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{{short description| | {{short description|Housing | ||
parliamentary system of government}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} | ||
[[File:Houses of Parliament 2 db.jpg|alt=|thumb|The | [[File:Houses of Parliament 2 db.jpg|alt=|thumb|The British Houses of Parliament are situated within the [[Palace of Westminster]], in London]] | ||
{{Executive}} | {{Executive}} | ||
The '''Westminster system''' or '''Westminster model''' is a type of [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] government that incorporates a series of [[Parliamentary procedure|procedures]] for operating a [[legislature]]. This concept was first developed in [[England]]. | The '''Westminster system''' or '''Westminster model''' is a type of [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] government that incorporates a series of [[Parliamentary procedure|procedures]] for operating a [[legislature]]. This concept was first developed in [[England]]. | ||
Key aspects of | Key aspects of the system include an [[executive branch]] made up of members of the legislature, and that is [[responsible government|responsible]] to the legislature; the presence of [[parliamentary opposition]] parties; and a ceremonial [[head of state]] who is different from the [[head of government]]. The term comes from the [[Palace of Westminster]], the current seat of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. The Westminster system is often contrasted with the [[presidential system]] that originated in the United States,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Political Representation|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0521128650|chapter=Varieties of public representation}}</ref> or with the [[semi-presidential]] system, based on the government of France. | ||
The Westminster system is used, or was once used, in the national and [[Administrative division|subnational]] legislatures of most former colonies of the [[British Empire]] upon gaining [[self-governing colony|self-government]] (a notable exception to this being the [[Politics of the United States|United States]]),<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Arjomand|editor1-first=Saïd Amir|title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction|date=2007|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004151741|pages=92–94|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94|author1=Julian Go|chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945-2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World|url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=16 December 2013|date=2 December 2013}}</ref> beginning with the first of the [[Canada under British Imperial control (1764-1867)#Act of Union (1840)|Canadian provinces]] in 1848 and the six [[History of Australia#Colonial self-government and the gold rushes|Australian colonies]] between 1855 and 1890.<ref name=seidle03>{{cite book|last1=Seidle|first1=F. Leslie|last2=Docherty|first2=David C.|title=Reforming parliamentary democracy|date=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=9780773525085|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6je60BF-3sC&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Johnston|first1=Douglas M.|last2=Reisman|first2=W. Michael|title=The Historical Foundations of World Order|date=2008|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9047423935|page=571|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA571}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fieldhouse|first1=David|last2=Madden|first2=Frederick|title=Settler self-government, 1840-1900 : the development of representative and |date=1990|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=9780313273261|page=xxi|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZHdAZDr-kYC&pg=PR21}}</ref> It is the form of government bequeathed to [[New Zealand]],<ref name=seidle03/> and former [[British Hong Kong]].<ref name="cooray19">{{cite book |last1=Cooray |first1=Anton |title=Constitutional Law in Hong Kong |date=2019 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmfIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 |chapter=5: Customary Law, Unwritten Law, and General Principles of Law|isbn=9789403518213 }}</ref><ref name="yu15">{{cite book |last1=Yu |first1=Gu |title=Hong Kong's Legislature under China's Sovereignty: 1998-2013 |date=2015 |chapter=8: Conclusion|page=215|publisher=Hotei Publishing |isbn=9789004276284 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TdzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA215}}</ref> The State of [[Israel]] adopted a largely Westminster-inspired [[Israeli system of government|system of government]] upon [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declaring independence]] from the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]]. However, some former colonies have since adopted either the [[presidential system]] ([[Nigeria]] for example) or a hybrid system (like [[South Africa]]) as their form of government. | The Westminster system is used, or was once used, in the national and [[Administrative division|subnational]] legislatures of most former colonies of the [[British Empire]] upon gaining [[self-governing colony|self-government]] (a notable exception to this being the [[Politics of the United States|United States]]),<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Arjomand|editor1-first=Saïd Amir|title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction|date=2007|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004151741|pages=92–94|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94|author1=Julian Go|chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945-2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World|url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=16 December 2013|date=2 December 2013}}</ref> beginning with the first of the [[Canada under British Imperial control (1764-1867)#Act of Union (1840)|Canadian provinces]] in 1848 and the six [[History of Australia#Colonial self-government and the gold rushes|Australian colonies]] between 1855 and 1890.<ref name=seidle03>{{cite book|last1=Seidle|first1=F. Leslie|last2=Docherty|first2=David C.|title=Reforming parliamentary democracy|date=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=9780773525085|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6je60BF-3sC&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Johnston|first1=Douglas M.|last2=Reisman|first2=W. Michael|title=The Historical Foundations of World Order|date=2008|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9047423935|page=571|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA571}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fieldhouse|first1=David|last2=Madden|first2=Frederick|title=Settler self-government, 1840-1900 : the development of representative and |date=1990|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=9780313273261|page=xxi|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZHdAZDr-kYC&pg=PR21}}</ref> It is the form of government bequeathed to [[New Zealand]],<ref name=seidle03/> and former [[British Hong Kong]].<ref name="cooray19">{{cite book |last1=Cooray |first1=Anton |title=Constitutional Law in Hong Kong |date=2019 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmfIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 |chapter=5: Customary Law, Unwritten Law, and General Principles of Law|isbn=9789403518213 }}</ref><ref name="yu15">{{cite book |last1=Yu |first1=Gu |title=Hong Kong's Legislature under China's Sovereignty: 1998-2013 |date=2015 |chapter=8: Conclusion|page=215|publisher=Hotei Publishing |isbn=9789004276284 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TdzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA215}}</ref> The State of [[Israel]] adopted a largely Westminster-inspired [[Israeli system of government|system of government]] upon [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declaring independence]] from the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]]. However, some former colonies have since adopted either the [[presidential system]] ([[Nigeria]] for example) or a hybrid system (like [[South Africa]]) as their form of government. | ||
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! rowspan=4 | General | ! rowspan=4 | General | ||
| Government || | | Government || | ||
Led by the prime minister.<br/>A cabinet is formed (normally) from members of the largest party or coalition in the legislature, chosen by the head of government.<br/>It is also responsible to the parliament, to which it reports and is accountable (in particular, to the lower house, if bicameral). | Led by the prime minister.<br/>A cabinet is formed (normally) from members of the largest party or coalition in the legislature, chosen by the head of government.<br/>In parliaments without political parties, cabinet members are either chosen by the prime minister or elected by members at large.<br/>It is also responsible to the parliament, to which it reports and is accountable (in particular, to the lower house, if bicameral). | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Opposition || Led by the leader of the opposition. A shadow cabinet is formed out of the elected members of the largest party or coalition in the legislature not in government, chosen by the party leader (the leader of the opposition). | | Opposition || Led by the leader of the opposition. A shadow cabinet is formed out of the elected members of the largest party or coalition in the legislature not in government, chosen by the party leader (the leader of the opposition). | ||
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The [[head of government]], usually called the [[prime minister]] or [[premier]], will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must, in any case, be able to ensure the existence of no [[absolute majority]] against the government. If the parliament passes a [[motion of no confidence]], or refuses to pass an important [[Bill (law)|bill]] such as the [[budget]], then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a [[dissolution of parliament|parliamentary dissolution]] so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate. | The [[head of government]], usually called the [[prime minister]] or [[premier]], will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must, in any case, be able to ensure the existence of no [[absolute majority]] against the government. If the parliament passes a [[motion of no confidence]], or refuses to pass an important [[Bill (law)|bill]] such as the [[budget]], then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a [[dissolution of parliament|parliamentary dissolution]] so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate. | ||
Executive authority within a Westminster system is de jure exercised by the cabinet as a whole, along with more junior [[minister (government)|minister]]s, however, in effect, the head of government dominates the executive as the head of government is ultimately the person from whom the [[head of state]] will take [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] (by constitutional convention) on the exercise of [[executive power]], including the appointment and dismissal of cabinet members. This results in the situation where individual cabinet members in effect serve at the pleasure of the prime minister. Thus the cabinet is strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a [[cabinet reshuffle]] for "underperforming". | Executive authority within a Westminster system is de jure exercised by the cabinet as a whole, along with more junior [[minister (government)|minister]]s, however, in effect, the head of government dominates the executive as the head of government is ultimately the person from whom the [[head of state]] will take [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] (by constitutional convention) on the exercise of [[executive power]], including the appointment and dismissal of cabinet members. This results in the situation where individual cabinet members in effect serve at the pleasure of the prime minister. Thus the cabinet is strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a [[cabinet reshuffle]] for "underperforming". | ||
In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]] and the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet]] effectively implement executive powers. In a [[parliamentary republic]] like India, the [[President of India|president]] is the {{Lang|la|de jure}} executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] and the [[Indian Cabinet Ministers|Council of Ministers]]. In [[Israel]], however, executive power is vested {{Lang|la|de jure}} and {{Lang|la|de facto}} in the cabinet and the [[President of Israel|president]] is {{Lang|la|de jure}} and {{Lang|la|de facto}} a ceremonial figurehead. | In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]] and the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet]] effectively implement executive powers. In a [[parliamentary republic]] like India, the [[President of India|president]] is the {{Lang|la|de jure}} executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] and the [[Indian Cabinet Ministers|Council of Ministers]]. In [[Israel]], however, executive power is vested {{Lang|la|de jure}} and {{Lang|la|de facto}} in the cabinet and the [[President of Israel|president]] is {{Lang|la|de jure}} and {{Lang|la|de facto}} a ceremonial figurehead. | ||
As an example, the prime minister and cabinet (as the ''[[de facto]]'' executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British prime minister]] wished to [[dissolution of parliament|dissolve Parliament]] in order for a [[general election]] to take place, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the [[British monarchy|sovereign]] in order to attain such a wish. However, the sovereign in modern times has virtually always followed the advice of their prime minister without their own agency, this owes to the fact that the British sovereign is a [[constitutional monarch]]; he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing [[reserve power]]s in times of crisis. The sovereign's power to appoint and dismiss governments, appoint cabinet [[Minister (government)|minister]]s to serve in the government, appoint [[diplomat]]s, declare [[war]], and to sign [[treaty|treaties]] (among other powers de jure held by the sovereign) is known as the [[royal prerogative]], which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] of the Prime Minister. | As an example, the prime minister and cabinet (as the ''[[de facto]]'' executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British prime minister]] wished to [[dissolution of parliament|dissolve Parliament]] in order for a [[general election]] to take place, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the [[British monarchy|sovereign]] in order to attain such a wish. However, the sovereign in modern times has virtually always followed the advice of their prime minister without their own agency, this owes to the fact that the British sovereign is a [[constitutional monarch]]; he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing [[reserve power]]s in times of crisis. The sovereign's power to appoint and dismiss governments, appoint cabinet [[Minister (government)|minister]]s to serve in the government, appoint [[diplomat]]s, declare [[war]], and to sign [[treaty|treaties]] (among other powers de jure held by the sovereign) is known as the [[royal prerogative]], which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] of the Prime Minister. | ||
This custom also occurs in other countries are regions around the world using the Westminster System, as a legacy of [[British colonial rule]]. In [[Commonwealth realm]]s such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the day-to-day functions that would be exercised by the sovereign personally in the United Kingdom are instead exercised by the [[ | This custom also occurs in other countries are regions around the world using the Westminster System, as a legacy of [[British colonial rule]]. In [[Commonwealth realm]]s such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the day-to-day functions that would be exercised by the sovereign personally in the United Kingdom are instead exercised by the [[governor-general]]. In such nations, the prime minister is obligated to formally seek permission from the [[governor-general]] when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British system. | ||
An analogous scenario also exists in [[Commonwealth | An analogous scenario also exists in [[republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]], such as India or [[Trinidad and Tobago]], where there is a president who functions similarly to a governor-general. | ||
An unusual case lies in [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israel]] and [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japan]], where the respective prime ministers have the full legal power to implement executive decisions, and [[President of Israel|presidential (in Israel)]] or [[Emperor of Japan|imperial (in Japan)]] approval is not required; the prime ministers of these nations are fully the ''de jure'' source of executive authority, and not the head of state. | |||
The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign holds confidential weekly meetings with the prime minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the president, in a similar manner to the aforementioned British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The [[reserve powers]] of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy. | The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign holds confidential weekly meetings with the prime minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the president, in a similar manner to the aforementioned British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The [[reserve powers]] of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy. | ||
Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the [[British Sovereign|British sovereign]] held and directly exercised all executive authority. [[George I of Great Britain]] (reigned 1714 to 1727) was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a prime minister and a cabinet of the ministers,{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} largely because he was also the monarch of [[Hanover]] in Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, further arrangements continued to allow the execution of executive authority on the sovereign's behalf and more and more de facto power ended up lying in the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister's]] hands. Such a concept was reinforced in ''[[The English Constitution]]'' (1876) by [[Walter Bagehot]], who distinguished between the separate "dignified" and "efficient" functions of government. The sovereign should be a focal point for the [[nation]] ("dignified"), while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions ("efficient"). | Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the [[British Sovereign|British sovereign]] held and directly exercised all executive authority. [[George I of Great Britain]] (reigned 1714 to 1727) was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a prime minister and a cabinet of the ministers,{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} largely because he was also the monarch of [[Hanover]] in Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, further arrangements continued to allow the execution of executive authority on the sovereign's behalf and more and more de facto power ended up lying in the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister's]] hands. Such a concept was reinforced in ''[[The English Constitution]]'' (1876) by [[Walter Bagehot]], who distinguished between the separate "dignified" and "efficient" functions of government. The sovereign should be a focal point for the [[nation]] ("dignified"), while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions ("efficient"). | ||
== Electoral system, ministers and officials == | |||
The [[electoral system]] is often set out in a [[Representation of the People Act]].<ref>Alder and Syrett. Constitutional and Administrative Law. (Palgrave Law Masters). 11th Edition. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M9s1DwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA294&pg=PA294#v=onepage&q&f=false p 294]. Birch. The British System of Government. 10th Edition. Routledge. 1998. Taylor & Francis e-Library. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=41Cyb3HrkqYC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false p 17].</ref><ref>See, for example, the definition in [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4jJHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false section 8(1)] of the [[Representation of the People Act 1884]], read with the definition of the Registration Acts in section 8(2)</ref> Common ministerial titles include [[parliamentary secretary]] and [[Undersecretary|under-secretary]]. Ministers are supported by [[Private secretary|private secretaries]] and government departments are run by [[Permanent secretary|permanent secretaries]], [[Principal Secretary (disambiguation)|principal secretaries]] or [[Chief Secretary (disambiguation)|chief secretaries]]. | |||
==Role of the head of state== | ==Role of the head of state== | ||
The [[Head of State|head of state]] or | The [[Head of State|head of state]] or their representative (such as a [[governor-general]]) formally appoints as the [[head of government]] whoever commands the [[Confidence and supply|confidence]] of the [[Lower house|lower]] or [[Unicameralism|sole house]] of the legislature and invites him or her to form a government. In the UK, this is known as [[kissing hands]]. Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally performed by the head of state, the head of state, by convention, acts according to the wishes of the head of government. | ||
A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant [[reserve power]]s. Examples of the use of such powers include the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]] and the Canadian [[King–Byng affair]] in 1926. The [[Lascelles Principles]] were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers. | A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant [[reserve power]]s. Examples of the use of such powers include the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]] and the Canadian [[King–Byng affair]] in 1926. The [[Lascelles Principles]] were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers. | ||
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== 'Washminster' system of Australia == | == 'Washminster' system of Australia == | ||
[[File:Australian Senate - Parliament of Australia.jpg|thumb|The [[Australian Senate]]|alt=]] | [[File:Australian Senate - Parliament of Australia.jpg|thumb|The [[Australian Senate]]|alt=]] | ||
{{ | {{blockquote|text=The waters of the [[River Thames|Thames]] and of the [[Potomac River|Potomac]] both flow into [[Lake Burley Griffin]].|author=[[James Killen]]|source=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flzQwp8_y7g&t=637s Farewell Parliament House - Sunday May 8, 1988]}} | ||
[[Australian constitutional law]] is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the [[United States Constitution]] as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system and some indigenous features. Australia is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]], which must be willing to pass all its legislation. Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern. The Senate maintains the ability similar to that held by the British House of Lords, prior to the enactment of the [[Parliament Act 1911]], to block supply against the government of the day. A government that is unable to obtain supply can be dismissed by the [[Governor-General of Australia|governor-general]]: however, this is generally considered a last resort and is a highly controversial decision to take, given the conflict between the traditional concept of confidence as derived from the lower house and the ability of the Senate to block supply. Many political scientists have held that the [[Politics of Australia|Australian system of government]] was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the [[Federal Government of the United States|United States systems of government]], especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the U.S. Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Elaine | journal = Politics|title=The 'Washminster' mutation |date=1980 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=32–40 |doi=10.1080/00323268008401755}}</ref> The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|parliaments of most Australian states]]. | |||
The 'Washminster' system of Australia has also been referred to as a [[semi-parliamentary system]].<ref name=Ganghof>{{cite journal |last1=Ganghof |first1=S|title=A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government |journal=European Journal of Political Research |date=May 2018 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=261–281 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.12224 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | The 'Washminster' system of Australia has also been referred to as a [[semi-parliamentary system]].<ref name=Ganghof>{{cite journal |last1=Ganghof |first1=S|title=A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government |journal=European Journal of Political Research |date=May 2018 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=261–281 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.12224 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | ||
==Ceremonies== | ==Ceremonies== | ||
The Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side, | The Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. Many chambers connect the opposing rows, either with a perpendicular row of seats and desks at the furthermost point from the Speaker's Chair at the opposite end of the chamber (e.g. UK House of Lords or Israel Knesset) or the rows of chairs and desks are rounded at the end, opposite to the Speaker's Chair (e.g. Australian chambers, Ireland, South Africa, India). The chairs in which both the government and opposition sit, are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. This arrangement is said to have derived from an early Parliament which was held in a [[Church (building)|church]] [[Choir (architecture)|choir]]. Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. Of course, sometimes a [[majority government]] is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. In the lower house at Westminster (the House of Commons) there are lines on the floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber. It is often rumoured that the distance between the lines is that of the length of two swords{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} although no documentary evidence exists to support this{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} and, in fact, weapons have never been allowed in the Palace of Westminster at any time.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} | ||
At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House]]. The speaker usually wears black robes, and in some countries, a [[Wig (hair)|wig]]. Robed parliamentary [[Clerk (position)|clerks]] often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well. These narrow tables in the centre of the chamber, is usually where ministers or members of the house come to speak. | At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House]]. The speaker usually wears black robes, and in some countries, a [[Wig (hair)|wig]]. Robed parliamentary [[Clerk (position)|clerks]] often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well. These narrow tables in the centre of the chamber, is usually where ministers or members of the house come to speak. | ||
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==Current countries== | ==Current countries== | ||
Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of | Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of 2022, include the following: | ||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | {| class="wikitable sortable" | ||
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| [[Parliament of the Bahamas|Parliament]]:<br />Senate<br />House of Assembly | | [[Parliament of the Bahamas|Parliament]]:<br />Senate<br />House of Assembly | ||
| [[Monarchy of The Bahamas|Monarchy]] | | [[Monarchy of The Bahamas|Monarchy]] | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| {{flagicon|BRB}} [[Politics of Barbados|Barbados]] | | {{flagicon|BRB}} [[Politics of Barbados|Barbados]] | ||
| [[Parliament of Barbados|Parliament]]:<br />[[Senate of Barbados|Senate]]<br />[[House of Assembly of Barbados|House of Assembly]] | | [[Parliament of Barbados|Parliament]]:<br />[[Senate of Barbados|Senate]]<br />[[House of Assembly of Barbados|House of Assembly]] | ||
| | | Republic | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]:<br />[[Senate of Canada|Senate]]<br />[[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] | | [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]:<br />[[Senate of Canada|Senate]]<br />[[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] | ||
| [[Monarchy of Canada|Monarchy]] | | [[Monarchy of Canada|Monarchy]] | ||
| [[Federation|Federated nation]], meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and provincial governments. | | [[Federation|Federated nation]], meaning that the power to govern the country and its people is shared and divided between national and provincial governments.<br/>Caucuses require [[official party status]] for some parliamentary privileges.<br/>Two of its territorial parliaments operate [[Consensus government in Canada|without any caucuses]] other than cabinet, and therefore have no leader of the opposition. | ||
|- | |||
| {{flagicon|CAY}} [[Politics of the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]] | |||
| [[Parliament of the Cayman Islands|Parliament]] | |||
| [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarchy]] | |||
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|- | |- | ||
| {{flagicon|Dominica}} [[Politics of Dominica|Dominica]] | | {{flagicon|Dominica}} [[Politics of Dominica|Dominica]] | ||
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| Republic | | Republic | ||
| Dáil Éireann is elected by single transferable vote from 3–5 member districts. [[President of Ireland|President]] is directly elected using instant-runoff voting. | | Dáil Éireann is elected by single transferable vote from 3–5 member districts. [[President of Ireland|President]] is directly elected using instant-runoff voting. | ||
|- | |||
| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Politics of Italy|Italy]] | |||
| [[Italian Parliament]]:<br />[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]<br />[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]] | |||
| Republic | |||
| Uses a system very similar to Westminster's, but it is historically unrelated to that of England. | |||
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| {{flagicon|ISR}} [[Politics of Israel|Israel]] | | {{flagicon|ISR}} [[Politics of Israel|Israel]] | ||
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* {{flag|Union of Burma|name=Burma}} following independence in 1948 until the 1962 military coup d'état. | * {{flag|Union of Burma|name=Burma}} following independence in 1948 until the 1962 military coup d'état. | ||
* {{flag|Dominion of Ghana|name=Ghana}} between 1957 and 1960, then 1969 and 1972. | * {{flag|Dominion of Ghana|name=Ghana}} between 1957 and 1960, then 1969 and 1972. | ||
* [[State of Somaliland]] during its brief independence in 1960 it used the Westminster system with [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] as its first and only Prime Minister. | * {{flagicon image|Flag of State of Somaliland.svg}} [[State of Somaliland]] during its brief independence in 1960 it used the Westminster system with [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] as its first and only Prime Minister. | ||
* {{flag|Swaziland}} between 1968 and 1973. | * {{flag|Swaziland}} between 1968 and 1973. | ||
* {{flag|Tanganyika}} between 1961 and 1962. | * {{flag|Tanganyika}} between 1961 and 1962. | ||
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* [[Petition of Right]] | * [[Petition of Right]] | ||
* [[Presidential system]] | * [[Presidential system]] | ||
*[[Representation of the People Act]] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||