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 Courts do not always admit social media evidence, in part, because screenshots can be faked or tampered with.<ref name="Raymer">{{cite web |url=https://www.canadianlawyermag.com/author/elizabeth-raymer/the-social-media-evidence-is-clear-16126/ |title=The (social media) evidence is clear |last=Raymer |first=Elizabeth |date=September 24, 2018 |website=www.canadianlawyermag.com |publisher=Canadian Lawyer |access-date=2018-10-27 }}</ref> Judges are taking [[emoji]]s into account to assess statements made on social media; in one Michigan case where a person alleged that another person had defamed them in an online comment, the judge disagreed, noting that there was an emoji after the comment which indicated that it was a joke.<ref name="Raymer"/> In a 2014 case in Ontario against a police officer regarding alleged assault of a protester during the G20 summit, the court rejected the Crown's application to use a digital photo of the protest that was anonymously posted online, because there was no [[metadata]] proving when the photo was taken and it could have been digitally altered.<ref name="Raymer"/>
-==Use by individuals==
-===As a news source===
-{{Main|Social media as a news source}}
-As of March 2010, in the United States, 81% of users look online for news of the weather, first and foremost, with the percentage seeking national news at 73%, 52% for sports news, and 41% for entertainment or celebrity news. According to CNN, in 2010 75% of people got their news forwarded through e-mail or social media posts, whereas 37% of people shared a news item via Facebook or Twitter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/TECH/03/01/social.network.news/index.html |title=Survey: More Americans get news from Internet than newspapers or radio |work=cnn.com}}</ref> [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]] make news a more participatory experience than before as people share news articles and comment on other people's posts. Rainie and Wellman (2012) have argued that media making now has become a participation work,<ref>{{cite book |title=Networked: The New Social Operating System |author1=Rainie, Lee |author2=Wellman, Barry |name-list-style=amp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bYJGna0AhdAC|isbn=978-0-262-30040-7 |date=April 27, 2012 }}</ref> which changes communication systems. However, 27% of respondents worry about the accuracy of a story on a blog.<ref name=Reuters2013/> From a 2019 poll, [[Pew Research Center]] found that Americans are wary about the ways that social media sites share news and certain content.<ref>Pew Research Center, 2019. Oct, 2nd. "Americans Are Wary of the Role Social Media Sites Play in Delivering the News." https://www.journalism.org/2019/10/02/americans-are-wary-of-the-role-social-media-sites-play-in-delivering-the-news/</ref> This wariness of accuracy is on the rise as social media sites are increasingly exploited by aggregated new sources which stitch together multiple feeds to develop plausible correlations. Hemsley and colleagues (2018) refer to this phenomenon as "pseudoknowledge" which develop false narratives and fake news that are supported through general analysis and ideology rather than facts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hemsley|first1=Jeff|last2=Jacobson|first2=Jenna|last3=Gruzd|first3=Anatoliy|last4=Mai|first4=Philip|date=July 2018|title=Social Media for Social Good or Evil: An Introduction|journal=Social Media + Society|language=en-US|volume=4|issue=3|pages=205630511878671|doi=10.1177/2056305118786719|issn=2056-3051|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social media as a news source was further questioned as spikes in evidence surround major news events such as was captured in the United States 2016 presidential election<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/digital-transformation-news-media-and-rise-disinformation-and-fake-news|title=The digital transformation of news media and the rise of disinformation and fake news|last=ACUNA|first=Tanja|date=2018-04-25|website=EU Science Hub - European Commission|language=en|access-date=2020-02-23}}</ref> and again during the [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19 Pandemic]].
-===As a social tool===
-Social media are used to fulfill perceived social needs such as socializing with friends and family<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aichner |first1=T. |last2=Grünfelder |first2=M. |last3=Maurer |first3=O. |last4=Jegeni |first4=D. |year=2021 |title=Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019 |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=215–222 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2020.0134 |pmid=33847527 |pmc=8064945 |doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as romance and flirting,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aichner |first1=T. |last2=Grünfelder |first2=M. |last3=Maurer |first3=O. |last4=Jegeni |first4=D. |year=2021 |title=Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019 |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=215–222 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2020.0134 |pmid=33847527 |pmc=8064945 |doi-access=free }}</ref> but not all needs can be fulfilled by social media.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Z. |last2=Tchernev |first2=J. M. |last3=Solloway |first3=T. |year=2012 |title=A dynamic longitudinal examination of social media use, needs, and gratifications among college students |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1829–1839 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.001 }}</ref> For example, a 2003 article found that lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than those who are not lonely.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morahan-Martin |first1=J. |last2=Schumacher |first2=P. |year=2003 |title=Loneliness and social uses of the internet |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=659–671 |doi=10.1016/S0747-5632(03)00040-2 }}</ref>  A nationally representative survey from Common Sense Media in 2018 found that 40% of American teens ages 13–17 thought that social media was “extremely” or “very” important for them to keep up with their friends on a day-to-basis.<ref name=":9" /> The same survey found that 33% of teens said social media was extremely or very important to have meaningful conversations with close friends, and 23% of teens said social media was extremely or very important to document and share highlights from their lives.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Rideout|first1=Vicky|last2=Robb|first2=Michael, B.|date=2018|title=Social Media, Social Life: Teens Reveal Their Experiences, 2018|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/social-media-social-life-2018|website=Common Sense Media}}</ref> Recently, a Gallup poll from May 2020 showed that 53% of adult social media users in the United States thought that social media was a very or moderately important way to keep in touch with those they cannot otherwise see in-person due to social distancing measures related to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ritter|first=Zacc|date=May 21, 2020|title=Americans Use Social Media for COVID-19 Info, Connection|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/311360/americans-social-media-covid-information-connection.aspx|website=Gallup}}</ref>
-[[Sherry Turkle]] explores this topic in her book ''Alone Together'' as she discusses how people confuse social media usage with authentic communication.<ref name="Turkle2012" /> She posits that people tend to act differently online and are less afraid to hurt each other's feelings. Additionally, Some online behaviors can cause stress and anxiety, due to the permanence of online posts, the fear of being hacked, or of universities and employers exploring social media pages. Turkle also speculates that people are beginning to prefer texting to face-to-face communication, which can contribute to feelings of loneliness.<ref name="Turkle2012">{{cite book |author=Turkle, S. |year=2012 |title=Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other |location=New York, NY |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03146-7}}</ref> Nationally representative surveys from 2019 have found this to be the case with teens in the United States<ref name=":9" /> and Mexico.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Robb|first1=Michael B.|last2=Bay|first2=Willow|last3=Vennegaard|first3=Tina|date=2019|title=The New Normal: Parents, Teens, and Mobile Devices in Mexico|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-new-normal-parents-teens-and-devices-around-the-world|website=Common Sense Media}}</ref> Some researchers have also found that exchanges that involved direct communication and reciprocation of messages correlated with fewer feelings of loneliness.<ref name="Burke2011">{{Cite book |last1=Burke |first1=Moira |last2=Kraut |first2=Robert |last3=Marlow |first3=Cameron |s2cid=8060040 |year=2011 |title=Social capital on Facebook: Differentiating uses and users |journal=Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |volume=7–9 |pages=571–580 |doi=10.1145/1978942.1979023 |isbn=978-1-4503-0228-9 |url=http://www.cameronmarlow.com/media/burke-2011-social.pdf |access-date=2016-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129071100/http://www.cameronmarlow.com/media/burke-2011-social.pdf |archive-date=2015-11-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, that same study showed that passively using social media without sending or receiving messages does not make people feel less lonely unless they were lonely to begin with.
-The term social media "stalking" or "creeping" have been popularized over the years, and this refers to looking at the person's "timeline, status updates, tweets, and online bios" to find information about them and their activities.<ref name="Walker">{{cite web |url= https://www.lifewire.com/what-does-creeping-mean-2655280|title=The Ins and Outs of Facebook Creeping|last=Walker |first=Leslie |date=October 23, 2016 |website=www.lifewire.com |publisher=Lifewire |access-date=2018-11-12 }}</ref> While social media creeping is common, it is considered to be poor form to admit to a new acquaintance or new date that you have looked through his or her social media posts, particularly older posts, as this will indicate that you were going through their old history.<ref name="Walker" /> A sub-category of creeping is creeping ex-partners' social media posts after a breakup to investigate if there is a new partner or new dating; this can lead to preoccupation with the ex, rumination, and negative feelings, all of which postpone recovery and increase feelings of loss.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/better-living-technology/201402/why-exes-arent-so-ex-anymore |title=Why Exes Aren't So "Ex" Anymore |last=Fox |first=Jesse |date=February 26, 2014 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |publisher=Psychology Today |access-date=2018-11-12}}</ref>
-[[Catfishing]] has become more prevalent since the advent of social media. Relationships formed with catfish can lead to actions such as supporting them with money and catfish will typically make excuses as to why they cannot meet up or be viewed on camera.<ref>{{cite book|title=Choices & Connections|last1=McCormack|first1=Steven|last2=Ortiz|first2=Joseph|date=2017|edition=second}}</ref>
-===As a self-presentational tool===
-The more time people spend on Facebook, the less satisfied they feel about their life.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chan |first=TH |s2cid=6850595 |title=Facebook and its Effects on Users' Empathic Social Skills and Life Satisfaction: A Double-Edged Sword Effect |year=2014 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=276–280 |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |doi=10.1089/cyber.2013.0466 |pmid=24606026}}</ref> [[Impression management|Self-presentation theory]] explains that people will consciously manage their [[self-image]] or identity related information in social contexts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goffman, Erving.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3091353|title=The presentation of self in everyday life|date=1971|publisher=Penguin|isbn=0-14-021350-3|location=Harmondsworth|oclc=3091353}}</ref> In fact, a critical aspect of social networking sites is the time invested in customizing a personal profile, and encourage a sort of social currency based on likes, followers, and comments.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Children, Teens, Media, and Body Image|language=en|website=Common Sense Media|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/children-teens-media-and-body-image#|access-date=2017-12-03}}</ref> Users also tend to segment their audiences based on the image they want to present, pseudonymity and use of multiple accounts across the same platform remain popular ways to negotiate platform expectations and segment audiences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van der Nagel|first=Emily|date=2017-09-02|title=From usernames to profiles: the development of pseudonymity in Internet communication|journal=Internet Histories|volume=1|issue=4|pages=312–331|doi=10.1080/24701475.2017.1389548|issn=2470-1475}}</ref>
-However, users may feel pressure to gain their peers' acceptance of their self-presentation. For example, in a 2016 peer-reviewed article by Trudy Hui Hui Chua and Leanne Chang, the authors found that teenage girls manipulate their self-presentation on social media to achieve a sense of beauty that is projected by their peers.<ref name="Chua 190–197">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.011 |title=Follow me and like my beautiful selfies: Singapore teenage girls' engagement in self-presentation and peer comparison on social media |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=55 |pages=190–7 |year=2016 |last1=Chua |first1=Trudy Hui Hui |last2=Chang |first2=Leanne }}</ref> These authors also discovered that teenage girls compare themselves to their peers on social media and present themselves in certain ways in an effort to earn regard and acceptance. However, when users do not feel like they reached this regard and acceptance, this can actually lead to problems with self-confidence and self-satisfaction.<ref name="Chua 190–197" /> A nationally representative survey of American teens ages 13–17 by Common Sense Media found that 45% said getting “[[Like (social media)|likes]]” on posts is at least somewhat important, and 26% at least somewhat agreed that they feel bad about themselves if nobody comments on or “likes” their photos.<ref name=":9" /> Some evidence suggests that perceived rejection may lead to feeling emotional pain,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Gina Masullo|year=2015|title=Losing Face on Social Media|journal=Communication Research|volume=42|issue=6|pages=819–38|doi=10.1177/0093650213510937|s2cid=28015890}}</ref> and some may partake in online retaliation such as online bullying.<ref>Kowalski, Robin M, Sue Limber, and Patricia W Agatston. Cyberbullying. 1st ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. Print.</ref>  Conversely, according to research from UCLA, users' reward circuits in their brains are more active when their own photos are liked by more peers.<ref>{{cite web|author=Wolpert, Stuart|title=Teenage Brain on Social Media|url=http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/the-teenage-brain-on-social-media|access-date=2016-05-31}}</ref>
-Literature suggests that social media can breed a negative feedback loop of viewing and uploading photos, self-comparison, feelings of disappointment when perceived social success is not achieved, and disordered body perception.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Holland, G.|author2=Tiggerman, M.|date=2016|title=A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298794212|journal=Body Image|volume=17|pages=101–109|doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.008|pmid=26995158}}</ref> In fact, one study shows that the microblogging platform, Pinterest is directly associated with disordered dieting behavior, indicating that for those who frequently look at exercise or dieting "pins" there is a greater chance that they will engage in extreme weight-loss and dieting behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lewallen|first1=Jennifer|last2=Behm-Morawitz|first2=Elizabeth|date=March 30, 2016|title=Pinterest or Thinterest?: Social Comparison and Body Image on Social Media|journal=Social Media + Society|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|page=205630511664055|doi=10.1177/2056305116640559|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-===As a health behavior change and reinforcement tool===
-Social media can also function as a supportive system for adolescents' health, because by using social media, adolescents are able to mobilize around health issues that they themselves deem relevant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Patton |first1=George C. |last2=Sawyer |first2=Susan M. |last3=Santelli |first3=John S. |last4=Ross |first4=David A. |last5=Afifi |first5=Rima |last6=Allen |first6=Nicholas B. |last7=Arora |first7=Monika |last8=Azzopardi |first8=Peter |last9=Baldwin |first9=Wendy |date=June 2016 |title=Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing |journal=The Lancet |volume=387 |issue=10036 |pages=2423–2478 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00579-1 |issn=0140-6736 |pmc=5832967 |pmid=27174304}}</ref> For example, in a clinical study among adolescent patients undergoing treatment for [[obesity]], the participants' expressed that through social media, they could find personalized [[weight-loss]] content as well as social support among other adolescents with obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1177/1460458218759699|pmid = 29499615|title = Health literacy in a complex digital media landscape: Pediatric obesity patients' experiences with online weight, food, and health information|journal = Health Informatics Journal|volume = 25|issue = 4|pages = 1343–1357|year = 2018|last1 = Holmberg|first1 = Christopher|last2 = Berg|first2 = Christina|last3 = Dahlgren|first3 = Jovanna|last4 = Lissner|first4 = Lauren|last5 = Chaplin|first5 = John Eric|s2cid = 3687773}}</ref><ref name="media and eating disorders">{{cite web |title=media and eating disorders |date=5 October 2017 |url=https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/media-eating-disorders |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> Whilst, social media can provide such information there are a considerable amount of uninformed and incorrect sources which promote unhealthy and dangerous methods of weight loss.<ref name="media and eating disorders"/> As stated by the national eating disorder association there is a high correlation between weight loss content and disorderly eating among women who have been influenced by this negative content.<ref name="media and eating disorders"/> Therefore, there is a need for people to evaluate and identify reliable health information, competencies commonly known as [[health literacy]]. This has led to efforts by governments and public health organizations to use social media to interact with users, to limited success.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1017/dmp.2020.404|pmid = 33089770|title = The Structure of Tweets about Vaccine Safety Between Health Organizations, Experts and the Public: Analyzing Risk Communication Conversations|journal = Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness|volume = 25|issue = 4|pages = 1343–1357|year = 2018|last1 = Manheim|first1 = David|last2 = Gesser-Edelsburg|first2 = Anat|pmc = 7943953|doi-access = free}}</ref>
-Other social media, such as [[pro-ana|pro-anorexia]] sites, have been found in studies to cause significant risk of harm by reinforcing negative health-related behaviors through social networking, especially in adolescents.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jenny|last2=Peebles|first2=Rebecka|date=December 2006|title=Surfing for thinness: A pilot study of pro-eating disorder web site usage in adolescents with eating disorders|journal=Pediatrics|volume=118|issue=6|pages=e1635–e1643|doi=10.1542/peds.2006-1133|pmid=17142493|last3=Hardy|first3=KK|last4=Litt|first4=IF|last5=Wilson |first5=J L|s2cid=22277352}}</ref><ref name=Ransom>{{cite journal|first1=Danielle C|last1=Ransom|first2=Jennifer G|last2=La Guardia|first3=Erik Z|last3=Woody|first4=Jennifer L|last4=Boyd|title=Interpersonal interactions on online forums addressing eating concerns|journal=International Journal of Eating Disorders|volume=43|issue=2|pages=161–170|year=2010|doi=10.1002/eat.20629|pmid=19308991}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Eating Disorders and the Internet |url=http://www.anad.org/get-information/eating-disorders-and-the-internet/ |publisher=National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders |access-date=2010-09-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019032231/http://www.anad.org/get-information/eating-disorders-and-the-internet/ |archive-date=2010-10-19 }}</ref> Social media effects the way a person views themselves. The constant comparison to edited photos, of other individual's and their living situations, ican cause many negative emotions. This can lead to not eating, and isolation. As more and more people continue to use social media for the wrong reasons, it increases the feeling of loneliness in adults.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Robinson|first=Lawrence|title=Social Media and Mental Health - HelpGuide.org|url=https://www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/social-media-and-mental-health.htm|access-date=2021-06-21|website=www.helpguide.org|language=en-US}}</ref>{{Further|Cyberpsychology#Social media and cyberpsychological behavior|Social media and identity}}
-During the [[COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]], the spread of information throughout social media regarding treatments against the [[Coronavirus|virus]] has also influenced different health behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carrion-Alvarez|first1=Diego|last2=Tijerina-Salina|first2=Perla X.|date=2020-11-07|title=Fake news in COVID-19: A perspective|journal=Health Promotion Perspectives|volume=10|issue=4|pages=290–291|doi=10.34172/hpp.2020.44|issn=2228-6497|pmc=7722992|pmid=33312921}}</ref>
-===Effects on individual and collective memory===
-News media and [[Television Journalist|television journalism]] have been a key feature in the shaping of American collective memory for much of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kitch|first1=Carolyn|year=2002|title=Anniversary Journalism, Collective Memory, and the Cultural Authority to Tell the Story of the American Past|journal=Journal of Popular Culture|volume=36|pages=44–67|doi=10.1111/1540-5931.00030|s2cid=161675942}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Edy|first1=Jill|year=1999|title=Journalistic Uses of Collective Memory|journal=Journal of Communication|volume=49|issue=2|pages=71–85|doi=10.1111/j.1460-2466.1999.tb02794.x}}</ref> Indeed, since the [[Colonial history of the United States|colonial era of the United States]], news media has influenced [[collective memory]] and [[discourse]] about national development and trauma. In many ways, mainstream journalists have maintained an authoritative voice as the storytellers of the American past. Their documentary-style narratives, detailed [[Exposé (journalism)|exposés]], and their positions in the present make them prime sources for public memory. Specifically, news media journalists have shaped collective memory on nearly every major national event—from the deaths of social and political figures to the progression of political hopefuls. Journalists provide elaborate descriptions of commemorative events in U.S. history and contemporary popular cultural sensations. Many Americans learn the significance of historical events and political issues through news media, as they are presented on popular news stations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pajala|first1=Mary|year=2012|title=Television as an Archive of Memory?|journal=Critical Studies in Television|volume=5|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.7227/cst.5.2.16|s2cid=156717273}}</ref> However, journalistic influence has grown less important, whereas social networking sites such as [[Facebook news feed|Facebook]], [[YouTube]] and [[Twitter]], provide a constant supply of alternative news sources for users.
-As [[social networking]] becomes more popular among older and younger generations, sites such as Facebook and YouTube gradually undermine the traditionally authoritative voices of news media. For example, American citizens contest media coverage of various social and political events as they see fit, inserting their voices into the narratives about America's past and present and shaping their own collective memories.<ref>Motti Neiger, Oren Meyers, and Eyal Zandberg. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7mKJDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22social%20media%22&f=false On Media Memory: Collective Memory in a New Media Age]. New York : Palgrave MacMillan, 2011</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barnhurst|first1=Kevin|last2=Wartella|first2=Ellen|year=1998|title=Young Citizens, American TV Newscasts and the Collective Memory|journal=Critical Studies in Mass Media|volume=15|issue=3|pages=279–305|doi=10.1080/15295039809367049}}</ref> An example of this is the public explosion of the [[Killing of Trayvon Martin|Trayvon Martin shooting]] in Sanford, Florida. News media coverage of the incident was minimal until social media users made the story recognizable through their constant discussion of the case. Approximately one month after Martin's death, its online coverage by everyday Americans garnered national attention from mainstream media journalists, in turn exemplifying [[media activism]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=View of The battle for 'Trayvon Martin': Mapping a media controversy online and off-line {{!}} First Monday|url=https://firstmonday.org/article/view/4947/3821|access-date=2021-04-16|journal=First Monday|date=28 January 2014|doi=10.5210/fm.v19i2.4947|last1=Graeff|first1=Erhardt|last2=Stempeck|first2=Matt|last3=Zuckerman|first3=Ethan|hdl=1721.1/123459}}</ref> In some ways, the spread of this tragic event through alternative news sources parallels that of [[Emmett Till]]—whose murder by lynching in 1955 became a national story after it was circulated in African-American and Communist newspapers.
-=== Negative interpersonal interactions ===
-{{Further|Cyberbullying}}
-Social media use sometimes involves negative interactions between users.<ref>[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3517813 The Joys & Ills of Social Media: A Review.] ''Information Systems: Behavioral & Social Methods eJournal.'' SSSRN. Accessed 12 February 2020.</ref> Angry or emotional conversations can lead to real-world interactions, which can get users into dangerous situations. Some users have experienced threats of violence online and have feared these threats manifesting themselves offline. Related issues include [[cyberbullying]], online [[harassment]], and '[[Internet troll|trolling]]'. According to cyberbullying statistics from the i-Safe Foundation, over half of adolescents and teens have been bullied online, and about the same number have engaged in cyberbullying.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.bullyingstatistics.org/content/cyber-bullying-statistics.html | title=Cyber Bullying Statistics| date=July 7, 2015}}</ref> Both the bully and the victim are negatively affected, and the intensity, duration, and frequency of bullying are the three aspects that increase the negative effects on both of them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peebles|first=E|date=2014|title=Cyberbullying: Hiding behind the screen.|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=19|issue=10|pages=527–528|doi=10.1093/pch/19.10.527|pmid=25587229|pmc=4276384}}</ref>
-=== Social comparison ===
-One phenomenon that is commonly studied with social media is the issue of [[Social comparison theory|social comparison]]. People compare their own lives to the lives of their friends through their friends' posts.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} Because people are motivated to portray themselves in a way that is appropriate to the situation and serves their best interests,<ref name="Chua 190–197" /> often the things posted online are the positive aspects of people's lives, making other people question why their own lives are not as exciting or fulfilling. One study in 2017 found that problematic social media use (i.e., feeling addicted to social media) was related to lower life satisfaction and self-esteem scores; the authors speculate that users may feel if their life is not exciting enough to put online it is not as good as their friends or family.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hawi | first1 = N.S. | last2 = Samaha | first2 = M. | s2cid = 64367207 | year = 2017 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306048463 |title=The Relations Among Social Media Addiction, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction in University Students | journal = Social Science Computer Review | volume = 35 | issue = 5| pages = 576–586 | doi = 10.1177/0894439316660340 }}</ref>
-Studies have shown that self-comparison on social media can have dire effects on physical and mental health because they give us the ability to seek approval and compare ourselves.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Stefanone, M.A. |author2=Lackaff, D. |author3=Rosen, D. |date=2011 |title=Contingencies of Self-Worth and Social-Networking-Site Behavior |url=http://www.buffalo.edu/content/dam/cas/communication/files/Stefanone/Stefanone_cyberpsych.2011.pdf |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking|volume=14 |issue=1–2 |pages=41–9 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2010.0049 |pmid=21329442 |hdl=2152/41152 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-01-27|title=Social media damages teenagers' mental health, report says|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55826238|access-date=2021-01-28}}</ref> In one study, women reported that social media are the most influential sources of their body image satisfaction; while men reported them as the second most impacting factor.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Blackford |first1=Meghan |title=#bodypositive: A Look at Body Image & Social Media |url=https://fherehab.com/news/bodypositive/ |website=FHE Health |access-date=5 October 2020}}</ref>
-Social media has allowed for people to be constantly surrounded and aware of celebrity images and influencers who hold strong online presence with the number of followers they have. This constant online presence has meant that people are far more aware of what others look like and as such body comparisons have become an issue, as people are far more aware of what the desired body type is. A study produced by King university showed that 87% of women and 65% of men compared themselves to images found on social media.<ref>{{cite web |title=Link between social media and body image |url=https://online.king.edu/news/social-media-and-body-image/ |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref>
-There are efforts to combat these negative effects, such as the use of the tag #instagramversusreality and #instagramversusreallife, that have been used to promote body positivity. In a related study, women aged 18–30 were shown posts using this hashtag that contained side-by-side images of women in the same clothes and setting, but one image was enhanced for Instagram, while the other was an unedited, “realistic” version. Women who participated in this experiment noted a decrease in body dissatisfaction.<ref>Anderberg, Isabella and Tiggemann, Marika. “Social media is not real: The effect of ‘Instagram vs.  reality’ images on women’s social comparison and body image.” Sage Journals. Volume:22 Issue: 16 November 2019.</ref>
-=== Sleep disturbance ===
-According to a study released in 2017 by researchers from the [[University of Pittsburgh]], the link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media was clear. It concluded that blue light had a part to play—and how often they logged on, rather than time spent on social media sites, was a higher predictor of disturbed sleep, suggesting "an obsessive 'checking'".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20180104-is-social-media-bad-for-you-the-evidence-and-the-unknowns|title=Is social media bad for you? The evidence and the unknowns|last=Brown|first=Jessica|language=en|access-date=2018-06-13}}</ref> The strong relationship of social media use and sleep disturbance has significant clinical ramifications for young adults health and well-being.<ref name="Levenson 36–41">{{Cite journal|last=Levenson|first=Jessica|date=April 2016|title=The association between social media use and sleep disturbance among young adults |volume=85|pages=36–41}}</ref> In a recent study, we have learned that people in the highest quartile for social media use per week report the most sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day is 61 minutes. Lastly, we have learned that females are more inclined to experience high levels of sleep disturbance than males.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Levenson|first1=Jessica C.|last2=Shensa|first2=Ariel|last3=Sidani|first3=Jaime E.|last4=Colditz|first4=Jason B.|last5=Primack|first5=Brian A.|date=April 2016|title=The Association Between Social Media Use and Sleep Disturbance Among Young Adults|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=85|pages=36–41|pmc=4857587|pmid=26791323|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.01.001}}</ref> Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation as they spend long hours at night on their phones, and this, in turn, could affect grades as they will be tired and unfocused in school.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ritcher |first1=Ruthann |title=Among teens, sleep deprivation an epidemic |url=https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2015/10/among-teens-sleep-deprivation-an-epidemic.html |access-date=14 November 2020 |work=News Center |publisher=Stanford School of Medicine |date=October 2015 |language=en}}</ref> In a study from 2011, it was found that time spent on Facebook has a strong negative relationship with overall [[Grading in education|GPA]], but it was unclear if this was related to sleep disturbances.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Junco|first=Reynol|date=September 2011|title=Too Much Face and Not Enough Books |journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=28|pages=187–198|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.026}}</ref> Since blue light has increasingly become an issue smartphone developers have added a night mode feature that does not cause as much strain to the eyes as a blue light would{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}.
-===Emotional effects===
-{{See also|Social media and suicide}}
-One studied emotional effect of social media is ''''Facebook depression'''<nowiki/>', which is a type of depression that affects adolescents who spend too much of their free time engaging with social media sites.<ref name=":16" /> This may lead to problems such as reclusiveness which can negatively damage one's health by creating feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem among young people.<ref name=":16">O’Keefe Schurgen, Gwenn. Clarke-Pearson, Kathleen. (2011) [https://www.cooperativa.cl/noticias/site/artic/20110329/asocfile/20110329173752/reporte_facebook.PDF The impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Families]. ''American Academy of Pediatrics'', Volume 127 (issue 4), 800-805</ref> Using a phone to look at social media before bed has become a popular trend among teenagers and this has led to a lack of sleep and inability to stay awake during school. Social media applications curate content that encourages users to keep scrolling to the point where they lose track of time.<ref name="Levenson 36–41"/> A 2017 study of almost 6,000 adolescent students showed that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bányai|first1=Fanni|last2=Zsila|first2=Ágnes|last3=Király|first3=Orsolya|last4=Maraz|first4=Aniko|last5=Elekes|first5=Zsuzsanna|last6=Griffiths|first6=Mark D.|last7=Andreassen|first7=Cecilie Schou|last8=Demetrovics|first8=Zsolt|date=January 9, 2017|title=Problematic Social Media Use: Results from a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Adolescent Sample|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=1|pages=e0169839|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169839|pmid=28068404|pmc=5222338|issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1269839B|doi-access=free}}</ref> In a different study conducted in 2007, those who used the most multiple social media platforms (7 to 11) had more than three times the risk of depression and anxiety than people who used the fewest (0 to 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zagorski|first=Nick|date=January 20, 2017|title=Using Many Social Media Platforms Linked With Depression, Anxiety Risk|journal=Psychiatric News|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=1|doi=10.1176/appi.pn.2017.1b16|issn=0033-2704}}</ref>
-A second emotional effect is '''social media burnout''', which is defined by Bo Han as ambivalence, emotional exhaustion, and [[depersonalization]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Han|first1=Bo|year=2018|title=Social Media Burnout: Definition, Measurement Instrument, and Why We Care|journal=Journal of Computer Information Systems|volume=58|issue=2|pages=1–9|doi=10.1080/08874417.2016.1208064|s2cid=67791822}}</ref> Ambivalence refers to a user's confusion about the benefits she can get from using a social media site. Emotional exhaustion refers to the stress a user has when using a social media site. Depersonalization refers to the emotional detachment from a social media site a user experiences. The three burnout factors can all negatively influence the user's social media continuance. This study provides an instrument to measure the burnout a user can experience when his or her social media "friends" are generating an overwhelming amount of useless information (e.g., "what I had for dinner", "where I am now").
-A third emotional effect is the "[[fear of missing out]]" (FOMO), which is defined as the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent."<ref name="Przybylski, Andrew K. 2013">{{cite journal|last1=Przybylski|first1=Andrew K.|last2=Murayama|first2=Kou|last3=DeHaan|first3=Cody R.|last4=Gladwell|first4=Valerie|year=2013|title=Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=29|issue=4|pages=1841–1848|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014}}</ref> FOMO has been classified by some as a form of social [[anxiety]].<ref name="JWT2012">{{Cite web|date=March 2012|title=Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)|url=http://www.jwtintelligence.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/F_JWT_FOMO-update_3.21.12.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626125816/http://www.jwtintelligence.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/F_JWT_FOMO-update_3.21.12.pdf|archive-date=2015-06-26|website=[[J. Walter Thompson]]}}</ref> It is associated with checking updates on friends' activities on social media.<ref name="Przybylski, Andrew K. 2013" /> Some speculate that checking updates on friends' activities on social media may be associated with negative influences on people's psychological health and well-being because it could contribute to negative mood and depressed feelings.<ref>Wortham, J. (April 10, 2011). "Feel like a wall flower? Maybe it's your Facebook wall". The New York Times. Shea, Michael (July 27, 2015). "Living with FOMO". The Skinny. Retrieved January 9, 2016.</ref> Looking at friends' stories or posts on various social media applications can lead users to feel left out and become upset because they are not having as fun as others. This is a very common issue between teen users of certain apps and it continues to effect their personal well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=James|title=The Social Media Party: Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), Social Media Intensity, Connection, and Well-Being|url=https://www-tandfonline-com|journal=International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction|year=2020|volume=36|issue=4|pages=386–392|doi=10.1080/10447318.2019.1646517|s2cid=201138032}}</ref>
-On the other hand, social media can sometimes have a supportive effect on individuals who use it. [[Twitter]] has been used more by the medical community.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fuller|first1=Maren Y.|last2=Allen|first2=Timothy Craig|date=2016-09-01|title=Let's Have a Tweetup: The Case for Using Twitter Professionally|url=http://meridian.allenpress.com/aplm/article/140/9/956/196157/Lets-Have-a-Tweetup-The-Case-for-Using-Twitter|journal=Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine|language=en|volume=140|issue=9|pages=956–957|doi=10.5858/arpa.2016-0172-SA|pmid=27195434|issn=1543-2165|doi-access=free}}</ref> While Twitter can facilitate academic discussion among health professionals and students, it can also provide a supportive community for these individuals by fostering a sense of community and allowing individuals to support each other through [[Tweets (Twitter)|tweets]], likes, and comments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Lisa|last2=Woo|first2=Benjamin K P|date=2021-01-19|title=Twitter as a Mental Health Support System for Students and Professionals in the Medical Field|journal=JMIR Medical Education|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=e17598|doi=10.2196/17598|pmid=33464210|pmc=7854042|issn=2369-3762|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 ==Social impacts{{anchor|Social_impacts_of_social_media}}==
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 * {{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s12103-016-9380-4|title=Effectiveness of Police Social Media Use|journal=American Journal of Criminal Justice|volume=42|issue=3|pages=489–501|year=2016|last1=Beshears|first1=Michael L.|s2cid=151928750}}
-==External links==
-{{Scholia|topic}}
-*{{Commons category-inline}}
-{{Online social networking}}{{Computer-mediated communication}}{{Media culture}}
 {{Authority control|state=expanded}}