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{{Short description|10th-14th century dynasty of central India}}
{{Short description|9th- to 14th-century dynasty of central India}}
 
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Paramaras of Malwa
| conventional_long_name = Paramara Kingdom of Malwa
|common_name            = Paramara
| common_name            = Paramara
| image_coat            = Royal emblem of Paramara.jpg
| image_coat            = Royal emblem of Paramara.jpg
| symbol_type            = Royal Emblem  
| symbol_type            = Royal Emblem
|era                    = [[Middle kingdoms of India|Classical India]]
| era                    = [[Middle kingdoms of India|Classical India]]
|government_type        = Monarchy
| government_type        = Monarchy
|year_start            = 9th or 10th century CE
| title_leader          = [[Maharajadhiraj]] (Emperor)
|year_end              = 1305 CE
| leader1                = [[Siyaka]] <small>(first)</small>
|p1                    = Gurjara-Pratihara
| year_leader1          = 948–972 CE
|s1                     = Delhi Sultanate
| leader3                = [[Mahalakadeva]] <small>(last)</small>
|flag_s1               = Delhi Sultanate Flag (catalan atlas).png
| year_leader3          = Late 13th century – 24 November 1305
|image_map              = Asia 1200ad.jpg
| title_deputy          = Pradhan (prime minister)
|image_map_caption      = Map of Asia in 1200 CE. Paramara kingdom is shown in central India.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (a)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref>
| deputy1                = Vishnu <small>(first)</small>
|capital                = {{ubl|[[Dhara (city)|Dhar]]
| year_deputy1          = 948–?? CE
| deputy2                = Goga Deva <small>(last)</small>
| year_deputy2          = 1275–1305 CE
| year_start            = 9th or 10th century CE
| year_end              = 1305 CE
| p1                     = Rashtrakuta dynasty
| flag_p1                = Indian_Rashtrakuta_Empire_map.svg
| s1                    = Ghurid dynasty
| flag_s1                = Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png
| p2                     = Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
| flag_p2                = Map_of_the_Gurjara-Pratiharas_(circa_800-950_CE).png
| p3                    = Kalachuris of Tripuri
| flag_p3                = Map_of_the_Later_Kalacuris.png
| s2                     = Delhi Sultanate
| flag_s2               = Delhi Sultanate Flag (catalan atlas).png
| image_map              = Map of the Paramaras.png
| image_map_caption      = Greatest extent of Paramaras under Emperor [[Bhoja]] 9th .<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (a)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref>
| capital                = {{ubl|[[Dhara (city)|Dhar]]
|[[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]]}}
|[[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]]}}
|common_languages      = [[Sanskrit]]
| common_languages      = [[Sanskrit]]
|religion              = [[Shaivism]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan Through the Ages,Studies in Indian history |first1=S.R. Bakshi |last1=R.K. Gupta |publisher=Swarup & Sons|year=2008|quote="Parmara rulers were devout shaivas." |location=Rajasthan  |pages=43|volume=1|isbn=9788176258418}}</ref> 
| religion              = [[Shaivism]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan Through the Ages,Studies in Indian history |first1=S.R. Bakshi |last1=R.K. Gupta |publisher=Swarup & Sons|year=2008|quote="Parmara rulers were devout shaivas." |location=Rajasthan |pages=43|volume=1|isbn=9788176258418}}</ref>&nbsp;
|today                  = [[India]]
| today                  = [[India]]
}}
}}
The '''Paramara dynasty''' ([[IAST]]: Paramāra){{notetag|Also known as Pramara, Ponwar, Powar, Panwar etc.{{sfn|Benjamin Walker|1995|p=186}}}} ruled [[Malwa]] and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries.
The '''Paramara dynasty''' ([[IAST]]: Paramāra){{notetag|Also known as Pramara, Ponwar, Powar, Panwar etc.{{sfn|Benjamin Walker|1995|p=186}}}} was a Indian dynasty that ruled [[Malwa]] and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the [[Parmara]] clan of [[Rajputs]].<ref>
*{{cite book|author=Nandini Chatterjee|title=Land and Law in Mughal India: A Family of Landlords across Three Indian Empires|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HzUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|year=2020|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-48603-3|page=51|quote=One such Rajput dynasty was that of the Paramaras of Malwa}}
*{{Cite book|author=Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=21SgAAAAMAAJ|title=Studying Early India: Archaeology, Texts and Historical Issues|date=2006|publisher=Anthem|isbn=978-1-84331-132-4|language=en|page=116|quote=The period between seventh and twelfth century witnessed gradual rise of a number of new royal-lineages in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh which came to constitute a social-political category known as Rajputs. Some of the major lineages were Pratiharas of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and adjacent areas, The Guhilas and Chahamanas of Rajasthan, the Chaulakyas or Solankis Of Gujarat, The Parmaras of Madhya Pradesh}}
*{{cite book|author=David Ludden|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|year=2013|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-108-6|pages=88–|quote=By contrast in Rajasthan a single warrior group evolved called Rajput (Rajaputra-son of kings), they rarely engaged in farming, even to supervise from labour as farming was literally beneath them, farming was for their peasant subjects. In ninth century separate clans of Rajputs Cahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras (Pawars), Guhilas (Sisodias) and Caulukyas were spitting off from Gurjara Pratihara clans.}}
*{{cite book|author=Satish Chandra|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=History of Medieval India:800-1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|page=62|quote=The rise of a new section called the Rajputs and the controversy about their origins have already been mentioned. With the break-up of the Pratihara empire, a number of Rajput states camne into existence in north India. The most important of these were the Gahadavalas of Kanauj, the Paramaras of Malwa, and the Chauhans of Ajmer|language=en}}</ref>


The dynasty was established in either 9th or 10th century, and its early rulers most probably ruled as vassals of the [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]. The earliest extant Paramara inscriptions, issued by the 10th century ruler [[Siyaka]], have been found in [[Gujarat]]. Around 972 CE, Siyaka sacked the Rashtrakuta capital [[Manyakheta]], and established the Paramaras as a sovereign power. By the time of his successor [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]], the Malwa region in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]] had become the core Paramara territory, with [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]] (now Dhar) as their capital. The dynasty reached its zenith under Munja's nephew [[Bhoja]], whose kingdom extended from [[Chittorgarh Fort|Chittor]] in the north to [[Konkan]] in the south, and from the [[Sabarmati River]] in the west to [[Vidisha]] in the east.
The dynasty was established in either the 9th or 10th century, and its early rulers most probably ruled as vassals of the [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]. The earliest extant Paramara inscriptions, issued by the 10th-century ruler [[Siyaka]], have been found in [[Gujarat]]. Around 972 CE, Siyaka sacked the Rashtrakuta capital [[Manyakheta]], and established the Paramaras as a sovereign power. By the time of his successor [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]], the Malwa region in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]] had become the core Paramara territory, with [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]] (now Dhar) as their capital. The dynasty reached its zenith under Munja's nephew [[Bhoja]], whose kingdom extended from [[Chittorgarh Fort|Chittor]] in the north to [[Konkan]] in the south, and from the [[Sabarmati River]] in the west to [[Vidisha]] in the east.


The Paramara power rose and declined several times as a result of their struggles with the [[Chaulukya]]s of Gujarat, the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]], the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri]], [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] and other neighbouring kingdoms. The later Paramara rulers moved their capital to [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandapa-Durga]] (now Mandu) after Dhara was sacked multiple times by their enemies. [[Mahalakadeva]], the last known Paramara king, was [[Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Malwa|defeated and killed]] by the forces of [[Alauddin Khalji]] of [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi]] in 1305 CE, although epigraphic evidence suggests that the Paramara rule continued for a few years after his death.
The Paramara power rose and declined several times as a result of their struggles with the [[Chaulukya]]s of Gujarat, the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]], the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri]], [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] and other neighbouring kingdoms. The later Paramara rulers moved their capital to [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandapa-Durga]] (now Mandu) after Dhara was sacked multiple times by their enemies. [[Mahalakadeva]], the last known Paramara king, was [[Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Malwa|defeated and killed]] by the forces of [[Alauddin Khalji]] of [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi]] in 1305 CE, although epigraphic evidence suggests that the Paramara rule continued for a few years after his death.
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[[File:Siyak harsola1005ga.jpg|thumb|right|[[Harsola copper plates]]]]
[[File:Siyak harsola1005ga.jpg|thumb|right|[[Harsola copper plates]]]]
The [[Harsola copper plates]] (949 CE) issued by the Paramara king [[Siyaka II]] mentions a king called Akalavarsha, followed by the expression ''tasmin kule'' ("in that family"), and then followed by the name "Vappairaja" (identified with the Paramara king Vakpati I).{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}} Based on the identification of "Akalavarsha" (which was a [[Rashtrakuta]] title) with the Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]], historian as D.C. Ganguly theorized that the Paramaras were descended from the Rashtrakutas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan Through the Ages,Studies in Indian history |first1=S.R. Bakshi |last1=R.K. Gupta |publisher=Swarup & Sons|year=2008 |location=Rajasthan  |pages=24|volume=|isbn=9788176258418}}</ref> Ganguly tried to find support for his theory in ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'', whose variation of the [[Agnikula]] myth (see below) states that a predecessor of the Paramaras came to Malwa from [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=327}} According to ''Ain-i-Akbari'', Dhanji - a man born from a fire sacrifice - came from Deccan to establish a kingdom in Malwa; when his descendant Putraj died heirless, the nobles established Aditya Ponwar - the ancestor of the Paramaras - as the new king.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=4}} Ganguly also noted Siyaka's successor [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]] (Vakpati II) assumed titles such as [[Amoghavarsha]], Sri-vallabha and [[Prithvi-vallabha]]: these are distinctively Rashtrakuta titles.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=36}}
The [[Harsola copper plates]] (949 CE) issued by the Paramara king [[Siyaka II]] mentions a king called Akalavarsha, followed by the expression ''tasmin kule'' ("in that family"), and then followed by the name "Vappairaja" (identified with the Paramara king Vakpati I).{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}} Based on the identification of "Akalavarsha" (which was a [[Rashtrakuta]] title) with the Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]], historian as D.C. Ganguly theorized that the Paramaras were descended from the Rashtrakutas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan Through the Ages,Studies in Indian history |first1=S.R. Bakshi |last1=R.K. Gupta |publisher=Swarup & Sons|year=2008 |location=Rajasthan |pages=24|volume=|isbn=9788176258418}}</ref>&nbsp;Ganguly tried to find support for his theory in ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'', whose variation of the [[Agnikula]] myth (see below) states that a predecessor of the Paramaras came to Malwa from [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=327}} According to ''Ain-i-Akbari'', Dhanji - a man born from a fire sacrifice - came from Deccan to establish a kingdom in Malwa; when his descendant Putraj died heirless, the nobles established Aditya Ponwar - the ancestor of the Paramaras - as the new king.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=4}} Ganguly also noted Siyaka's successor [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]] (Vakpati II) assumed titles such as [[Amoghavarsha]], Sri-vallabha and [[Prithvi-vallabha]]: these are distinctively Rashtrakuta titles.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=36}}


However, there is a lacuna before the words ''tasmin kule'' ("in that family") in the Harsola inscription, and therefore, Ganguly's suggestion is a pure guess in absence of any concrete evidence.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi (Introduction)|1991|p=4}} Moreover, even if the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' legend is historically accurate, Aditya Ponwar was not a descendant of Dhanji: he was most probably a local magnate rather than a native of Deccan.{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|p=18}}{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1975|p=225}} Critics of Ganguly's theory also argue that the Rashtrakuta titles in these inscriptions refer to Paramara rulers, who had assumed these titles to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the Rashtrakutas in the Malwa region.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} The Rashtrakutas had similarly adopted the titles such as ''[[Prithvi-vallabha]]'', which had been used by the preceding [[Chalukyas of Vatapi|Chalukya]] rulers.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} Historian [[Dasharatha Sharma]] points out that the Paramaras claimed the mythical [[Agnikula]] origin by the tenth century: had they really been descendants of the Rashtrakutas, they would not have forgotten their prestigious royal origin within a generation.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=36}}
However, there is a lacuna before the words ''tasmin kule'' ("in that family") in the Harsola inscription, and therefore, Ganguly's suggestion is a pure guess in absence of any concrete evidence.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi (Introduction)|1991|p=4}} Moreover, even if the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' legend is historically accurate, Aditya Ponwar was not a descendant of Dhanji: he was most probably a local magnate rather than a native of Deccan.{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|p=18}}{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1975|p=225}} Critics of Ganguly's theory also argue that the Rashtrakuta titles in these inscriptions refer to Paramara rulers, who had assumed these titles to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the Rashtrakutas in the Malwa region.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} The Rashtrakutas had similarly adopted the titles such as ''[[Prithvi-vallabha]]'', which had been used by the preceding [[Chalukyas of Vatapi|Chalukya]] rulers.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} Historian [[Dasharatha Sharma]] points out that the Paramaras claimed the mythical [[Agnikula]] origin by the 10th century: had they really been descendants of the Rashtrakutas, they would not have forgotten their prestigious royal origin within a generation.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=36}}


[[File:Stone sculpt NMND -23.JPG|thumb|left|[[Chamunda]], Paramaras, 12th century CE, [[Madhya Pradesh]].]]
The later Paramara kings claimed to be members of the [[Agnikula]] or Agnivansha ("fire clan"). The Agnikula myth of origin, which appears in several of their inscriptions and literary works, goes like this: The sage [[Vishvamitra]] forcibly took a [[Kamadhenu|wish-granting cow]] from another sage [[Vashistha]] on the Arbuda mountain ([[Mount Abu]]). Vashistha then conjured a hero from a sacrificial fire pit (''agni-kunda''), who defeated  
The later Paramara kings claimed to be members of the [[Agnikula]] or Agnivansha ("fire clan"). The Agnikula myth of origin, which appears in several of their inscriptions and literary works, goes like this: The sage [[Vishvamitra]] forcibly took a [[Kamadhenu|wish-granting cow]] from another sage [[Vashistha]] on the Arbuda mountain ([[Mount Abu]]). Vashistha then conjured a hero from a sacrificial fire pit (''agni-kunda''), who defeated  
Vishvamitra's enemies and brought back the cow. Vashistha then gave the hero the title Paramara ("enemy killer").{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=32}} The earliest known source to mention this story is the ''[[Nava-sahasanka-charita]]'' of Padmagupta Parimala, who was a court-poet of the Paramara king [[Sindhuraja]] (ca. 997-1010).{{sfn|Alf Hiltebeitel|2009|p=444}} The legend is not mentioned in earlier Paramara-era  inscriptions or literary works. By this time, all the neighbouring dynasties claimed divine or heroic origin, which might have motivated the Paramaras to invent a legend of their own.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=10-13}}{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}}
Vishvamitra's enemies and brought back the cow. Vashistha then gave the hero the title Paramara ("enemy killer").{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=32}} The earliest known source to mention this story is the ''[[Nava-sahasanka-charita]]'' of Padmagupta Parimala, who was a court-poet of the Paramara king [[Sindhuraja]] (c. 997-1010).{{sfn|Alf Hiltebeitel|2009|p=444}} The legend is not mentioned in earlier Paramara-era  inscriptions or literary works. By this time, all the neighbouring dynasties claimed divine or heroic origin, which might have motivated the Paramaras to invent a legend of their own.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=10-13}}{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}}


In the later period, the Paramaras were [[Anachronism|anachronistically]] categorized as one of the [[Rajput]] clans, despite the fact that the Rajput identity did not exist during this time.{{sfn|Cynthia Talbot|2015|pp=33-35}} A legend mentioned in a recension of ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' extended their Agnikula legend to describe other dynasties as fire-born Rajputs. The earliest extant copies of ''Prithviraj Raso'' do not contain this legend; this version might have been invented by the 16th century poets who wanted to foster Rajput unity against the [[Mughal Emperor|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]].{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|pp=17-18}} Some [[British India|colonial-era]] historians interpreted this mythical account to suggest a foreign origin for the Paramaras. According to this theory, the ancestors of the Paramaras and other Agnivanshi Rajputs came to India after the decline of the [[Gupta Empire]] around the 5th century CE. They were admitted in the [[Hindu caste system]] after performing a fire ritual.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=35}} However, this theory is weakened by the fact that the legend is not mentioned in the earliest of the Paramara records, and even the earliest Paramara-era account does not mention the other dynasties as Agnivanshi.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=16}}
A legend mentioned in a recension of ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' extended their Agnikula legend to describe other dynasties as fire-born Rajputs. The earliest extant copies of ''Prithviraj Raso'' do not contain this legend; this version might have been invented by the 16th-century poets who wanted to foster Rajput unity against the [[Mughal Emperor|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]].{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|pp=17-18}} Some [[British India|colonial-era]] historians interpreted this mythical account to suggest a foreign origin for the Paramaras. According to this theory, the ancestors of the Paramaras and other Agnivanshi Rajputs came to India after the decline of the [[Gupta Empire]] around the 5th century CE. They were admitted in the [[Hindu caste system]] after performing a fire ritual.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=35}} However, this theory is weakened by the fact that the legend is not mentioned in the earliest of the Paramara records, and even the earliest Paramara-era account does not mention the other dynasties as Agnivanshi.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=16}}


Some historians, such as Dasharatha Sharma and Pratipal Bhatia, have argued that the Paramaras were originally [[Brahmin]]s from the Vashistha [[gotra]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=327}} This theory is based on the fact that [[Halayudha]], who was patronized by Munja, describes the king as "Brahma-Kshtra" in ''Pingala-Sutra-Vritti''. According to Bhatia this expression means that Munja came from a family of [[Brahmin]]s who became [[Kshatriya]]s.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=37}} In addition, the Patanarayana temple inscription states that the Paramaras were of Vashistha [[gotra]], which is a gotra among Brahmins claiming descent from the sage Vashistha.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=29}} However, historian Arvind K. Singh points out that several other sources point to a [[Kshatriya]] ancestry of the dynasty. For example, the 1211 Piplianagar inscription states that the ancestors of the Paramaras were "crest-jewel of the Kshatriyas", and the ''Prabha-vakara-charita'' mentions that Vakpati was born in the dynasty of a Kshatriya. According to Singh, the expression "Brahma-Kshatriya" refers to a learned Kshatriya.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}}
Some historians, such as Dasharatha Sharma and Pratipal Bhatia, have argued that the Paramaras were originally [[Brahmin]]s from the Vashistha [[gotra]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=327}} This theory is based on the fact that [[Halayudha]], who was patronized by Munja, describes the king as "Brahma-Kshtra" in ''Pingala-Sutra-Vritti''. According to Bhatia this expression means that Munja came from a family of [[Brahmin]]s who became [[Kshatriya]]s.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=37}} In addition, the Patanarayana temple inscription states that the Paramaras were of Vashistha [[gotra]], which is a gotra among Brahmins claiming descent from the sage Vashistha.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=29}} However, historian Arvind K. Singh points out that several other sources point to a [[Kshatriya]] ancestry of the dynasty. For example, the 1211 Piplianagar inscription states that the ancestors of the Paramaras were "crest-jewel of the Kshatriyas", and the ''Prabha-vakara-charita'' mentions that Vakpati was born in the dynasty of a Kshatriya. According to Singh, the expression "Brahma-Kshatriya" refers to a learned Kshatriya.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}}
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<gallery mode="packed">
<gallery mode="packed">
Chaulukya-Paramara coin circa AD 950-1050.jpg | A [[Chaulukya]]-Paramara coin, circa 950-1050 CE. Stylized rendition of [[Chavda dynasty]] coins: [[Indo-Sassanian]] style bust right; pellets and ornaments around / Stylised fire altar; pellets around.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261205 | title=CNG: EAuction 329. INDIA, Post-Gupta (Chaulukya-Paramara). Circa AD 950-1050. AR Drachm (16mm, 4.41 g, 6h) | access-date=15 July 2017 | archive-date=4 September 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904104559/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261205 | url-status=live }}</ref>
Chaulukya-Paramara coin circa AD 950-1050.jpg | A [[Chaulukya]]-Paramara coin, c. 950-1050 CE. Stylized rendition of [[Chavda dynasty]] coins: [[Indo-Sassanian]] style bust right; pellets and ornaments around / Stylised fire altar; pellets around.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261205 | title=CNG: EAuction 329. INDIA, Post-Gupta (Chaulukya-Paramara). Circa AD 950-1050. AR Drachm (16mm, 4.41 g, 6h) | access-date=15 July 2017 | archive-date=4 September 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904104559/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261205 | url-status=live }}</ref>


Paramaras of Malwa King Naravarman Circa 1094-1133.jpg | Coin of the Paramara king [[Naravarman]], circa 1094-1133. Goddess [[Lakshmi]] seated facing / Devanagari legend.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=88523 |title=CNG Coins |access-date=15 July 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090215/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=88523 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Paramaras of Malwa King Naravarman Circa 1094-1133.jpg | Coin of the Paramara king [[Naravarman]], c. 1094-1133. Goddess [[Lakshmi]] seated facing / Devanagari legend.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=88523 |title=CNG Coins |access-date=15 July 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090215/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=88523 |url-status=live }}</ref>


Paramaras of Vidarbha King Jagaddeva 12th-13th centuries.jpg | Coin of the Paramara prince [[Jagadeva]], 12th-13th centuries CE.
Paramaras of Vidarbha King Jagaddeva 12th-13th centuries.jpg | Coin of the Paramara prince [[Jagadeva]], 12th-13th centuries CE.
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== Early rulers ==
== Early rulers ==


Whether or not the Paramaras were descended from the Rashtrakutas, they were most probably subordinates of the Rashtrakutas in the ninth century.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} Historical evidence suggests that between 808-812 CE, the Rashtrakutas expelled the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]s from the [[Malwa]] region. The Rashtrakuta king [[Govinda III]] placed Malwa under the protection of Karka-raja, the Rashtrakuta chief of [[Lata (region)|Lata]] (a region bordering Malwa, in present-day Gujarat).{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=44-47}} The 871 Sanjan copper-plate inscription of Govinda's son [[Amoghavarsha I]] states that his father had appointed a vassal as the governor of Malwa. Since the Paramaras became the rulers of the Malwa region around this time, epigraphist H. V. Trivedi theorizes that this vassal was the Paramara king Upendra,{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} although there is no definitive proof of this. The start of the Paramara rule in Malwa cannot be dated with certainty, but they certainly did not rule the Malwa before the 9th century CE.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=44-47}}
Whether or not the Paramaras were descended from the Rashtrakutas, they were most probably subordinates of the Rashtrakutas in the 9th century.{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} Historical evidence suggests that between 808-812 CE, the Rashtrakutas expelled the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]s from the [[Malwa]] region. The Rashtrakuta king [[Govinda III]] placed Malwa under the protection of Karka-raja, the Rashtrakuta chief of [[Lata (region)|Lata]] (a region bordering Malwa, in present-day Gujarat).{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=44-47}} The 871 Sanjan copper-plate inscription of Govinda's son [[Amoghavarsha I]] states that his father had appointed a vassal as the governor of Malwa. Since the Paramaras became the rulers of the Malwa region around this time, epigraphist H. V. Trivedi theorizes that this vassal was the Paramara king Upendra,{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=14}} although there is no definitive proof of this. The start of the Paramara rule in Malwa cannot be dated with certainty, but they certainly did not rule the Malwa before the 9th century CE.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=44-47}}


[[Siyaka]] is the earliest known Paramara king attested by his own inscriptions. His [[Harsola copper plates|Harsola copper plate inscription]] (949 CE) is the earliest available Paramara inscription: it suggests that he was a vassal of the Rashtrakutas.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}} The list of his predecessors varies between accounts:{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=3-4}}{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}}
[[Siyaka]] is the earliest known Paramara king attested by his own inscriptions. His [[Harsola copper plates|Harsola copper plate inscription]] (949 CE) is the earliest available Paramara inscription: it suggests that he was a vassal of the Rashtrakutas.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}} The list of his predecessors varies between accounts:{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=3-4}}{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}}
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| Vairisimha || Vairisimha || Vairisimha (II) || Vairisimha || Vairisimha
| Vairisimha || Vairisimha || Vairisimha (II) || Vairisimha || Vairisimha
|-
|-
| Siyaka || Siyaka alias Harsha || Harsha || Siyaka ||  Siyaka
| [[Siyaka]] || Siyaka alias Harsha || Harsha || Siyaka ||  Siyaka
|}
|}


Paramara is the dynasty's mythical progenitor, according to the [[Agnikula]] legend. Whether the other early kings mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are historical or fictional is a topic of debate among historians.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-49}}
Paramara is the dynasty's mythical progenitor, according to the [[Agnikula]] legend. Whether the other early kings mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are historical or fictional is a topic of debate among historians.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-49}}


According to [[C. V. Vaidya]] and [[K. A. Nilakantha Sastri]], the Paramara dynasty was founded only in the 10th century CE. Vaidya believes that the kings such as Vairisimha I and Siyaka I are imaginary, duplicated from the names of later historical kings in order to push back the dynasty's age.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-49}} The 1274 CE Mandhata copper-plate inscription of [[Jayavarman II (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman II]] similarly names eight successors of Paramara as Kamandaludhara, Dhumraja, Devasimhapala, Kanakasimha, Shriharsha, Jagaddeva, Sthirakaya and Voshari: these do not appear to be historical figures.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=212}} HV Trivedi states that there is a possibility that Vairisimha I and Siyaka I of the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are same as Vairisimha II and Siyaka II; the names might have been repeated by mistake. Alternatively, he theorizes that these names have been omitted in other inscriptions because these rulers were not independent sovereigns.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}}
According to [[C. V. Vaidya]] and [[K. A. Nilakantha Sastri]], the Paramara dynasty was founded only in the 10th century CE. Vaidya believes that the kings such as Vairisimha I and Siyaka I are imaginary, duplicated from the names of later historical kings in order to push back the dynasty's age.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-49}} The 1274 CE Mandhata copper-plate inscription of [[Jayavarman II (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman II]] similarly names eight successors of Paramara as Kamandaludhara, Dhumraja, Devasimhapala, Kanakasimha, Shriharsha, [[Jagadeva|Jagaddeva]], Sthirakaya and Voshari: these do not appear to be historical figures.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=212}} HV Trivedi states that there is a possibility that Vairisimha I and Siyaka I of the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are same as Vairisimha II and Siyaka II; the names might have been repeated by mistake. Alternatively, he theorizes that these names have been omitted in other inscriptions because these rulers were not independent sovereigns.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=4}}


Several other historians believe that the early Paramara rulers mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are not fictional, and the Paramaras started ruling Malwa in the 9th century (as Rashtrakuta vassals). K. N. Seth argues that even some of the later Paramara inscriptions mention only 3-4 predecessors of the king who issued the inscription. Therefore, the absence of certain names from the genealogy provided in the early inscriptions does not mean that these were imaginary rulers. According to him, the mention of Upendra in ''Nava-Sahasanka-Charitra'' (composed by the court poet of the later king Sindhuraja) proves that Upendra is not a fictional king.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-51}} Historians such as [[Georg Bühler]] and [[James Burgess (archaeologist)|James Burgess]] identify Upendra and Krishnaraja as one person, because these are synonyms (Upendra being another [[List of titles and names of Krishna|name of Krishna]]). However, an inscription of Siyaka's successor [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]] names the preceding kings as Krishnaraja, Vairisimha, and Siyaka. Based on this, Seth however identifies Krishnaraja with Vappairaja or Vakpati I mentioned in the Harsola plates (Vappairaja appears to be the Prakrit form of Vakpati-raja). In his support, Seth points out that Vairisimha has been called ''Krishna-padanudhyata'' in the inscription of Munja i.e. Vakpati II. He theorizes that Vakpati II used the name "Krishnaraja" instead of Vakpati I to identify his ancestor, in order to avoid confusion with his own name.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-51}}
Several other historians believe that the early Paramara rulers mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are not fictional, and the Paramaras started ruling Malwa in the 9th century (as Rashtrakuta vassals). K. N. Seth argues that even some of the later Paramara inscriptions mention only 3-4 predecessors of the king who issued the inscription. Therefore, the absence of certain names from the genealogy provided in the early inscriptions does not mean that these were imaginary rulers. According to him, the mention of Upendra in ''Nava-Sahasanka-Charitra'' (composed by the court poet of the later king Sindhuraja) proves that Upendra is not a fictional king.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-51}} Historians such as [[Georg Bühler]] and [[James Burgess (archaeologist)|James Burgess]] identify Upendra and Krishnaraja as one person, because these are synonyms (Upendra being another [[List of titles and names of Krishna|name of Krishna]]). However, an inscription of Siyaka's successor [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]] names the preceding kings as Krishnaraja, Vairisimha, and Siyaka. Based on this, Seth however identifies Krishnaraja with Vappairaja or Vakpati I mentioned in the Harsola plates (Vappairaja appears to be the Prakrit form of Vakpati-raja). In his support, Seth points out that Vairisimha has been called ''Krishna-padanudhyata'' in the inscription of Munja i.e. Vakpati II. He theorizes that Vakpati II used the name "Krishnaraja" instead of Vakpati I to identify his ancestor, in order to avoid confusion with his own name.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=48-51}}
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== The imperial Paramaras ==
== The imperial Paramaras ==


[[File:Temple of Bhojpur.jpg|thumb|The [[Bhojeshwar Temple]], [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]]]]
[[File:Temple of Bhojpur.jpg|thumb|The [[Bhojeshwar Temple]], Paramara dynasty, [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]]]]
[[File:Dam PP.JPG|thumb|Detail of the masonry of the northern dam at Bhojpur]]
[[File:Dam PP.JPG|thumb|Detail of the masonry of the northern dam at Bhojpur]]
The first independent sovereign of the Paramara dynasty was [[Siyaka]] (sometimes called Siyaka II to distinguish him from the earlier Siyaka mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti''). The Harsola copper plates (949 CE) suggest that Siyaka was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruler [[Krishna III]] in his early days. However, the same inscription also mentions the high-sounding ''[[Maharajadhiraj]]apati'' as one of Siyaka's titles. Based on this, K. N. Seth believes that Siyaka's acceptance of the Rashtrakuta lordship was nominal.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=76-77}}
The first independent sovereign of the Paramara dynasty was [[Siyaka]] (sometimes called Siyaka II to distinguish him from the earlier Siyaka mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti''). The Harsola copper plates (949 CE) suggest that Siyaka was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruler [[Krishna III]] in his early days. However, the same inscription also mentions the high-sounding ''[[Maharajadhiraj]]apati'' as one of Siyaka's titles. Based on this, K. N. Seth believes that Siyaka's acceptance of the Rashtrakuta lordship was nominal.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=76-77}}
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Sindhuraja's son [[Bhoja]] is the most celebrated ruler of the Paramara dynasty. He made several attempts to expand the Paramara kingdom varying results. Around 1018 CE, he defeated the [[Chalukyas of Lata]] in present-day Gujarat.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=137}} Between 1018 CE and 1020 CE, he gained control of the northern [[Konkan]], whose Shilahara rulers probably served as his feudatories for a brief period.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=140-141}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=46}} Bhoja also formed an alliance against the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani|Kalyani Chalukya]] king [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]], with [[Rajendra Chola]] and [[Gangeyadeva|Gangeya-deva]] [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]]. The extent of Bhoja's success in this campaign is not certain, as both Chalukya and Paramara [[panegyric]]s claimed victory.{{sfn|Saikat K. Bose|2015|p=27}} During the last years of Bhoja's reign, sometime after 1042 CE, Jayasimha's son and successor [[Someshvara I]] invaded Malwa, and sacked his capital [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]].{{sfn|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|p=320}} Bhoja re-established his control over Malwa soon after the departure of the Chalukya army, but the defeat pushed back the southern boundary of his kingdom from [[Godavari River|Godavari]] to [[Narmada River|Narmada]].{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=154}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=56}}
Sindhuraja's son [[Bhoja]] is the most celebrated ruler of the Paramara dynasty. He made several attempts to expand the Paramara kingdom varying results. Around 1018 CE, he defeated the [[Chalukyas of Lata]] in present-day Gujarat.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=137}} Between 1018 CE and 1020 CE, he gained control of the northern [[Konkan]], whose Shilahara rulers probably served as his feudatories for a brief period.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=140-141}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=46}} Bhoja also formed an alliance against the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani|Kalyani Chalukya]] king [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]], with [[Rajendra Chola]] and [[Gangeyadeva|Gangeya-deva]] [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]]. The extent of Bhoja's success in this campaign is not certain, as both Chalukya and Paramara [[panegyric]]s claimed victory.{{sfn|Saikat K. Bose|2015|p=27}} During the last years of Bhoja's reign, sometime after 1042 CE, Jayasimha's son and successor [[Someshvara I]] invaded Malwa, and sacked his capital [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]].{{sfn|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|p=320}} Bhoja re-established his control over Malwa soon after the departure of the Chalukya army, but the defeat pushed back the southern boundary of his kingdom from [[Godavari River|Godavari]] to [[Narmada River|Narmada]].{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=154}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=56}}


Bhoja's attempt to expand his kingdom eastwards was foiled by the [[Chandela]] king [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]].{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=69}} However, Bhoja was able to extend his influence among the Chandela feudatories, the [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghatas]] of Dubkund.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=172-173}} Bhoja also launched a campaign against the Kachchhapaghatas of [[Gwalior]], possibly with the ultimate goal of capturing [[Kannauj]], but his attacks were repulsed by their ruler Kirtiraja.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=173}} Bhoja also defeated the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]], killing their ruler [[Viryarama]]. However, he was forced to retreat by the [[Chahamanas of Naddula]].{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=177}} According to medieval Muslim historians, after sacking [[Somnath Temple|Somnath]], [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] changed his route to avoid confrontation with a Hindu king named Param Dev. Modern historians identify Param Dev as Bhoja: the name may be a corruption of Paramara-Deva or of Bhoja's title ''Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka''.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=163-165}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=61-62}} Bhoja may have also contributed troops to support the [[Hindu Shahi|Kabul Shahi]] ruler [[Anandapala]]'s fight against the [[Ghaznavids]].{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=158}} He may have also been a part of the Hindu alliance that expelled Mahmud's governors from [[Hansi]], [[Thanesar]] and other areas around 1043 CE.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=166}}{{sfn|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|p=320}} During the last year of Bhoja's reign, or shortly after his death, the Chaulukya king [[Bhima I]] and the Kalachuri king [[Lakshmikarna|Karna]] attacked his kingdom. According to the 14th century author Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=182}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=66-67}}
[[File:Statues At Bhojpur Temple (1).jpg|thumb|left|Statues at [[Bhojeshwar Temple]], Paramara dynasty, [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]].]]
Bhoja's attempt to expand his kingdom eastwards was foiled by the [[Chandela]] king [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]].{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=69}} However, Bhoja was able to extend his influence among the Chandela feudatories, the [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghatas]] of Dubkund.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=172-173}} Bhoja also launched a campaign against the Kachchhapaghatas of [[Gwalior]], possibly with the ultimate goal of capturing [[Kannauj]], but his attacks were repulsed by their ruler Kirtiraja.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=173}} Bhoja also defeated the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]], killing their ruler [[Viryarama]]. However, he was forced to retreat by the [[Chahamanas of Naddula]].{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=177}} According to medieval Muslim historians, after sacking [[Somnath Temple|Somnath]], [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] changed his route to avoid confrontation with a Hindu king named Param Dev. Modern historians identify Param Dev as Bhoja: the name may be a corruption of Paramara-Deva or of Bhoja's title ''Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka''.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=163-165}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=61-62}} Bhoja may have also contributed troops to support the [[Hindu Shahi|Kabul Shahi]] ruler [[Anandapala]]'s fight against the [[Ghaznavids]].{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=158}} He may have also been a part of the Hindu alliance that expelled Mahmud's governors from [[Hansi]], [[Thanesar]] and other areas around 1043 CE.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=166}}{{sfn|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|p=320}} During the last year of Bhoja's reign, or shortly after his death, the Chaulukya king [[Bhima I]] and the Kalachuri king [[Lakshmikarna|Karna]] attacked his kingdom. According to the 14th-century author Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|p=182}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=66-67}}


At its zenith, Bhoja's kingdom extended from [[Chittorgarh Fort|Chittor]] in the north to upper [[Konkan]] in the south, and from the [[Sabarmati River]] in the west to [[Vidisha]] in the east.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=62}} He was recognized as a capable military leader, but his territorial conquests were short-lived. His major claim to fame was his reputation as a scholar-king, who patronized arts, literature and sciences. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship.{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|p=179}} Bhoja was himself a polymath, whose writings cover a wide variety of topics include grammar, poetry, architecture, yoga, and chemistry. Bhoja established the [[Bhoj Shala]] which was a centre for [[Sanskrit]] studies and a temple of [[Sarasvati]] in present-day [[Dhar]]. He is said to have founded the city of [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]], a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides the [[Bhojeshwar Temple]] there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=71}} Because of his patronage to literary figures, several legends written after his death featured him as a righteous scholar-king.{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|pp=179-180}} In terms of the number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the fabled [[Vikramaditya]].{{sfn|Anthony Kennedy Warder|1992|pp=176}}
At its zenith, Bhoja's kingdom extended from [[Chittorgarh Fort|Chittor]] in the north to upper [[Konkan]] in the south, and from the [[Sabarmati River]] in the west to [[Vidisha]] in the east.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=62}} He was recognized as a capable military leader, but his territorial conquests were short-lived. His major claim to fame was his reputation as a scholar-king, who patronized arts, literature and sciences. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship.{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|p=179}} Bhoja was himself a polymath, whose writings cover a wide variety of topics include grammar, poetry, architecture, yoga, and chemistry. Bhoja established the [[Bhoj Shala]] which was a centre for [[Sanskrit]] studies and a temple of [[Sarasvati]] in present-day [[Dhar]]. He is said to have founded the city of [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]], a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides the [[Bhojeshwar Temple]] there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=71}} Because of his patronage to literary figures, several legends written after his death featured him as a righteous scholar-king.{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|pp=179-180}} In terms of the number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the fabled [[Vikramaditya]].{{sfn|Anthony Kennedy Warder|1992|pp=176}}
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== Decline ==
== Decline ==
[[File:Naravarman PP.jpg|thumb|Pillar in the Bijamaṇḍal, [[Vidisha]] with an inscription of Naravarman]]
[[File:Naravarman PP.jpg|thumb|Pillar in the Bijamaṇḍal, [[Vidisha]] with an inscription of Naravarman]]
[[File:Iron pillar Dhar.jpg|thumb|Fragments of the [[Dhar iron pillar]] attributed to the Paramaras]]
Bhoja's successor [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha I]], who was probably his son,{{sfn|Anthony Kennedy Warder|1992|pp=177}} faced the joint [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]]-[[Chaulukya]] invasion immediately after Bhoja's death.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=182-184}} [[Bilhana]]'s writings suggest that he sought help from the Chalukyas of Kalyani.{{sfn|Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar|1995|p=72}} Jayasimha's successor and Bhoja's brother [[Udayaditya]] was defeated by Chamundaraja, his vassal at [[Vagada]]. He repulsed an invasion by the [[Chaulukya]] ruler [[Karna (Chaulukya dynasty)|Karna]], with help from his allies.  Udayaditya's eldest son [[Lakshmadeva]] has been credited with extensive military conquests in the ''[[Nagpur]] Prashasti'' inscription of 1104-05 CE. However, these appear to be poetic exaggerations. At best, he might have defeated the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri]].{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=110}} Udayaditya's younger son [[Naravarman]] faced several defeats, losing to the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] and the Chaulukya king [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]]. By the end of his reign, one Vijayapala had carved out an independent kingdom to the north-east of Ujjain.{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|p=115-122}}
Bhoja's successor [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha I]], who was probably his son,{{sfn|Anthony Kennedy Warder|1992|pp=177}} faced the joint [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]]-[[Chaulukya]] invasion immediately after Bhoja's death.{{sfn|Krishna Narain Seth|1978|pp=182-184}} [[Bilhana]]'s writings suggest that he sought help from the Chalukyas of Kalyani.{{sfn|Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar|1995|p=72}} Jayasimha's successor and Bhoja's brother [[Udayaditya]] was defeated by Chamundaraja, his vassal at [[Vagada]]. He repulsed an invasion by the [[Chaulukya]] ruler [[Karna (Chaulukya dynasty)|Karna]], with help from his allies.  Udayaditya's eldest son [[Lakshmadeva]] has been credited with extensive military conquests in the ''[[Nagpur]] Prashasti'' inscription of 1104-05 CE. However, these appear to be poetic exaggerations. At best, he might have defeated the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri]].{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=110}} Udayaditya's younger son [[Naravarman]] faced several defeats, losing to the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] and the Chaulukya king [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]]. By the end of his reign, one Vijayapala had carved out an independent kingdom to the north-east of Ujjain.{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|p=115-122}}


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Vindhyavarman's son [[Subhatavarman]] invaded Gujarat, and plundered the Chaulukya territories. But he was ultimately forced to retreat by the Chaulukya feudatory Lavana-Prasada.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=370}} His son [[Arjunavarman I]] also invaded Gujarat, and defeated Jayanta-simha (or Jaya-simha), who had usurped the Chaulukya throne for a brief period.{{sfn|Asoke Kumar Majumdar|1956|p=148}} He was defeated by [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava]] general Kholeshvara in [[Lata (region)|Lata]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=371}}
Vindhyavarman's son [[Subhatavarman]] invaded Gujarat, and plundered the Chaulukya territories. But he was ultimately forced to retreat by the Chaulukya feudatory Lavana-Prasada.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=370}} His son [[Arjunavarman I]] also invaded Gujarat, and defeated Jayanta-simha (or Jaya-simha), who had usurped the Chaulukya throne for a brief period.{{sfn|Asoke Kumar Majumdar|1956|p=148}} He was defeated by [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava]] general Kholeshvara in [[Lata (region)|Lata]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=371}}


{{South Asia in 1250|right|The Paramaras and neighbouring South Asian polities circa 1250 CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=21, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=048}}</ref>|{{Annotation|93|100|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|50px]]}}}}
Arjunavarman was succeeded by [[Devapala (Paramara dynasty)|Devapala]], who was the son of Harishchandra, a ''Mahakumara'' (chief of a Paramara branch).{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=371}} He continued to face struggles against the Chaulukyas and the Yadavas. The [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of Delhi]] [[Iltutmish]] captured [[Bhilsa]] during 1233-34 CE, but Devapala defeated the Sultanate's governor and regained control of Bhilsa.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|pp=188}}{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1966|pp=187-188}} According to the ''[[Hammira Mahakavya]]'', he was killed by Vagabhata of [[Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura|Ranthambhor]], who suspected him of plotting his murder in connivance with the Delhi Sultan.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=372}}
Arjunavarman was succeeded by [[Devapala (Paramara dynasty)|Devapala]], who was the son of Harishchandra, a ''Mahakumara'' (chief of a Paramara branch).{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=371}} He continued to face struggles against the Chaulukyas and the Yadavas. The [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of Delhi]] [[Iltutmish]] captured [[Bhilsa]] during 1233-34 CE, but Devapala defeated the Sultanate's governor and regained control of Bhilsa.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|pp=188}}{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1966|pp=187-188}} According to the ''[[Hammira Mahakavya]]'', he was killed by Vagabhata of [[Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura|Ranthambhor]], who suspected him of plotting his murder in connivance with the Delhi Sultan.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=372}}


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The Paramara rulers mentioned in the various inscriptions and literary sources are as follows. The rulers are sons of their predecessors, unless otherwise specified.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=327-375}}{{sfn|Georg Bühler|1892|p=222}}{{better source needed|reason=quite obsolete; later epigraphic discoveries seem to have challenged these dates|date=October 2019}}


* Paramara; mythical ancestor mentioned in the [[Agnikula]] legend
According to historial 'Kailash Chand Jain', "Knowledge of the early Paramara rulers from Upendra to Vairisimha is scanty; there are no records, and they are known only from later sources."<ref>{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |year=1972 |title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA329 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=329 |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9}}</ref>
* Upendra, 9th century
The Paramara rulers mentioned in the various inscriptions and literary sources include:
* Vairisimha (I), 9th century; considered fictional by some historians
 
* Siyaka (I), 9th century; considered fictional by some historians
* Paramara (ancient [[Agnikula]] ancestor)
* Vakpati (I), 9th-10th century; called Vappairaja or Bappiraja in Harsola copper plates
* Upendra Krishnraja (late 8 to early 9th century CE)
* Vairisimha (II), 10th century
* Vairisimha (I) (early 9th century CE)
* [[Siyaka II|Siyaka (II)]] alias Harsha, 948-972
* Siyaka (I) (mid of 9th century CE)
* [[Vakpati Munja|Vakpati (II)]] alias Munja, 972-990s; Siyaka's elder son
* Vakpati (I) (late 9th or early 10th century CE)
* [[Sindhuraja]], 990s-1010; Siyaka's younger son
* Vairisimha (II) (middle 10th century CE)
* [[Bhoja]], 1010-1055
* [[Siyaka]] (II) (940–972 CE)
* [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha (I)]], 1055-1070
* [[Vakpati Munja|Vakpati]] (II) alias Munja (972–990 CE)
* [[Udayaditya]], 1070-1093; Bhoja's brother
* [[Sindhuraja]] (990–1010 CE)
** [[Lakshmadeva|Lakshma-deva]], 1080s?; Udayaditya's elder son, possibly did not ascend the throne
* [[Bhoja]] (1010–1055 CE), greatest ruler of dynasty
* [[Naravarman]], 1094-1130; Udayaditya's younger son
* [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha I]] (1055–1070 CE)
* [[Yashovarman (Paramara dynasty)|Yashovarman]], 1133-1142
* [[Udayaditya]] (1070–1086 CE)
* [[Jayavarman I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman (I)]], 1142-1143
* [[Lakshmadeva]] (1086–1094 CE)
* ''Interregnum'', 1144-1174: An usurper named Ballala captured power in Malwa. He was defeated by the [[Chaulukya]]s of Gujarat. The Paramara kingdom remained under Chaulukya suzerainty during this period.
* [[Naravarman]] (1094–1130 CE)
* [[Vindhyavarman]], 1175-1194
* [[Yashovarman (Paramara dynasty)|Yashovarman]] (1133–1142 CE)
* [[Subhatavarman]], 1194-1209
* [[Jayavarman I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman I]] (1142–1143 CE)
* [[Arjunavarman I]], 1210-1215
* ''[[Interregnum]] from (1143 to 1175 CE)'' under an usurper named 'Ballala' and later the [[Solanki dynasty|Solanki king]] [[Kumarapala (Chaulukya dynasty)|Kumarapala]]
* [[Devapala (Paramara dynasty)|Devapala]], 1218-1239; Son of ''Mahakumara'' Harishchandra
* [[Vindhyavarman]] (1175–1194 CE)
* [[Jaitugideva]], 1239-1255; Devapala's elder son
* [[Subhatavarman]] (1194–1209 CE)
* [[Jayavarman II (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman II]], 1255-1274; Devapala's younger son
* [[Arjunavarman I]] (1210–1215 CE)
* [[Arjunavarman II]], 13th century
* [[Devapala (Paramara dynasty)|Devapala]] (1218–1239 CE)
* [[Bhoja II (Paramara dynasty)|Bhoja II]], 13th century
* [[Jaitugideva]] (1239–1255 CE)
* [[Mahlakadeva]], died 1305
* [[Jayavarman II (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman II]] (1255–1274 CE)
* [[Arjunavarman II]] (1274–1285 CE)
* [[Bhoja II (Paramara dynasty)|Bhoja II]] (1285–1301 CE)
* [[Mahalakadeva]] (1301–1305 CE), (after his death dynasty was ended in [[Malwa]] region)


An inscription from [[Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)|Udaipur]] indicates that the Paramara dynasty survived until 1310, at least in the north-eastern part of Malwa. A later inscription shows that the area had been captured by the [[Delhi Sultanate]] by 1338.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}
An inscription from [[Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)|Udaipur]] indicates that the Paramara dynasty survived until 1310, at least in the north-eastern part of Malwa. A later inscription shows that the area had been captured by the [[Delhi Sultanate]] by 1338.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}
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== Branches and claimed descendants ==
== Branches and claimed descendants ==


[[File:Malwa.PDF|thumb|400px|right|Map showing the find-spots of the inscriptions of the imperial Paramaras and their various branches]]
[[File:Malwa.PDF|thumb|400px|right|Map showing the find-spots of the inscriptions of the imperial Paramaras and some of their branches]]


Besides the Paramara sovereigns of Malwa, several branches of the dynasties ruled as feudatories at various places. These include:
Besides the Paramara sovereigns of Malwa, several branches of the dynasties ruled as feudatories at various places. These include:
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* The [[Gandhawaria Rajput]]s of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] and the [[Ujjainiya]]s of [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur]] also claim descent from the Paramara dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFduAAAAMAAJ&q=tirhut+rajput|title=The Journal of the Bihar Purāvid Parishad|publisher=Bihar Puravid Parishad|year=1983|access-date=28 April 2017|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119131152/https://books.google.com/books?id=iFduAAAAMAAJ&q=tirhut+rajput|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ahmad">{{cite book |title=Popular Literature And Pre-Modern Societies In South Asia |editor1-first=Surinder |editor1-last=Singh |editor2-first=I. D. |editor2-last=Gaur |pages=76–77 |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-317-1358-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC |chapter=State Formation and Consolidation under the Ujjainiya Rajputs in Medieval Bihar: Testimony of Oral Traditions as Recorded in the ''Tawarikh-i-Ujjainiya'' |first=Imtiaz |last=Ahmad |access-date=2 January 2012 |archive-date=25 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225135554/https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC |url-status=live }}
* The [[Gandhawaria Rajput]]s of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] and the [[Ujjainiya]]s of [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur]] also claim descent from the Paramara dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFduAAAAMAAJ&q=tirhut+rajput|title=The Journal of the Bihar Purāvid Parishad|publisher=Bihar Puravid Parishad|year=1983|access-date=28 April 2017|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119131152/https://books.google.com/books?id=iFduAAAAMAAJ&q=tirhut+rajput|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ahmad">{{cite book |title=Popular Literature And Pre-Modern Societies In South Asia |editor1-first=Surinder |editor1-last=Singh |editor2-first=I. D. |editor2-last=Gaur |pages=76–77 |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-317-1358-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC |chapter=State Formation and Consolidation under the Ujjainiya Rajputs in Medieval Bihar: Testimony of Oral Traditions as Recorded in the ''Tawarikh-i-Ujjainiya'' |first=Imtiaz |last=Ahmad |access-date=2 January 2012 |archive-date=25 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225135554/https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC |url-status=live }}
</ref>
</ref>
Bala(Bala/Valha/Vala) It is a Branch of parmar rajput.Marwar(Rajasthan) Region . The wife of mallinath rathore (Barmer) rupadev is also from Bala Parmar Rajput.


==Notes==
==Notes==
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* [[List of Rajput dynasties and states]]
* [[List of Rajput dynasties and states]]
* [[List of rulers of Malwa]]
* [[List of rulers of Malwa]]
* [[Panwar Dynasty]]


== References ==
== References ==
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* {{cite book |author=Virbhadra Singhji |title=The Rajputs of Saurashtra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYK7ZSpPzkUC&pg=PA44 |year=1994 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-546-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=Virbhadra Singhji |title=The Rajputs of Saurashtra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYK7ZSpPzkUC&pg=PA44 |year=1994 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-546-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=R. B. Singh |title=Origin of Rajputs |publisher=Sahitya Sansar Prakashan |year=1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IcM5AQAAIAAJ&q=magnate+ |access-date=15 December 2020 |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119131203/https://books.google.com/books?id=IcM5AQAAIAAJ&q=magnate+ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |author=R. B. Singh |title=Origin of Rajputs |publisher=Sahitya Sansar Prakashan |year=1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IcM5AQAAIAAJ&q=magnate+ |access-date=15 December 2020 |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119131203/https://books.google.com/books?id=IcM5AQAAIAAJ&q=magnate+ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |author= Virendra N. Mishra  |title=Rajasthan: Prehistoric and Early Historic Foundations |publisher=Aryan books International  |year=2007 |isbn=9788173053214 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Rajasthan/jDRuAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=parmars }}
* {{cite book |author=Benjamin Walker |title=Hindu World vol.2 |url=https://archive.org/details/hindu-world-vol.-2-an-encyclopedic-survey-of-wisdom-benjamin-walker/page/n7/mode/2up?q=PA186 |year=1995 |publisher=Indus |isbn=81-7223-179-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Benjamin Walker |title=Hindu World vol.2 |url=https://archive.org/details/hindu-world-vol.-2-an-encyclopedic-survey-of-wisdom-benjamin-walker/page/n7/mode/2up?q=PA186 |year=1995 |publisher=Indus |isbn=81-7223-179-2 }}
{{ref end}}
{{ref end}}
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