 |doi-access=free |pmc=3367981 }}</ref> In Thailand, a [[concoction]] of [[turmeric]] [[root]] has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ernst, C. H. |author2=Evelyn, M. |title=Venomous Reptiles of the United States, Canada, and Northern Mexico |volume=1: Heloderma, Micruroides, Micrurus, Pelamis, Agkistrodon, Sistrurus |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8018-9875-4 |pages=33–46 |chapter=Treatment of envenomation by reptiles |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8DTAQffi4UC&pg=PA44}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salama |first1=R. |last2=Sattayasai |first2=J. |last3=Gande |first3=A. K. |last4=Sattayasai |first4=N. |last5=Davis |first5=M. |last6=Lattmann |first6=E. |year=2012 |title=Identification and evaluation of agents isolated from traditionally used herbs against ''Ophiophagus hannah'' venom |journal=Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=18–23}}</ref> Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and [[inpatient care]].<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991/> | |||
Not all king cobra bites result in envenomation, but they are often considered for medical importance.<ref name="MG">{{cite web |last=Mathew, Gera |first=JL, T |title=Ophitoxaemia (Venomous snakebite) |url=http://www.priory.com/med/ophitoxaemia.htm |work=MEDICINE ON-LINE |access-date=20 October 2013}}</ref> Clinical mortality rates vary between different regions and depend on many factors, such as local medical advancement. A Thai survey reports 10 deaths out of 35 patients received for king cobra bites, whose fatality rate posed (28%) is higher than those of other cobra species.<ref name="Norris">{{cite web |last=Norris MD |first=Robert L. |title=Cobra Envenomation |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/771918-overview#a0199 |publisher=Medscape |access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> The Department of Clinical Toxinology of the [[University of Adelaide]] gives this serpent a general untreated fatality rate of 50–60%, implying that the snake has about a half chance to deliver bites involving nonfatal quantities of venom.<ref name="UOA">{{cite web |url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0048 |title=''Ophiophagus hannah'' |publisher=University of Adelaide}}</ref> | |||
== Threats == | |||
In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by [[habitat destruction]] owing to [[deforestation]] and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by [[poaching]] for its meat, skin and for use in [[traditional Chinese medicine]].<ref name=iucn /> | |||
== Conservation == | |||
The king cobra is listed in [[CITES Appendix II]]. It is protected in China and Vietnam.<ref name=iucn /> | |||
In India, it is placed under Schedule II of [[Wildlife Protection Act, 1972]]. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.<ref name="TOIKC">{{cite news |title=King cobra under threat, put on red list |author=Sivakumar, B. |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=2012 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/chennai/32507498_1_longest-venomous-snake-king-cobras-iucn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201000438/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/chennai/32507498_1_longest-venomous-snake-king-cobras-iucn |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-01}}</ref> | |||
== Cultural significance == | |||
A ritual in [[Myanmar]] involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual.<ref name="Platt2012" /><ref name="coborn">{{cite book |last=Coborn |first=J. |title=The Atlas of Snakes of the World |publisher=TFH Publications |year=1991 |pages=30, 452 |isbn=978-0-86622-749-0}}</ref> | |||
Members of the [[Pakokku]] clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that potentially might [[mithridatism|protect]] them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.<ref name="coborn" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYFVB4HW_UC&pg=PA15 |title=Secrets of the Snake Charmer: Snakes in the 21st Century |author=Murphy, J. C. |year=2010 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4502-2127-6}}</ref><!-- In the Indian subcontinent, the king cobra is believed to possess exceptional memory. According to a myth, the picture of the killer of a king cobra stays in the eyes of the snake, which is later picked up by the partner and is used to hunt down the killer for revenge. Because of this myth, whenever a cobra is killed, especially in India, the head is either crushed or burned to damage the eyes completely.In the nations of the Indian subcontinent, the cobra in general is also associated with the two principal gods, [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]. Shiva, the "destroyer" ascetic warrior, wears one around his neck. Vishnu is shielded from the sun by a gigantic five-headed cobra called [[Kaliya]], which was once his enemy. Serpentine inhabitants of the underworld known as ''[[Nagas]]'' also mostly resemble cobras. | |||
<ref name ="Taylor">{{cite magazine |last=Taylor |first=David |title=King Cobra |year=1997 |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kingcobra/index-n.html |access-date=8 September 2007 |magazine=[[National Geographic Magazine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820143553/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kingcobra/index-n.html |archive-date=20 August 2007}}</ref> commented out as website doesn't work--> | |||
{{Clear|left}} | |||
== References== | == References == | ||
{{ | {{Reflist}} | ||
== External links == | |||
{{Commons and category|Ophiophagus hannah|Ophiophagus_hannah}} | |||
{{Wikispecies|Ophiophagus hannah}} | |||
* [https://www.thailandsnakes.com/cobras/king-cobra-venomous-deadly/ ''Ophiophagus hannah'' Research and Information] | |||
== | {{Symbols of India}} | ||
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q48186|from2=Q14564444}} | |||
[[Category:Apex predators]] | |||
[[Category:Elapidae]] | [[Category:Elapidae]] | ||
[[Category:Snakes of Asia]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Bangladesh]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Bhutan]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Brunei]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Cambodia]] | |||
[[Category:Snakes of China]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Hong Kong]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of India]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Indonesia]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Laos]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Malaysia]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Myanmar]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Nepal]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Thailand]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of the Philippines]] | |||
[[Category:Reptiles of Vietnam]] | |||
[[Category:Fauna of Borneo]] | |||
[[Category:National symbols of India]] | [[Category:National symbols of India]] | ||
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1836]] | |||
[[Category:Taxa named by Theodore Edward Cantor]] | |||
[[Category:Snakes of Vietnam]] | |||