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|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | You really deserve this barnstar. Thank you for writing so many articles. Excellent job! [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf|talk]]) 12:56, 10 January 2022 (IST)
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | You really deserve this barnstar. Thank you for writing so many articles. Excellent job! [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf|talk]]) 12:56, 10 January 2022 (IST)
|}
|}
== Extension:TwitterTag/pl ==
<languages/>
{{Extension|templatemode =
|name                = TwitterTag
|status              = stable
|type1                = tag
|author              = [[User:01miki10|Mikko Miettinen]]<br/><span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Original version:</span>
*[https://community.fandom.com/wiki/User:TyA TyA]
*[https://community.fandom.com/wiki/User:Kerri_Amber sactage]
*X-Wing Team @ Wikia<!-- per original extension credits, do not change to Fandom -->
|description          = <!-- brief description of purpose / use case -->
|image                =
|imagesize            =
|version preview      =
|update preview      =
|compatibility policy = master
|mediawiki            = 1.27+
|php                  = 7.1.0+
|composer            =
|table1              =
|table2              =
|download            = {{WikimediaDownload|TwitterTag}}
|readme              =
|changelog            =
|example              = [http://www.jedipedia.fi Jedipedia]
|namespace            =
|tags                = {{tag|twitter|single}}
|compatibility        =
|phabricator          =
|vagrant-role        =
|github              =
|CheckUsageNameOverride = Twitter Tag
}}
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">The '''TwitterTag''' extension adds {{tag|twitter|single}} tag to allow embedding Twitter content on pages.</span>
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">It is ported from [https://github.com/Wikia/app/tree/dev/extensions/wikia/TwitterTag Fandom's extension].</span>
==Instalacja==
{{Note|1=<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Unless otherwise specified, you should always download and install "master" version, which is compatible with all supported versions.</span> <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Release branches are not supported and may be outdated.</span>}}
{{ExtensionInstall
|registration=required
}}
==Użycie==
Currently the extension supports [https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs/twitter-for-websites/embedded-tweets/overview individual tweets], [https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs/twitter-for-websites/timelines/guides/profile-timeline profile timeline] and [https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs/twitter-for-websites/timelines/guides/list-timeline list timeline].
Additionally, [https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs/twitter-for-websites/timelines/guides/likes-timeline likes timeline] is currently supported, but [https://twittercommunity.com/t/removing-support-for-embedded-like-collection-and-moment-timelines/150313 will be deprecated by Twitter].
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">To add a tweet, use following code:</span>
{{tag|twitter|single|params={{attr|screen-name|2="''screen_name''"}} {{attr|tweet-id|2="''tweet_id''"}} }}
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">To add a profile timeline, use following code:</span>
{{tag|twitter|single|params={{attr|screen-name|2="''<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">screen_name</span>''"}} }}
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">To add a list timeline, use following code:</span>
{{tag|twitter|single|params={{attr|screen-name|2="''<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">screen_name</span>''"}} {{attr|list-slug|2="''<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">list_slug</span>''"}} }}
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">To add a likes timeline, use following code:</span>
{{tag|twitter|single|params={{attr|likes-screen-name|2="''<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">screen_name</span>''"}} }}
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
Alternatively, full URL can be provided using parameter <code>href=</code>.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
Most [https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs/twitter-for-websites/timelines/guides/parameter-reference parameters] provided by Twitter, such as <code>height=</code>, <code>width=</code>, and <code>lang=</code>, are supported.
</div>
<gallery>
File:TwitterTag-example-tweet.png|<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Examples of tweets</span>
File:TwitterTag-example-profiletimeline.png|<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Examples of profile timelines</span>
File:TwitterTag-example-listtimeline.png|<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Examples of list timelines</span>
File:TwitterTag-example-likestimeline.png|<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Examples of likes timelines</span>
</gallery>
[[Category:Twitter extensions{{#translation:}}]]
[[Category:Extensions by Fandom{{#translation:}}]] [[User:Merajul Islam|Merajul Islam]] ([[User talk:Merajul Islam#top|talk]]) 13:28, 28 January 2022 (IST)
== Merajul Islam ==
<languages />
<!-- This is to allow easy creation of translated subpages: -->
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"></span>
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">These are templates you can use in wikitext.</span>
<span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">See also {{ll|Manual:HTML templates}} that developers can use in MediaWiki code.</span>
[[Category:MediaWiki.org website{{#translation:}}]]
[[Category:Template{{#translation:}}]] [[User:Merajul Islam|Merajul Islam]] ([[User talk:Merajul Islam#top|talk]]) 13:32, 28 January 2022 (IST)
== Main page ==
{{Main page}}{{NOEXTERNALLANGLINKS}}<!--
-- To edit what appears on this page,
-- please see [[Template:Main_page]]
-- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Template:Main_page
--> [[User:Merajul Islam|Merajul Islam]] ([[User talk:Merajul Islam#top|talk]]) 13:32, 28 January 2022 (IST)
== Merajul Islam ==
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Privacy policy Terms of UseDesktop [[User:Merajul Islam|Merajul Islam]] ([[User talk:Merajul Islam#top|talk]]) 13:34, 28 January 2022 (IST)
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{{Short description| Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}
{{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Islam|expanded=all}}
'''Islam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}};{{efn|1=There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is {{IPAc-en|z}} or {{IPAc-en|s}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} or (when the stress is on the first syllable) {{IPAc-en|ə}} (''[[Merriam Webster]]''). The most common are {{IPAc-en|ɪ|15=ˈ|26=ə|25=l|24=s|23=ɪ|22=ˈ|21=,_|20=m|19=ə|18=l|17=z|16=ɪ|14=,_|z|13=m|12=ɑː|11=l|10='|9=s|8=ɪ|7=,_|6=m|5=ɑː|4=l|ˈ|27=m}} (''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}} (''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'').}} {{lang-ar|اَلْإِسْلَامُ|al-’Islām}}, {{IPA-ar|ɪsˈlaːm||ar-islam.ogg|}}) is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[monotheistic]] religion teaching that [[Muhammad]] is a [[Muhammad in Islam|messenger]] of [[God]].<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 quick reference].) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref name="OEIW-allah2">Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 quick reference].) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"</ref> It is the [[Major religious groups|world's second-largest religion]] with 1.9&nbsp;billion followers or 24.9% of the world's population,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country |title=Muslim Population By Country 2021 |website=World Population Review |access-date=22 July 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Pew2">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615053333/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> known as [[Muslims]].<ref>"[https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim Muslim]." ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''. UK: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2020.</ref> Islam teaches that [[God in Islam|God]] is [[Mercy#Islam|merciful]], [[Omnipotence|all-powerful]], and [[Tawhid|unique]],{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}} and has guided humanity through [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets]], [[Islamic holy books|revealed scriptures]], and [[Āyah|natural signs]].<ref name="OEIW-allah2" /><ref>[[İbrahim Özdemir|Özdemir, İbrahim]]. 2014. "Environment." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam''}}, edited by [[İbrahim Kalın|I. Kalin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-981257-8}}. "When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment.... The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator."</ref> The primary scriptures of Islam are the [[Quran]], believed to be the verbatim word of God, as well as the teachings and practices (''[[sunnah]]''), in traditional accounts (''[[hadith]]'') of Muhammad ([[wikt:circa|{{circa}}]] 570 – 632&nbsp;CE).<ref>Goldman, Elizabeth. 1995. ''Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-508240-1}}. p. 63.</ref>
Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a [[Fitra|primordial faith]] that was revealed many times before through prophets such as [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=177}}</ref> Muslims consider the Quran, in Arabic, to be the unaltered and final revelation of God.{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}} Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches a final judgment with the righteous rewarded in [[Jannah|paradise]] and the unrighteous punished in [[Jahannam|hell]].<ref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Eschatology |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are obligatory acts of worship, as well as following Islamic law (''[[sharia]]''), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from [[Islamic banking and finance|banking]] and [[Zakat|welfare]] to [[Women in Islam|women]] and the [[Islamic ethics#Environmentalism|environment]].{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}}<ref name=":15">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Noel James |last=Coulson |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shariah |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}} (See also: "[https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia sharia]" via ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''.)</ref> The cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and [[Jerusalem]] are home to the three [[holiest sites in Islam]].<ref>[[Yaroslav Trofimov|Trofimov, Yaroslav]]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. [[Knopf]]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>
From a historical point of view, Islam originated in early 7th&nbsp;century&nbsp;CE in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], in Mecca.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=AQUZ6BGyohQC|page=5}} |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5}}</ref> and by the 8th century, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] extended from [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] in the east. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th&nbsp;century to the 13th&nbsp;century, during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], when much of the historically [[Muslim world]] was experiencing a [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|scientific]], [[History of Islamic economics#Classical Muslim commerce|economic]], and cultural flourishing.<ref>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: [[New York University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: [[Ibn Khaldun International Institute of Advanced Research|International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization]]. Archived from the [http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html original] on 2 April 2015.</ref> The expansion of the Muslim world involved various [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|states and caliphates]] such as the [[Ottoman Empire]], trade, and [[Religious conversion|conversion to Islam]] by [[Islamic missionary activity|missionary activities]] (''[[dawah]]'').<ref>[[Thomas Walker Arnold|Arnold, Thomas Walker]]. ''The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.'' pp. 125–258.</ref>
Most Muslims are of one of two [[Islamic schools and branches|denominations]]: [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85–90%)<ref name="Denny">Denny, Frederick. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3 ''Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide'']. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."</ref> or [[Shia Islam|Shia]] (10–15%),<ref name="CIA Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Field Listing :: Religions |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=2010-07-06}}</ref><ref name="berkleycenter-sunni">
{{cite web |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=24 May 2020 |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=2020-06-14}}
</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}}  and make up a majority of the population in [[Islam by country|49 countries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref><ref>[[Pew Forum|The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]]. December 2012. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010]." DC: Pew Research Center. [https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ Article].</ref> Sunni and Shia [[Shia–Sunni relations|differences]] arose from disagreement over the [[succession to Muhammad]] and acquired broader political significance, as well as [[Schools of Islamic theology|theological]] and [[Fiqh|juridical]] dimensions.<ref name="EMMENA">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> About 12% of Muslims live in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], the most populous Muslim-majority country;<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "[https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050]" (projections table). [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% live in [[Islam in South Asia|South Asia]];<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kaubzRxh-U0C}} |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193]}}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 315/1571 round 0}}% in the [[MENA#Religion|Middle East–North Africa]] and 15% in [[Sub-Saharan Africa#Religion|sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite report |date=27 January 2011 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sizable Muslim communities can also be found in the [[Islam in the Americas|Americas]], [[Islam in China|China]], and [[Islam in Europe|Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |website=[[Al Jazeera]] |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency|Anadolu News Agency]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=13 January 2019}}</ref> Islam is the [[Growth of religion|fastest-growing major religion]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Daniel |date=2 April 2015 |title=The world's fastest-growing religion is... |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/ |access-date=18 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="USNewsLippman22">Lippman, Thomas W. 7 April 2008. "[https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god No God But God]." ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''. Retrieved 24 May 2020. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."</ref>
==Etymology<!--linked from 'Muslim'-->==
{{See also|Muslims#Etymology}}
[[File:Kaaba Mirror like.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] is the [[Qibla|direction of prayer]] and destination of pilgrimage]]
In Arabic, Islam ({{lang-ar|إسلام}} {{lit|submission [to God]}}) is the verbal noun originating from the verb سلم (salama), from [[Semitic root|triliteral root]] س-ل-م ([[Š-L-M|S-L-M]]), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, sincerity, safeness, and peace.<ref>"[http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm Siin]." ''Lane's Lexicon'' 4. – via ''[[The Study Quran|StudyQuran]]''.</ref> Islam is the verbal noun of [[wikt:أسلم#Arabic|Form IV]] of the root and means "submission" or "total surrender". In a religious context, it means "total surrender to the will of [[God]]".<ref name="BC3">{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Barnard |last2=Churchill |first2=Buntzie Ellis |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi |title=Islam: The Religion and The People |publisher=Wharton School Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-13-223085-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi/page/8 8]}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}} A ''[[Muslims|Muslim]]'' ({{lang-ar|مُسْلِم}}), the word for a follower of Islam, is the [[Participle|active participle]] of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". The word "Islam" ("submission") sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the [[Quran]]. Some verses stress the quality of Islam as an internal spiritual state: "Whoever God wills to guide, He opens their heart to Islam."<ref name="MULTIPLE-REFERENCES2" group="lower-roman">[[Q6:125]] {{Cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, [[Q61:7]] {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, [[Q39:22]] {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}
Others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref name="return2" group="lower-roman">[[Q9:74]] {{Cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}; {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}</ref> In the [[Hadith of Gabriel]], Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes ''[[Iman (Islam)|imān]]'' (faith), and ''[[Ihsan|ihsān]]'' (excellence).{{sfnp|Esposito|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/page/76 76–77]}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmutćehajić |first=Rusmir |url=https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm |title=The mosque: the heart of submission |publisher=[[Fordham University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm/page/n104 84] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The word ''"silm"'' ({{lang-ar|سِلْم}}) in Arabic means both peace and also the religion of Islam.<ref name="CA">{{Cite web |date=20 June 2020 |title=What Does "Islam" Mean? |url=https://classicalarabic.org/2020/06/19/what-does-islam-mean/ |access-date=20 June 2020 |website=Classical Arabic}}</ref> A common linguistic phrase demonstrating its usage is "he entered into ''as-silm''" ({{lang-ar|دَخَلَ فِي السِّلْمِ}}) which means "he entered into Islam," with a connotation of finding peace by submitting one's will to the [[Predestination in Islam|Will]] of God.<ref name="CA" /> The word "Islam" can be used in a linguistic sense of submission or in a technical sense of the religion of Islam, which also is called ''as-silm'' which means peace.<ref name="CA" />
Islam itself was historically called [[Mohammedan|''Mohammedanism'']] in the [[English-speaking world]]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be [[Religious offence |offensive]], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in [[Buddhism]].<ref>Wilson, Kenneth G. ''The Columbia Guide to Standard American English''. {{ISBN|0-231-06989-8}}. p. 291: "Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive."</ref> Some authors, however, continue to use the term ''Mohammedanism'' as a [[wikt:technical term|technical term]] for the religious system as opposed to the [[Theology|theological]] concept of Islam that exists within that system.
==Articles of faith==
{{Main|Aqidah|Iman (Islam)|l2 = Iman}}
The Islamic [[creed]] (''[[aqidah]]'') requires belief in [[Iman (concept)#The six articles of the Islamic faith|six articles]]: God, angels, books, prophets, the [[Day of Resurrection]] and in the divine decree.
===God===
{{Main|God in Islam}}
{{allah}}
The central concept of Islam is [[Tawhid|tawḥīd]] (Arabic:توحيد), the oneness of God. Usually thought of as a <em>precise [[monotheism]]</em>, but also [[panentheism|panentheistic]] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=74–76}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2004|p=22}}
* {{harvp|Griffith|Savage|2006|p=[{{google books |plainurl=y |id=KKZEyNRJMkcC|page=248}} 248]}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> God is seen as imcomparable and without partners such as in the [[Christian Trinity]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Ma'idah - 5:73 |url=https://quran.com/5/73?translations=131 |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=quran.com}}</ref> and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as [[idolatory]], called [[Shirk (Islam)|''shirk'']]. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, therefore Muslims are not [[iconodule]]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several [[Names of God in Islam|names or attributes]], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان)'' meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and ''Ar-Rahīm ( الرحيم)'' meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref name="Ben2">{{Cite book |last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |date=1999 |publisher=[[William Carey Library]] |isbn=978-0-87808-299-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>
Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the [[universe]] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "[[Be, and it is]],"<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q2:117]] {{Cite quran|2|117|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and that the [[Purpose of life|purpose of existence]] is to worship God.<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q51:56]] {{Cite quran|51|56|style=ref}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html |access-date=24 May 2020 |website=Patheos}}</ref><ref>Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> He is viewed as a personal god<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q2:186]] {{Cite quran|2|186|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> and there are no intermediaries, such as [[clergy]], to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as [[Taqwa]]. ''[[Allāh]]'' is a term with no [[plural]] or [[gender]] being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transl|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' ({{lang-ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>See:
*{{Cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=[[PBS]]}}
* {{harvp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|loc="Islam and Christianity"}}: Arabic-speaking Christians and [[Jew]]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
* {{harvc |c=Allah|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=L. Gardet}}</ref> Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.
===Angels===
{{Main|Angels in Islam}}
[[File:Mohammed_receiving_revelation_from_the_angel_Gabriel.jpg|thumb|right|Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel [[Gabriel]]. From the manuscript [[Jami' al-tawarikh|Jami' al-Tawarikh]] by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], 1307.]]
Belief in [[angels]] is fundamental to Islam. The Quranic word for angel (Arabic:ملك ''{{transl|ar|ALA|malak}}'') derives either from ''Malaka'', meaning "he controlled", due to their power to govern different affairs assigned to them,<ref>Ali, Syed Anwer. [1984] 2010. ''Qurʼan, the Fundamental Law of Human Life: Surat ul-Faateha to Surat-ul-Baqarah (sections 1–21).'' Syed Publications. p. 121.</ref> or from the triliteral root ''’-l-k'', ''l-’-k'' or ''m-l-k'' with the broad meaning of a "messenger", just as its counterpart in [[Hebrew]] (''malʾákh''). Unlike the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word, however, the term is used exclusively for heavenly spirits of the divine world, as opposed to human messengers. The Quran refers to both angelic and human messengers as ''rasul'' instead.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Burge |first=Stephan R. |date=2011 |title=The Angels in Sūrat al-Malāʾika: Exegeses of [[Q. 35:1]] |journal=[[Journal of Qur'anic Studies]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=50–70|doi=10.3366/E1465359109000230 }}</ref>
The Quran is the principal source for the Islamic concept of angels.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=23}} Some of them, such as [[Gabriel]] and [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], are mentioned by name in the Quran; others are only referred to by their function. In [[hadith]] literature, angels are often assigned to only one specific phenomenon.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} Angels play a significant role in the literature about the [[Isra and Mi'raj|Mi'raj]], where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} Further angels have often been featured in [[Islamic eschatology]], [[Kalam|theology]] and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]].{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=22}} Duties assigned to angels include, for example, communicating [[Revelation|revelations]] from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's [[soul]] at the time of death.
In Islam, just as in [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], angels are often represented in [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic forms]] combined with [[supernatural]] images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|pp=97–99}} The Quran describes "Angels as His messengers with wings—two, three, or four."<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q35:1]] {{Cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref><ref>See:
* {{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}.
* {{harvc |last=Webb |first=Gisela |c=Angel |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}.
* {{harvc|last1=MacDonald, D. B.|last2=Madelung, W. |year=2012 |c=Malāʾika |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642}}.</ref> Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires, such as eating and drinking.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=140}} Their lack of affinity to material desires is also expressed by their creation from light: angels of mercy are created from [[Nūr (Islam)|''nūr'']] ('light')<ref>See:
* "[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur Nūr]." ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]''. – via ''[[Encyclopedia.com]]''.
* {{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}.
* {{harvc |last=Elias |first=Jamal J. |year=2003|c=Light |in=McAuliffe}} {{DOI|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261}}</ref> in opposition to the angels of punishment created from ''nār'' ('fire').<ref>See:
* {{harvc |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar |c=Nar |in=Martin |year=2004}}. – via [[Encyclopedia.com]].
* {{harvc|last=Fahd, T. |year=2012 |c=Nār |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846}}.
* {{harvc |last=Toelle |first=Heidi |year=2002 |c=Fire |in=McAuliffe}} {{DOI|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156}}.
* {{harvp|McAuliffe|2003|p=45}}.</ref> Muslims do not generally share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western art.
===Books===
{{Main|Quran|Wahy|Islamic holy books}}
{{See also|History of the Quran}}
[[File:FirstSurahKoran_(fragment).jpg|thumb|right|The first [[Sura|chapter]] of the Quran, ''[[Al-Fatiha]]'' (''The Opening''), is seven verses]]
The Islamic holy books are the records that most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. [[Muslim]]s believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospel in Islam|Gospel]]), had become [[tahrif|distorted]]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See:
* {{harvp|Accad|2003}}: According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
* {{harvp|Esposito|1998|pp=6, 12}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}
* {{harvp|Peters|2003|p=9}}
* {{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}
* {{harvc|c=Tahrif |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh}}</ref> The Quran (lit. "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final and literal revealed word of God and is widely regarded as the finest [[Arabic literature|literary]] work in the classical Arabic language.<ref>Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, [[University of Minnesota Press]], Minneapolis.</ref><ref>Speicher, K. (1997) in Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.</ref> Although the Quran is the last verbatim of God towards mankind, communication with God is not enclosed, but an ongoing process.<ref>TY  - BOOK
T1  - The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad
A1  - Brockopp, J.E.
SN  - 9780521886079
T3  - Cambridge Companions to Religion
UR  - https://books.google.de/books?id=aLm_R5yjcMMC
Y1  - 2010
PB  - Cambridge University Press
ER  -
</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=173}}  Many Muslims believe that "friends of God" (''ʾawliyāʾ'') could communicate with God, for example, to predict future events, know God's will and interpret the Quran.<ref name=Peacock>{{Cite book |first1=A.C.S.|last1=Peacock|title=Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia|publisher= Cambridge University Press| date=2019|doi= 10.1017/9781108582124|isbn=9781108582124|s2cid=211657444}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=77}}
Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to [[Muhammad]] by God through the [[archangel]] Gabriel (''[[Rūḥ|Jibrīl]]'') on many occasions between 610&nbsp;CE until his death in 632.{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=17–18, 21}} While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions (''[[sahabah]]''), although the prime method of transmission was orally through [[Hafiz (Quran)|memorization]].<ref name="al faruqi">{{Cite journal |last1=Al Faruqi |last2=Lois Ibsen |year=1987 |title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an |journal=[[Society for Asian Music|Asian Music]] |issue=Autumn – Winter 1987 |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters ([[suras]]) which combined contain 6,236 verses (''[[ayah|āyāt]]''). The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at [[Mecca]], are concerned primarily with ethical and spiritual topics. The later [[Medina]]n suras mostly discuss social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref name=":5"/><ref name=":8">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ringgren |first=Helmer |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}
"The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology and meaning|two different theories]] about this term and its formation."</ref>
The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legislation, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|p=79}} Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ('accounts'), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |title=Tafsīr |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}} The set of rules governing proper [[elocution]] of recitation is called [[tajwid]]. Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.<ref name=":8" /><ref>See:
* {{harvp|Teece|2003|pp=12–13}}
* {{harvp|Turner|2006|p=42}}</ref>
===Prophets and sunnah===
{{Main|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}
{{Islamic prophets}}
[[File:Medieval Persian manuscript Muhammad leads Abraham Moses Jesus.jpg|thumb|A Persian miniature depicts [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] leading [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] and other prophets in prayer.]]
Prophets (Arabic: {{lang-ar|أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ}}) communicate with God and receive a divine message. A prophet delivering a message to a nation is called a rasul (Arabic: {{lang-ar| رسول‎|label=none|translit=rasūl}}).<ref>Esposito, J. L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 225</ref> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine, though some can perform miracles to prove their claim.{{Citation needed|reason=This seems to be written from an anti-Christian perspective and might even simplify Islamic concepts of prophethood. Although not divine, some might regard prophets as indeed superhuman beings, for example, the idea that everything was created for Muhammad, or what Muhammad's essence preceded Adam.|date=November 2021}} According to Islam, all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Noah in Islam|Noah]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref name=":5" />
Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law-bearing prophet ("[[Seal of the prophets]]") to convey the divine message to the entire world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the [[sunnah]] (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives, and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Martin|2004|p=666}}.
* {{harvc|c=Hadith|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=J. Robson}}
* {{harvc|c=Sunna|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. [[Hadith qudsi|Hadith Qudsi]] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called [[Hadith studies#Traditional importance of the sanad|''sanad'']], and the actual wording, called ''[[Hadith studies|matn]]''. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration as: "authentic" or "correct" ({{lang-ar|صَحِيْح|links=no|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ṣaḥīḥ|ṣaḥīḥ]]|label=none}}); "good", ''[[Hasan (hadith)|hasan]]'' ({{lang-ar|حَسَن|links=no|label=none|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ḥasan|ḥasan]]}}); or "weak" ({{lang-ar|ضَعِيْف|label=none|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ḍaʻīf|ḍaʻīf]]}}), among others. The ''[[Kutub al-Sittah]]'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in [[Sunnism]]. Among them is ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]'', often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most [[Hadith terminology#Terminology relating to the authenticity of a hadith|authentic]] sources after the Quran.<ref>Brown, Jonathan. 2007. {{URL|{{google books|plainurl=y|id=nyMKDEAb4GsC}}|''The Canonization of Al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon''}}{{page needed|date=April 2016}}. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. {{ISBN|978-90-04-15839-9}}.</ref><ref name="Muqaddimah">[[Aisha Abd al-Rahman|al-Rahman, Aisha Abd]], ed. 1990. ''[[Introduction to the Science of Hadith|Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ]]''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another famous source of hadiths is known as ''[[The Four Books]]'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref name="Meri">{{Cite book |last=Meri, Josef W. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |location=USA}}</ref><ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. "[https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books The Four Books]." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>[[Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi|Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar]]. "[https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu’l-Arb’ah)]." Ch 4 in ''The Qur’an and Hadith''. Tanzania: [[Bilal Muslim Mission]]. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref>
Because the Quran only briefly covered the lives of biblical prophets, scholars, poets, historians, and storytellers elaborate their stories in ''[[Qisas Al-Anbiya|Tales of the Prophets]]''. Many of these scholars were also authors of commentaries on the Quran; however, unlike Quran commentaries which follow the order and structure of the Quran itself, the ''Tales of the Prophets'' told its stories of the prophets in chronological order—which makes them similar to the Jewish and Christian versions of the Bible.
Besides prophets, [[Saints in Islam|saints]] possess [[barakah|blessings]] (Arabic:بركة , "baraka") and can perform [[Islamic view of miracles|miracles]] (Arabic:امات, ''Karāmāt''). Saints rank lower than prophets, and they do not intercede for people on the Day of Judgment. However, both the tombs of prophets and saints are visited frequently ''([[Ziyarat]])''. People would seek the advice of a saint in their quest for spiritual fulfilment. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are usually acknowledged informal by consensus of common people, not by scholars. Unlike prophets, women like [[Rabia of Basra]] were accepted as saints.<ref>Josef W. Meri ''The Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria'' OUP Oxford, 14.11.2002 isbn 9780191554735 pp. 60-81</ref>
===Resurrection and judgment===
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or ''[[Qiyamah|Yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' (Arabic:يوم القيامة), is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of [[Ulama|scholars]], describe the trials and [[Great Tribulation|tribulations]] preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah''. The Quran emphasizes [[universal resurrection|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Glassé|2003|loc="Resurrection"|pp=382–383}}.
* {{harvp|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012|loc="Avicenna"}}. {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467}}: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."
* {{harvc|c=Qiyama |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Gardet, L.}}</ref>
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم [[Day of Resurrection|القيامة]]), Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to ''[[Jannah]]'' (paradise) or ''[[Jahannam]]'' (hell). The Quran in [[Surat al-Zalzalah]] describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran [[Islamic views of sin|lists several sins]] that can condemn a person to [[hell]], such as [[Kafir|disbelief]] in God ({{lang-ar|كفر|translit=kufr|label=none}}), and dishonesty. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the [[Islamic views on sin|sins]] of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals,<ref>Masri, Basheer Ahmad. ''Animals in Islam.'' p. 27.</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2011|p=130}} will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p. 565
* {{harvp|Lagasse|Goldman|Hobson|Norton|2000|loc="Heaven"}}
* {{harvc |c=Garden |author=Asma Afsaruddin |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Paradise|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' (Arabic:يوم الدين "Day of Religion");<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|1|4|style=ref}};</ref> ''as-Sāʿah'' (Arabic:الساعة "the Last Hour");<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|6|31|style=ref}};</ref> and ''[[Al-Qaria|al-Qāriʿah]]'' (Arabic:القارعة "The Clatterer");<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|101|1|style=ref}}</ref>
===Divine predestination===
{{Main|Predestination in Islam}}
The concept of [[Divinity|divine]] decree and [[destiny]] in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. ''Al-qadar'', meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |date=2002 |title=Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>See:
* {{harvp|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."
* {{harvc |last=Karamustafa |first=Ahmet T. |c=Fate |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
* {{harvc |last=Gardet|first=L.|year=2012|c=al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa ’l-Ḳadar |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase [[Inshallah|"Insha-Allah"]] meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muslim beliefs - Al-Qadr |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |publisher=BBC |work=Bitesize - GCSE - Edexcel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Abdur Rashid |title=Qur'anic Keywords: a Reference Guide |date=2015 |publisher=Kube Publishing |author2=((Islamic Foundation Staff (Great Britain) )) |isbn=978-0-86037-676-7 |location=New York |oclc=947732907}}</ref> In addition to loss, gain is also seen as a test of believers - whether they would still recognize that the gain originates only from God.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |last2=Buckles|first2=Luke|title=Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions|date=2004 |publisher=Alpha|isbn=978-1592572229 |location=|oclc=}}</ref>
==Acts of worship==
{{Main|Five Pillars of Islam|Ibadah}}
There are five obligatory acts of worship – the [[Shahada]], the five daily prayers, the [[Zakat]] alms-giving, [[fasting during Ramadan]] and the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'').<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Pillars of Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam}}</ref> Apart from these, Muslims also perform other supplemental religious acts.
===Testimony===
[[File:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg|thumb|right|Silver coin of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]], inscribed with the ''Shahadah'']]
{{main|Shahada}}
The [[Shahada|''shahadah'']],{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|pp=3, 39, 85, 270–272}} is an [[oath]] declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{lang-ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that there is no [[deity]] except [[God in Islam|God]] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." ''[[Journal of Law and Religion]]'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to [[Religious conversion#Islam|convert to Islam]] are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<ref>{{harvc |last=Kasim |first=Husain |year=2004 |c=Islam |pp=195–197 |in=Salamone}}</ref>{{sfnp|Farah|1994|p=135}}<ref>Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, USA: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003</ref>
===Prayer===
{{main|Salat}}
{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
[[File:Mosque.jpg|thumb|Muslim men [[prostration|prostrating]] in prayer, at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Damascus]].]]
Prayer in Islam, called [[salah]] or ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة|صلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called [[rakat]] that include [[Ruku|bowing]] and [[Sujud|prostrating]] to God. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and consist of verses from the Quran.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=18, 19}}
* {{harvp|Hedayetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}
* {{harvp|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}
* {{harvp|Momen|1987|p=178}}</ref> The prayers are done in direction of the [[kaaba|Ka'bah]]. Salat requires ritual purity, which involves ''[[wudu]]'' (ritual wash) or occasionally, such as for new converts, ''[[ghusl]]'' (full body ritual wash). The means used to signal the prayer time is a vocal call called the ''[[adhan]]''.
A [[mosque]] is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the [[ummah|Muslim community]] as a place to meet and study with the [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Masjid an-Nabawi]] ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, [[Saudi Arabia]], having also served as a shelter for the poor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mattson |first=Ingrid |year=2006 |title=Women, Islam, and Mosques |pages=615–629 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America |series=Volume 2, Part VII. Islam |editor1=R. S. Keller |name-list-style=and |editor2=R. R. Ruether |place=Bloomington and Indianapolis |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-34687-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615}}</ref> [[Minaret]]s are towers used to chant the adhan.<ref>See:
*Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, [[John Burton-Page|J. Burton-Page]], et al. 2010. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694|Masd̲j̲id}}.” ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |title=Mosque |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
===Charity===
{{main|Zakat}}
{{see also|Sadaqah}}
{{Quote box
| quoted = true
| bgcolor = #ffeeaa
| align = right
| width = 27%
| salign = right
| quote = Righteousness is not in turning your faces towards the east or the west. Rather, the righteous are those who believe in God, the Last Day, the angels, the Books, and the prophets; who give charity out of their cherished wealth to relatives, orphans, the poor, needy travellers, beggars, and for freeing captives; who establish prayer, pay alms-tax, and keep the pledges they make; and who are patient in times of suffering, adversity, and the heat of battle. It is they who are true ˹in faith˺, and it is they who are mindful ˹of God˺.
| source = — Quran (2:177)
}}
[[Zakat|Zakāt]] ([[Arabic]]: {{lang-ar|زكاة|translit=zakāh|label=none}}) is a means of [[welfare]] in a Muslim society, characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<ref name="AhmedGianci">Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy''.</ref> of [[Financial capital|accumulated wealth]] by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in [[bonded labour|debt]], or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Cite Quran|9|60|style=nosurp|expand=yes |quote=Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or [[Debt bondage|bonded labour]]) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller—an obligation (imposed) by Allah. And Allah is Knowing and Wise}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ariff |first=Mohamed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&|page=55}} |title=The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3016-07-1 |pages=55–}}</ref> It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to [[Supererogation|supererogatory]] charity, known as Sadaqah) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty" and is seen as a "purification" of one's excess wealth. Conservative estimates of annual zakat are that it amounts to 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world |work=[[The New Humanitarian]] |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/95564/analysis-a-faith-based-aid-revolution-in-the-muslim-world |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref> The first [[Caliph]], [[Abu Bakr]], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a [[guaranteed minimum income]], with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 [[dirhams]] annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|VICE]]}}</ref>
''Sadaqah'' means optional charity practiced as a religious duty and out of generosity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=4bs7g0O4eLYC|page=145}} |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-77011-8 |page=145 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Both the Quran and the hadith put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/72 72]}} and have urged Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}</ref><ref>See:
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/zakat-Islamic-tax |title=Zakat |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{harvp|McAuliffe|n.d.|loc="Zakat"}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2004|p=90}}
* {{harvc |last=Schacht|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph Schacht|year=1913–1936|c=Zakāt |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.)}} {{DOI|10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_6065}}</ref> The Quran says: "Those who spend their wealth in charity day and night, secretly and openly—their reward is with their Lord."<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|2|274|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref> One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that [[God in Islam|God]] expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly.<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|107|1|e=7|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref>{{sfnp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798/page/n50 32]}} Accumulating wealth without spending it to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/93 93]}} Another kind of charity in Islam is [[waqf]], meaning a perpetual religious endowment of property.
===Fasting===
[[File:Iftar for Ramadhan.jpg|thumb|A fast-breaking feast, known as ''[[Iftar]]'', is served traditionally with [[Date (fruits)|dates]]]]
{{Main|Fasting in Islam}}
{{Seealso|Fasting during Ramadan}}
During the month of [[Ramadan]], it is obligatory for Muslims to fast. The Ramadan fast ([[Arabic]]: {{lang-ar|صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none}}) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. Certain groups are exempt, including pregnant women.<ref name=CNN>{{cite web |title=The insider's guide to Ramadan |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/09/25/insider.ramadan/index.html |access-date=15 August 2010 |publisher=[[CNN International]] |date=25 September 2006}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2021}} In addition, there are other days when fasting is supererogatory.
===Pilgrimage===
{{main|Hajj|Umrah}}
{{Seealso|Holiest sites in Islam}}
[[File:A packed house - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|right|Pilgrims at the [[Great Mosque of Mecca]] during the [[Hajj]] season]]
The obligatory Islamic [[pilgrimage]], called the "{{transl|ar|ALA|ḥajj}}" (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]]. Pilgrims spend a day and a night on the plains of [[Mina, Saudi Arabia|Mina]], then a day praying and worshipping in the plain of [[Mount Arafat]], then spending a night on the plain of [[Muzdalifah]]; then moving to [[Jamaraat Bridge|Jamarat]], symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C|page=19}} |page=20 |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> then going to the city of [[Mecca]] and walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]], which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, then walking seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, [[Hagar]], while she was looking for water for her baby [[Ishmael in Islam|Ishmael]] in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Goldschmidt|Davidson|2005|p=48}}
* {{harvp|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hajj |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> All Muslim men should wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called [[Ihram clothing|ihram]], intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=Vincent J. |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5LNUS0ciAAC&pg=PA29 |access-date=26 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98733-6 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |last2=Smith |first2=Huston |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA207 |access-date=26 August 2012 |date=1 February 2003 |publisher=[[Rowman Altamira]] |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |page=207}}</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, ''umrah'', is supererogatory and can be undertaken at any time of the year. [[Medina]] is also a site of Islamic pilgrimage and [[Jerusalem]], the city of many Islamic prophets, contains the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]], which used to be the [[qibla|direction of prayer]] before Mecca.
===Quranic recitation and memorization===
{{Main|Quran#Recitation}}
[[File:Men reading the Koran in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria.jpg|thumb|Muslim men reading the Quran]]
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran with elocution (''tajwid'') has been described as an excellent act of worship.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=70}} 70]}} Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/42 42–43]}} In Muslim societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/42 42–43]}} One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer") who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=70}} 70]}} Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during their prayers.
{{Listen
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|description= ''[[Al-Ikhlas|Sincerity]]'' is the Quran's [[List of surahs in the Quran|112{{sup|th}}]] [[surah|chapter]] as recited by [[Imam]] [[Mishary Rashid Alafasy]]
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{{clear}}
[[File:Portrait of Emperor Akbar Praying.jpg|thumb|100px|Portrait of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]] supplicating to God.]]
===Supplication and remembrance===
{{Main|Dua|Dhikr}}
Supplication to God, called in Arabic  ''duʿāʾ'' ({{lang-ar|اَلدُّعَاءُ}} &nbsp;{{IPA-ar|duˈʕæːʔ|IPA}}) has its own etiquette such as [[Raising hands in dua|raising hands]] as if begging or invoking with an extended index finger.
Remebrance of God ([[Arabic]]: {{lang-ar|ذِكْر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none}}) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring [[Alhamdulillah|praise be due to God]] ({{lang-ar|ٱلْحَمْدُ لِلَّٰهِ}}, ''{{transl|ar|al-Ḥamdu lillāh}}'') during prayer or when feeling thankful, [[Tasbih]], declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying '[[Basmala|in the name of God]]' ({{lang-ar|بَسْمَلَة}}, {{transl|ar|ALA-LC|basmalah}}) before starting an act such as eating. 
==History==
{{Main|History of Islam|Timeline of Islamic history|Spread of Islam}}
{{Seealso|List of Muslim empires and dynasties}}
{{wide image|Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam}}
===Muhammad (610–632)===
{{Muhammad}}
{{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}
{{See also|Early social changes under Islam}}
Born in [[Mecca]] in 571, Muhammad was orphaned early in life. New trade routes rapidly transformed Meccan society from a semi-bedouin society to commercial urban society, leaving out weaker segments of society without protection. He acquired the nickname "[[Amin (name)|trustworthy]]" (Arabic: الامين), {{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} and was sought after as a bank to safeguard valuables and an impartial arbitrator. Affected by the ills of society and after becoming financially secure as a caravan merchant, he began retreating to a [[Cave of Hira|cave]] to contemplate. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 [[Common Era|CE]],  Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God, conveyed to him through the [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|archangel Gabriel]],<ref name=":04"/><ref>See:
* {{Cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
* {{harvc |c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref> thus becoming the seal of the prophets sent to the mankind according to Islamic tradition.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Esposito|1998|p=12}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}
* {{harvp|Peters|2003|p=9}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref><ref name=":04">{{Cite web |date=8 October 2019 |orig-year=5 January 2018 |title=Islam |website=[[History Channel]] |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]] |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam |access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref>
During this time, [[Muhammad in Mecca|while in Mecca, Muhammed]] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring them to abandon [[polytheism]] and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first [[muezzin]] [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]]. The Meccan elite profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba and felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and slaves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DyuqdDIjaswC|page=1323}} |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323–}}</ref><ref>See:
* "Slaves and Slavery." ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]].''
* Rabah, Bilal B. ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]].''
* {{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}.</ref> Muhammad, who was accused of being a poet, a madman or possessed, presented the [[challenge of the Quran]] to imitate the like of the Quran in order to disprove him. The Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers, including a [[Meccan boycott of the Hashemites|boycott and banishment of Muhammad and his clan]] to starve them into withdrawing their protection of him. This resulted in the [[Migration to Abyssinia]] of some Muslims (to the [[Aksumite Empire]]).
After 12 years of the [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans]], Muhammad and his [[Sahaba|companions]] performed the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") in AD&nbsp;622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (the ''[[Muhajirun]]''), [[Muhammad in Medina]] established his [[Theocracy|political and religious authority]]. The [[Constitution of Medina]] was signed,{{efn|1=Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date—specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624).<ref>Watt. ''Muhammad at Medina''. pp. 227–228.{{fcn|date=September 2021}}</ref> Serjeant argues that the constitution is, in fact, eight different treaties that can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival.<ref>
Serjeant, R.B. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in ''The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World'': Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: [[Ashgate Publishing]], 1998, p. 151 and see same article in {{harvp|Serjeant|1978|pp=18 ff}}.</ref> See also {{harvp|Caetani|1905}} who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caetani |title=Annali dell'Islam, Volume I |place=Milano |publisher=Hoepli |year=1905 |page=393}}</ref> Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624.<ref>Julius Wellhausen. ''Skizzen und Vorabeiten'', IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p. 82f.</ref> Even Moshe Gil, a sceptic of Islamic history, argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. <ref>Moshe Gil. 1974. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." ''Israel Oriental Studies'' 4. p. 45.</ref>}} by all the tribes of Medina agreeing to defend Medina from external threats and establishing among the Muslim, Jewish, Christian, and pagan communities religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws, security of women and the role of Medina as a sacred place barred of weapons and violence.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624—a Muslim victory—and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the [[Battle of Uhud]], which ended inconclusively.{{Citation needed|reason=The contrac needs to be backed up by a source|date=November 2021}} The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation, and during the [[Battle of the Trench]] (March–April&nbsp;627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After signing the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}
* {{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single religious [[polity]].<ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref>
The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the [[Salaf]], with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith [[Abu Hureyrah]], recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.
===Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)===
{{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests}}
{{See also|Event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun empire-slide.gif|thumb|right|[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] expansion]]
[[File:Dome of the Rock1.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]] built by caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]]; completed at the end of the [[Second Fitna]]]]
Following Muhammad's death in 632, Muslims disagreed over who would succeed him as leader. The first four successors – [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]] and [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2003|loc="Rightly Guided Caliphs"|p={{pn|date=September 2021}}}} Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur'an and reunification of Arabia through the [[Ridda wars]].<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=57}}
* {{harvp|Hourani|2002|p=22}}
* {{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}
* {{harvp|Madelung|1996|p=43}}
* {{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Under Umar, the caliphate expanded rapidly as Muslims scored major victories over the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] empires.<ref>See
* {{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=74}}
* {{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref> Uthman [[election of Uthman|was elected in 644]] and oversaw the [[compilation of the Quran]]. The assassination of Uthman in 656 plunged the caliphate into the [[First Fitna|first civil war]]. The next caliph, Ali, fought against three separate factions in the [[Battle of the Camel]], [[Battle of Siffin]] and [[Battle of Nahrawan]], respectively. The [[Kharijites]] assassinated Ali in 661. To avoid further fighting, Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty|peace treaty]] abdicating to [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], which began the [[Umayyad dynasty]].{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to the [[Sunni]]-[[Shia]] schism, with the Shia believing leadership belonging to Ali and the [[ahl al-bayt]].{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}} The succession of Mu'awiyah by his son [[Yazid&nbsp;I]] sparked the "[[Second Fitna|second civil war]]". During the [[Battle of Karbala]], [[Husayn ibn Ali]] and other descendants of Muhammad were massacred; the event has been [[Ashura|annually commemorated]] by Shia ever since. Sunni Islam and Shia Islam differ in some respects.<ref name="NYT-20160103">{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=January 3, 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=January 4, 2016}}</ref>
The [[Murji'ah]] was an early Islamic sect that taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone and that wrongdoers might be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} They urged unity among Muslims, and their conciliatory principles made them popular. Abu Hanifa, founder of the [[Hanafi]] (c. 699–767) school of Sunni jurisprudence, was often associated with the Murji'ah.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=44}} In his ''al-Fiqh al-Akbar&nbsp;I'' he lay down probably the oldest surviving work regarding early Muslim creed, advocating respect for all the companions of Muhammad, withholding judgment regarding Uthman and Ali and predeterminism. His works were fundamental to later Sunni theology, Hanbalism being an exception.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=44}}
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]], often helped Muslims take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}}{{sfnp|Hofmann|2007|p=86}}
The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the [[Tabi'un]], followed by the [[Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in]]. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the influential committee, [[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> headed by [[Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr|Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]].{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=522}} [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the ''[[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Muwatta' |url=http://bewley.virtualave.net/muwcont.html |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=d5Ks31qHlSYC}} |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Va6oSxzojzoC}} |pages=207–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=[[Moshe Sharon]] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264}}</ref>
The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}
The first Muslim states independent of a unified Islamic state emerged from the [[Berber Revolt]] (739/740-743).
===Classical era (750–1258)===
{{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}}
{{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}}
[[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|The eye, according to [[Hunain ibn Ishaq]] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]]
Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|Muslim]] compiled the major [[Six major Hadith collections|Sunni hadith collections]] while scholars like [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni|Al-Kulayni]] and [[Ibn Babawayh]] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], Malik ibn Anas and [[al-Shafi'i]]. In contrast, the teachings of [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] formed the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]. In the 9th&nbsp;century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law and introduced its first methods by a synthesis between the proto-rationalism of [[Iraq]]i jurisprudence and the pragmatic approach of the [[Hejaz]] traditions, in his book ''ar-Risālah''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=xvii, 162}} He also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} However, Islamic law would not be codified until 1869.<ref>Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law, ''Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran'' Routledge 2004 {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}</ref> In the 9th&nbsp;century [[Al-Tabari]] completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the ''[[Tafsir al-Tabari]]''.
Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into ''Tasawwuf'' or Sufism.<ref name=EB-Sufism/>{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}} Hasan al Basri opposed the Umayyad governors of Iraq and the violent rebellion of the Kharijites. Connected to his political dissent was his rigorist view of sin: He denied that God was the source of all human actions and emphasized responsibility and free will instead. For Hasan al Basri, although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the [[Iblis|devil]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Basran al Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748), an associate of Hasan al-Basri is usually considered the originator, along with [[Amr ibn Ubayd]] (699-761) of [[Muʿtazila|Mu‘tazilism]], a school of thought ultimately rooted in [[Greek philosophy]] and known for upholding the doctrine of free-will.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} However, the main doctrine, the ''Five Principles'', is probably developed by Abu’l-Hudhayl al-Allaf (c. 753–841).{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=47-48}}
Abbasid Caliphs [[Mamun al Rashid]] and [[Al-Mu'tasim]] made the Mu'tazilite theology an official creed. Ahmad ibn Hanbal opposed most of the Mu'tazilite doctrines, for which he was imprisoned and sent to an unlit [[Baghdad]] prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> He became a representative for [[Athari|traditionalistic Sunni theology]], trying to minimalize reason and applying to literal readings. Later Sunnis also condemned the Mutazilite idea of the creation of the Quran.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}} [[Al-Ash'ari]] and [[Maturidi]] founded the scholastic theology of Sunni Islam (kalam) [[Ash'ari]]sm and Maturidism, respectively.
By the end of the 9th&nbsp;century, [[Ismailism|Ismaili]] Shias spread in Iran, whereupon the city of [[Multan]] became a target of [[Activism|activistic]] Sunni politics.<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit“ Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> In 930, the Ismaili group known as the [[Qarmatians]] rebelled unsuccessfully against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=2021-09-18 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
With the expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate into the [[Sasanian Empire]], Islam adapted many [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] concepts, imported by thinkers of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin.<ref>Morgen Witzel ''A History of Management Thought'' Taylor & Francis 2016 {{ISBN|978-1-317-43335-4}} p. 44</ref><ref>Shireen Hunter (1998) ''The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations Or Peaceful Coexistence?'' [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] {{ISBN|978-0-275-96287-6}} p. 44</ref> Philosophers such as [[Al-Farabi]] (872 – 950/951) and [[Avicenna]] (c.&nbsp;980 – June 1037) sought to incorporate [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek principles]] into Islamic theology, while others like [[Al-Ghazali]] (c.&nbsp;1058 – 1111) argued against such [[syncretism]] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=160}}
* {{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref>
This era is sometimes called the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]".<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=80, 92, 105}}
* {{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=661–663}}
* {{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}
* {{harvp|Lewis|1993|p=84}}
* {{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref> Avicenna pioneered the science of [[Medical research|experimental medicine]],<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref> and was the first [[physician]] to conduct [[clinical trials]].<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> His two most notable works, ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', were used as standard medicinal texts in the Islamic world and later in [[Europe]]. Amongst his contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008" /> and the introducing [[clinical pharmacology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brater |first1=D. Craig |last2=Daly |first2=Walter J. |year=2000 |title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century |journal=[[Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics]] |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=447–450 [448] |doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 |pmid=10824622 |s2cid=45980791}}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the mathematician [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to the concept of the [[algorithm]], while the term [[algebra]] is derived from ''al-jabr''.<ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|Toomer, Gerald]] (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]]. {{ISBN|0-684-16962-2}}.</ref> [[Public hospital]]s established during this time (called [[Bimaristan]] hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=The scientific institutions in the medieval Near East |last1=Micheau |first1=Françoise |pages=991–992 |editor-last1=Rāshid |editor-first1=Rushdī |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Volume 3: Technology, alchemy and life sciences |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |year=1996 |url={{Google books|mnAXV09Z5bIC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-415-12412-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate |website=Planetseed.com |url=https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715091828/https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref name="Alatas">{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> The [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242 242] |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> The doctorate is argued to date back to the [[Ijazah|licenses to teach]] in Islamic [[law schools]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=George |date=April–June 1989 |title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 [175–177] |doi=10.2307/604423 |jstor=604423}}</ref> Standards of experimental and [[Quantification (science)|quantification]] techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,<ref name="Ahmed">{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}. "Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."</ref> were introduced. An important pioneer in this, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (c.&nbsp;965 – c.&nbsp;040) is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<ref name="Haq">[[Nomanul Haq|Haq, Syed]] (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. {{ISSN|1703-7603}}. Retrieved 22 October 2014</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008}}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name="Ahmed" /> It is argued that that [[Al-Jahiz]] (776–868/869) proposed a theory of [[natural selection]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=2008-01-30 |title=It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton |website=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=29 January 2008 |title=Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |access-date=13 December 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723135408/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2009}}</ref> The [[Persian literature|Persian poet]] [[Ferdowsi]] (940–1019/1025) wrote his [[epic poem]] ''[[Shahnameh]]''. Legal institutions introduced include the [[Trust law|trust]] and [[charitable trust]] (Waqf).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monica M. Gaudiosi |url={{Google books|bGPwtwAACAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] |year=1988}}{{page needed|date=November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |year=2003 |edition=3rd |page=32 |location=London |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |isbn=1-85941-729-9}}</ref>
While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline following the reign of [[Al-Wathiq]] (842–847) and [[Al-Mu'tadid]] (892–902),<ref>Anthony Parel, Ronald C. Keith ''Comparative Political Philosophy: Studies Under the Upas Tree'' Lexington Books, 2003 {{ISBN|978-0-7391-0610-5}} p. 186</ref> the [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Abbasid Dynasty |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the [[Tulunid]] and the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid dynasty]]. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty established by Turkic slave-soldiers from another Islamic empire, the [[Samanid Empire]].<ref>Hamad Subani ''The Secret History of Iran'' Lulu.com 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-304-08289-3}} 74</ref> Two other Turkish tribes, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karahanids]] and the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]], converted to Islam during the 10th&nbsp;century. Later, they were subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role in the revival of Sunnism when Shi'ism increased its influence. The Seljuk military leader [[Alp Arslan]] financially supported sciences and literature and established the [[Nezamiyeh]] university in Baghdad.<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' [[Walter de Gruyter]] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>
Religious missions converted [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. In the [[Indian Subcontinent]], during the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the Indian [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionaries]] achieved their greatest success in terms of ''[[dawah]]'' and the number of converts to Islam.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227-228</ref><ref>Majumdar, Dr. R.C., ''History of Mediaeval Bengal'', First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-89118-06-4}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate is known for enthroning one of the few female rulers in [[Islamic History|Islamic history]], [[Razia Sultana]].<ref>Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, [[Princeton University Press]]</ref> Many Muslims also went to [[Islam in China|China]] to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="china">{{Cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>
===Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)===
{{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ghazan Khan]], 7{{sup|th}} [[Ilkhanate]] ruler of the [[Mongol Empire]], converts to Islam]]
Through Muslim trade networks, the activity of Sufi orders, and the conquests of the Gunpowder Empires, Islam spread into new areas.{{sfnp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of "assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into... local religious systems",<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=[[Temple University Press]] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> The Turks probably found similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} Muslim Turks incorporated elements of [[Tengrism|Turkish Shamanism beliefs]] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challanged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century.<ref name=Peacock/>{{rp|style=ama|p=20-22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} [[Islam during the Ming dynasty|Muslims in China]], who were descended from earlier immigrants, were assimilated, sometimes by force, by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill/page/n62 37] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
While cultural influence used to radiate outward from Baghdad, after the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol destruction]] of the Abbasid Caliphate, Arab influence decreased.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> Iran and Central Asia, enjoying increasing cross-cultural exchanges with East Asia under Mongol influence, flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the [[Timurid Renaissance]] under the [[Timurid dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref> [[Rumi|Jalaluddin Rumi]] (1207 – 1273), still one of the best selling poets in America,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=2007-09-30 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> wrote his Persian poem [[Masnawi]] and the works of [[Hafez]] (1315 – 1390) are often considered the pinnacle of Persian poetry. [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (1201 – 1274) proposed the [[Tusi couple|mathematical model]] that was later adopted by [[Copernicus]] unrevised in his heliocentric model and [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]]'s estimate of [[pi]] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021}}</ref> Many Muslim dynasties in India chose Persian as their court language.
[[Gunpowder empires]] consolidated much of the previously splintered territories. The [[Ottoman Caliphate]], under the [[Ottoman dynasty]] of the Ottoman Empire, was the last caliphate of the late [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and the early [[modern era|modern]] era. It is important to note that a [[symbiosis]] between [[list of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rulers]] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. According to Ottoman historiography, the [[legitimation]] of a ruler is attributed to [[Sheikh Edebali]] who interpreted a dream of [[Osman I|Osman Gazi]] as God's legitimation of his reign.<ref>Jens Peter Laut ''Vielfalt türkischer Religionen'' Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (German) p. 31</ref> Since [[Murad&nbsp;I]]'s [[Ottoman conquest of Adrianople|conquest of Edirne]] in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2 |volume=2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C 320] |editor-link2=Ann Lambton |editor-link3=Bernard Lewis |access-date=13 March 2015}}{{vn|date=September 2021|reason=This cite does not match Google books or Worldcat. The Google cite does not match the contents of the book. The Worldcat cite is confusing. I believe I have listed the correct editors.}}</ref> During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as [[Selim&nbsp;I]] became the "[[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]]" in Mecca and Medina through the conquering and unification of Muslim lands, strengthening their claim to the caliphate in the [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf}}</ref> The [[Mevlevi Order]] and [[Bektashi Order]] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as [[heterodox]] and [[syncretic]] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |date=Jan 1, 1992 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wasserstein |first1=David J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGSTgfU7CQC&q=ottomans+sufism&pg=PA106 |title=Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter |last2=Ayalon |first2=Ami |date=Jun 17, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-57917-2 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref> In Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims, and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of [[Sunni|orthodox]] Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n71 77] |access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref>
The Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> At that time, the majority and oldest group among the Shia, the [[Zaydis]], named after the great-grandson of Ali, the scholar [[Zayd ibn Ali]], used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice |author=Mahmoud A. El-Gamal |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139457163 |page=122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History |editor1=Spencer C. Tucker |editor2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781851098422 |page=917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War |author=Frederic M. Wehrey |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=9780833047885 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91}}</ref> The ensuing [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam]] ensured the final dominance of the [[Twelver|Twelver sect]] within Shiism over the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Ismaili]] sects.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ismail Safavi |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]}}{{fcn|date=September 2021 |reason=Did not find entry in online Encyclopædia Iranica.}}</ref> [[Nader Shah]], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |author=Ernest Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> However, Ja'farism failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=March 29, 2006 |author=Ernest Tucker}}</ref>
In South Asia, [[Babur]] founded the [[Mughal Empire]]. The Mughals made [[Mughal architecture|major contributions]] to Islamic architecture, including the [[Taj Mahal]] and [[Badshahi mosque]], and compiled the [[Fatwa Alamgiri]]. Mughal India surpassed [[Qing China]] to become the world's largest economy, worth 25% of world GDP,<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, pages 259–261</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 |title=How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500-1850 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-474-2997-5 |page=174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |title=Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-25758-9 |author-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam}}</ref> with the [[Bengal Subah]] signalling the [[proto-industrialization]] and showing signs of the [[Industrial revolution]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abhay Kumar Singh |title=Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650-1800, (Volume 1) |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-7211-201-1}}</ref> After Mughal India's collapse, [[Tipu Sultan]]'s [[Kingdom of Mysore]] based in [[South India]], which witnessed partial establishment of sharia-based economic and military policies i.e. [[Fathul Mujahidin]], replaced Bengal ruled by the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] as [[South Asia]]'s foremost economic territory.<ref name="mehta">{{Cite book |last=Binita Mehta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wK1fAwgOercC&pg=PA110 |title=Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle |publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8387-5455-9 |pages=110–111}}</ref><ref name="pande">{{Cite book |last=B. N. Pande |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgbXAAAAMAAJ |title=Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-85220-38-3}}</ref> After [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], the [[Nizams of Hyderabad]] remained as the major Muslim princely state until the [[Annexation of Hyderabad]] by the modern [[Republic of India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=B. Cohen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZKHDAAAQBAJ |title=Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850-1948 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-230-60344-8 |pages=159–161}}</ref>
[[Ibn Taymiyya]] (1263–1328) promoted a [[puritan]]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of [[itjihad]] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against the [[Crusaders]], the [[Mongol invasions of the Levant|Mongols]], and those he deemed heretics.<ref name="ReferenceD">Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> His writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130}}</ref>
=== Modern era (18th – 20th centuries) ===
[[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abdülmecid II]] was the last Caliph of Islam from the [[Ottoman dynasty]].]]
During the 18th&nbsp;century in Arabia, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]], influenced by the works of [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]] and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]], founded a movement, called [[Wahhabi]] with their self-designation as ''Muwahiddun'',  to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later [[bidah|innovations]] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|tombs of Muhammad and his companions]] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shiite pilgrimage site.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=[[Libya Herald]] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> He formed an alliance with the [[House of Saud|Saud family]], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' [[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> [[Ma Wanfu]] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the nineteenth century such as [[Sailaifengye]] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M. |last=Rubin |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=wEih57-GWQQC|page=79}} |page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the [[Senusiyya]] and [[Muhammad Ahmad]] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the [[Deobandi]] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the [[Barelwi]] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular [[Sufism]] and reforming its practices.<ref name="Canfield2002">{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url={{Google books|g3JhKNSk8tQC|page=PA131|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=July 23, 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |via=Cambridge Core}}</ref> The movement is famous for the celebration of the [[Mawlid|Muhammad's birthday]] and today, is spread across the globe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/search?siteToSearch=aup&q=barelvi&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true |website=oxfordreference.com}}</ref>
The [[Muslim world]] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially regarding non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the fifteenth century, the [[Reconquista]] succeeded in ending the [[Taifa|Muslim presence in Iberia]]. By the 19th&nbsp;century; the British [[Company rule in India|East India Company]] had formally annexed the [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to [[Imperialism|Western Imperialism]], many intellectuals sought to [[Islamic revival|reform Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> [[Islamic modernism]], initially labelled by Western scholars as [[Salafi movement|''Salafiyya'']], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented.<ref name="ReferenceG">Robert Rabil ''Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism'' [[Georgetown University Press]] 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-62616-118-4}} chapter: "Doctrine"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref>                      Notable forerunners include [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad 'Abduh]] and [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]].<ref name="ReferenceF">Henri Lauzière ''The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century'' [[Columbia University Press]] 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-231-54017-9}}</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=[[Economist Magazine]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014}}</ref>
The [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire disintegrated]] after [[World War&nbsp;I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolished in 1924]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> by the first [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of the Turkish Republic]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], as part of his [[Atatürk's Reforms|secular reforms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPSGDwAAQBAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate&pg=PT317 |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey |date=26 August 2002 |publisher=[[Abrams Books]]|isbn=978-1-59020-924-0 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |date=29 April 1982 |title=The Caliphate and Ataturk's Inkilab |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iViDoAEACAAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate |access-date=29 April 2020 |publisher=[[Turkish Historical Society|Türk Tarih Kurumu]] |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Pan-Islam]]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as [[pan-Arabism]]. The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref>
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref> Muslim immigrants began arriving largely from former colonies in several Western European nations since the 1960s, many as [[guest workers]].
===Postmodern times (20th century–present)===
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> which performed well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011}}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in South Asia and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] monarchy with an [[Islamic state]]. Others such as [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis’ religious interpretations."}}</ref>  and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, USA|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West...  Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida’s Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> While some were [[Political quietism in Islam|quietist]], others believed in violence against those opposing them even other Muslims, such as the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], who would even attempt to recreate the [[modern gold dinar]] as their monetary system.
In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-04-29 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularsim |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref> In other places religious power was co-opted, such as in Saudi Arabia, where the state monopolized religious scholarship and are often seen as puppets of the state<ref name="economist">{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> while Egypt nationalized [[Al-Azhar University]], previously an independent voice checking state power. Salafism was funded for it quietism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-10-18 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |access-date=2013-09-24 |publisher=[[MSNBC]]}}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to [[Iran]],<ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=January 5, 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=January 6, 2016}}</ref> Turkey<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 October 2018|title=Why dissidents are gathering in Istanbul |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/10/11/why-dissidents-are-gathering-in-istanbul|access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> and Qatar. Secular powers clamped down on Islamic practice such as [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Communist Albania]], which became the first country to ban the practice of every religion,<ref>Elsie, Robert. 2000. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture]''. [[C. Hurst & Co.]] {{ISBN|978-1-85065-570-1}} p. 18.</ref> and the [[Khmer Rouge]] killed about half a million Muslims as they were viewed as their primary enemy to be exterminated since they stood out and worshiped their own god.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=October 10, 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} [[Salafism]] has deepening worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> The internet has also led to more "individualized" interpretations of Islam.<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> [[Liberal Muslims]] attempt to reconcile religious tradition with secular governance and human rights.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=823–830}}{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}} Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} In many places, the prevalence of the [[hijab]] is growing increasingly common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> and the percentage of Muslims favoring sharia has increased.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Beech |first=Hannah |date=22 February 2007 |title=Why Indonesia matters |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592576-2,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==Demographics==
[[File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|World Muslim population by percentage ([[Pew Research Center]], 2014).]]
{{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}}
{{See also|Islam by country|Muslim population growth}}
A 2015 demographic study reported that 24.1% of the global population, or 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="auto2">Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "[https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group]" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name=":3">{{Cite report |date=27 January 2011 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015/> It has been estimated that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia,{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] Group |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu/page/n186 172] |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, and 683 million adherents in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Islam in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Islam in India|India]], and [[Islam in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] alone.<ref name="USN&WR">{{Cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]]}} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}} Most estimates indicate [[Islam in China|China]] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{Cite web |work=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> [[Islam in Europe]] is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref> [[Religious conversion]] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who [[convert to Islam|become Muslims through conversion]] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith".<ref name="The Future of the Global Muslim Population">{{Cite report|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=January 27, 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith}}</ref> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high [[fertility rate|fertility-rate]] of Muslims relative to other religious groups".<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050]." [[Pew Research Center]]. p. 70 [https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ Article].</ref>
==Denominations==
{{Main|Islamic schools and branches}}{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}
===Sunni===
{{Sunni Islam}}
{{Main|Sunni Islam}}
[[File:Sahih Al-Bukhari in English.png|thumb|right|The nine volumes of [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]], one of the [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six Sunni hadith books]]]]
Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni |title=Sunni |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17}}</ref> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the [[Sunnah|sunna]] (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet|author=Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki|date=1994|title=Ahl as-Sunnah|work=[[Islam Ansiklopedisi]] |volume=10|pages=525–530|publisher=Turkish Diyanet Foundation|location=Istanbul|lang=tr}}</ref> Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six major hadith works]] for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.<ref name=":15"/><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|pp=275, 306}}</ref>
Sunni schools of theology encompass Asharism founded by [[Al-Ashʿarī]] (c. 874–936), Maturidi by [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] (853–944 CE) and [[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|traditionalist theology]] under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). Traditionalist theology is characterized by its adherence to a literal understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah, the belief in the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to reason (kalam) in religious and ethical matters.<ref>Hadi Enayat ''Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies'' [[Springer Publishing]], 30.06.2017 {{ISBN|978-3-319-52611-9}} p.48</ref> On the other hand, Maturidism asserts, scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that <em>good</em> and <em>evil</em> can be understood by reason alone,<ref>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio ''Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power'' [[Springer Publishing]] 2018 {{ISBN|978-3-319-97355-5}} p. 108</ref> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Asharism holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but not from human reason. However, Asharism accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.{{sfnp|Esposito|1999|p=280}}
In the 18th&nbsp;century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> A similar movement called [[Ahl al-Hadith]] also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The ''[[Nur movement|Nurcu]]'' Sunni movement was by [[Said Nursi]] (1877–1960);<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' [[M.E. Sharpe]] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science,<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /><ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' [[Indiana University Press]] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref> and has given rise to the [[Gülen movement]].
===Shia===
{{Main|Shia Islam}}
[[File:Kerbela Hussein Moschee.jpg|thumb|The [[Imam Husayn Shrine|Imam Hussein Shrine]] in [[Iraq]] is a holy site for Shia Muslims]]
Shia Islam or Shi'ism is the second-largest branch of Islam, having split doctrinally from Sunnism in the early centuries of Islam over in the designation of [[Abu Bakr]], instead of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], as the [[Succession to Muhammad|successor]] to the Prophet Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|title=Shiʿi|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 December 2021}}</ref>
Although there are many [[Islamic schools and branches#Shia Islam|Shia subsects]], modern Shia Islam is mainly divided into three main groupings: [[Twelvers]] (the largest and most influential group), [[Ismailism|Ismailis]] and [[Zaidism|Zaidi]], divided along the lines of contrasting beliefs about the succession of the imams.<ref name="Newman2013">{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|author-link=Andrew J. Newman|title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18|page=2|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Ibadi===
{{Main|Ibadi Islam}}
[[Ibadi Islam]] or [[Ibadism]] is practised by 1.45&nbsp;million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in [[Oman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vFq_KUqqWJMC|page=15}} |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |access-date=7 January 2015}}</ref> The movement rose to prominence in the Hejaz region in the 740s, when the Ibadis launched an armed insurrection against the Umayyad Caliphate. Ibadims is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the [[Khawarij]] movement, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
[[File:Islam branches and schools.svg| centre |An overview of the major sects and ''madhahib'' of Islam]]
===Other denominations===
*[[Quranism|Quranists]] are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the [[Criticism of hadith|religious authority, reliability or authenticity]] of the hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.<ref name="The Quranists">{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742}}</ref> From the 19th&nbsp;century onward, hadith were questioned by [[Syed Ahmad Khan|Sayyid Ahmad Khan]], Abdullah Chakralawi, [[Ghulam Ahmed Perwez|Ghulam Ahmad Parwez]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=4 March 1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68}}</ref> and Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Magazine Al Manar |language=Arabic |url=http://archive.org/details/almanaralmanar}}</ref> Quranists differ in the practice of Islamic rituals from other Muslims in frequency of prayer, details of prayer, zakat, fasting, or the Hajj.<ref name="The Quranists"/>
* [[Alevism|Bektashi Alevism]] is a [[Syncretism|syncretic]] and [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical ([[Batin (Islam)|bāṭenī]]) teachings of Ali and [[Haji Bektash Veli]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=BEKTĀŠĪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=www.iranicaonline.org}}</ref> Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th&nbsp;century,<ref name="ReferenceB">Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' [[Edinburgh University Press]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> such as [[Tengrism|Shamanism]] and [[Animism]], mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10&nbsp;million to over 20&nbsp;million (~ 0.5% - ~ 1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref>[http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf ''John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution''], PDF-Datei, See also [http://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi''], consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>
* The [[Ahmadiyya]] movement was founded by [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Who Are the Ahmadi? |work=bbc.co.uk |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8711026.stm |access-date=6 October 2013}}</ref> in [[India]] in 1889.<ref name="ahmadi">See:
*{{Cite book|title=Breach of Faith|quote=Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|page=8|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=yi8ONIe1fv4C|page=8}}|access-date=29 March 2014|date=June 2005}}
* {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=dgtgGhMUgIUC|page=72}}|title=Asian Religions in British Columbia|quote=The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world|author1=Larry DeVries |author2=Don Baker |author3=Dan Overmyer |access-date=29 March 2014|isbn=978-0-7748-1662-5|publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]]|date=1 November 2011}}
* {{harvp|Campo|2009|p=[{{google books |plainurl=y |id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC|page=23}} 24]}}
* {{Cite web |date=20 January 2012 |title=Ahmadiyya Muslims |work=Religion & Ethics Newsweekly |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/ |access-date=6 October 2013 |publisher=PBS}}</ref>{{efn|A figure of 10-20&nbsp;million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also: [[Ahmadiyya by country]].}} Ahmad claimed to be the "Promised Messiah" or "Imam Mahdi" of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA11 11]}} and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhume |first=Sadanand |date=1 December 2017 |title=Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/pakistan-persecutes-a-muslim-minority-1512087028 |access-date=2018-07-14 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
* [[Mahdavia]] is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri.
===Non-denominational Muslims===
{{Main|Non-denominational Muslim}}
[[Non-denominational Muslims]] is an [[umbrella term]] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific [[Islamic denomination]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref name="Kirkham">{{Cite news |last=Kirkham |first=Bri |date=2015 |title=Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive |url=http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive |url-status=dead |access-date=21 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125113410/http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive |archive-date=25 November 2015 |quote=Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.}}</ref><ref name="Pollack">{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included [[Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cughtai |first=Muhammad Ikram |title=Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence |date=2005 |page=454 |quote=Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.}}</ref> and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Khaled |title=Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni? |agency=The Friday Times |url=http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml |url-status=dead |access-date=23 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117111449/http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml |archive-date=17 November 2011}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez |first=Ralph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vuNfXxnYWPIC|page=65}} |title=Truth in the Age of Bushism |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5 |page=65 |quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center]] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in [[Kazakhstan]] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.<ref name="Pew" />
==Mysticism==
{{Main|Sufism}}
{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
[[File:Mevlana Konya.jpg|thumb|right|The Whirling Dervishes, or [[Mevlevi Order]] by the tomb of Sufi-mystic [[Rumi]]]]
Sufism (Arabic: {{lang-ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a [[mystical]]-[[ascetic]] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct [[Divine presence|personal experience of God]]. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''Tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=302}}
* {{harvp|Malik|Hinnells|2006|p=3}}
* {{harvp|Turner|1998|p=145}}
* {{harvp|Trimingham|1998|p=1}}
* {{Cite web |year=1997 |title=Afghanistan: A Country Study – Sufism |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061) |access-date=18 April 2007 |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Zarruq 2008">[[Ahmad Zarruq|Zarruq, Ahmed]], Zaineb Istrabadi, and [[Hamza Yusuf|Hamza Yusuf Hanson]]. 2008. ''The Principles of Sufism''. Amal Press.</ref> [[Hasan al-Basri]], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]] and [[Jalaluddin Rumi]], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. [[Ismaili]] Shias, whose teachings root in [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neo-Platonism]],<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191-206.</ref> as well as by the [[Illuminationism|Illuminationist]] and [[School of Isfahan|Isfahan]] schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>[[Mehdi Aminrazavi|Aminrazavi, Mehdi]]. [2009] 2016. "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/ Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy]." ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', edited by [[Edward N. Zalta|E. N. Zalta]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref>
Sufis see ''tasawwuf'' as an inseparable part of Islam, just like the ''sharia''.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Traditional Sufis, such as [[Bayazid Bastami]], Jalaluddin Rumi, [[Haji Bektash Veli]], [[Junaid Baghdadi]], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|p={{pn|date=September 2021}}}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr |access-date=17 January 2015 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr/page/192 192]}}</ref>{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Historian [[Nile Green]] argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less ''Sufism''.<ref name=Peacock/>{{rp|style=ama|p=24}} Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of [[salafism]], who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in [[Sufi–Salafi relations]].
Sufi congregations form orders (''[[tariqa]]'') centered around a teacher (''[[wali]]'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa &#124; Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cook |first=David |date=4 May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |doi-access=free |postscript={{which?|date=September 2021|reason=The original ref had pieces of both.}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Stoeber |first=Michael |date=3 September 2015 |title=The Comparative Study of Mysticism |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.93 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |postscript={{which?|date=September 2021|reason=The original ref had pieces of both.}}}}</ref> Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or [[Barelvi]] movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |year=2003 |c=Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101 |in=Esposito}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709}}</ref> as well as in African countries like [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="Pew">{{Cite web|date=August 9, 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=[[International Journal of African Historical Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref>
==Religious law==
{{Fiqh}}
{{Main|Sharia|Fiqh}}
{{See also|Logic in Islamic philosophy#Islamic law and theology}}
[[Sharia]] is the [[religious law]] forming part of the Islamic tradition.<ref name=":15" /> It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with ''[[fiqh]]'', which refers to its scholarly interpretations.<ref name=ODI/><ref name="vikor">Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 Sharīʿah]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', edited by [[Emad Shahin|E. Shahin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. Archived from the [http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 original] on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.<ref name=":15" />
Traditional [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|theory of Islamic jurisprudence]] recognizes four [[sources of sharia]]: the Quran, sunnah (''Hadith'' and [[prophetic biography|''Sira'']]), [[qiyas]] (analogical reasoning), and ''[[ijma]]'' (juridical consensus).<ref name="Esposito, John 2001">{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> Different [[Madhhab|legal schools]] developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ''[[ijtihad]]''.<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Islamic Law |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,''[[Ibadah|ʿibādāt]]'' (rituals) and ''[[Muamalat|muʿāmalāt]]'' (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.<ref name="ODI" /> Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called [[ahkam]]: mandatory (''[[fard]]''), recommended (''[[mustahabb]]''), permitted (''[[mubah]]''), abhorred (''[[makruh]]''), and prohibited (''[[haram]]'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.<ref name="vikor" />
Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists ([[mufti]]s). Their legal opinions ([[fatwa]]) were taken into account by ruler-appointed [[Qadi|judges]] who presided over [[Qadi|qāḍī]]'s courts, and by ''[[Mazalim|maẓālim]]'' courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The [[Ottoman Empire]]'s 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms lead to the [[Mecelle]] civil code and represented the first attempt to [[Codification (law)|codify]] sharia.<ref>[[Ashk Dahlén|Dahlen, Ashk]]. 2004. ''Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}.</ref> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in [[Status (law)|personal status]] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 Law. Modern Legal Reform]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> The [[Islamic revival]] of the late 20th&nbsp;century brought along calls by [[Islamist]] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, [[freedom of thought]], and [[women's rights]].<ref name="naim96">{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A. |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref name="hajjar2004">{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=[[Law & Social Inquiry]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref><ref>Al-Suwaidi, J. 1995. ''Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, War, and Peace in the Middle East'', edited by D. Garnham and M. A. Tessler. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-253-20939-9}}. see Chapters 5 and 6.{{page needed|date=April 2016}}</ref>
===Scholars===
[[File:Карло Боссоли. Татарская школа для детей (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] Muslim students (1856)]]
{{Main|Ulama}}
Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the [[sacerdotalism|sacerdotal]] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Arabic: علماء) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of [[Islamic studies|Islamic sciences]]. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a [[mufti]] ({{lang-ar|مفتي|label=none}}) and often issues legal opinions, called [[fatwas]]. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a [[faqih]] ({{lang-ar|فقيه|label=none}}). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a ''[[muhaddith]]''. A [[qadi]] is a judge in an Islamic court. [[Honorific]] titles given to scholars include [[sheikh]], [[mullah]], and [[Mawlawi (Islamic title)|mawlawi]]. [[Imam]] ({{lang-ar|إمام|label=none}}) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services.
===Schools of jurisprudence===
[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|thumb|right|Islamic [[madh'hab|schools of law]] in the [[Muslim world]]]]
{{Main|Madhhab}}
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a ''madhhab'' ({{lang-ar|مذهب}}). The four major Sunni schools are the [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]] madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the [[Ja'fari]], [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called ''[[Usul al-fiqh]]'' ("principles of jurisprudence"). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called ''[[taqlid]]''. The term ''[[Salafi movement|ghair muqallid]]'' literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ''ijtihad''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=3, 161}}
===Politics===
{{Main|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic state|Islam and secularism}}
{{Seealso|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}}
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the [[ulema|scholars]] function as both jurists and theologians. Currently, no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barazangi |first1=Nimat Hafez |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=0QtcBRWs__AC}} |title=Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice |last2=Zaman |first2=M. Raquibuz |last3=Afzal |first3=Omar |publisher=[[University Press of Florida]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8130-1382-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Amuzegar |first=Jahangir |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=sNvX7bg1Hq8C|page=121}} |title=Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar |date=1997 |isbn=978-1-86064-104-6 |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Glenn E. |url=https://archive.org/details/irancountrystudy00curt_2/page/196 |title=Iran: A Country Study |last2=Hooglund |first2=Eric |date=2008 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-8444-1187-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/irancountrystudy00curt_2/page/196 196–]}}</ref> Terms used to refer to traditionally Muslim leaders include [[Caliph]] and [[Sultan]] and terms associated with traditionally Muslim states include [[Caliphate]], [[Emirate]], [[Imamate]] and [[Khanate]].
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants.<ref name="EI2"/><ref>Peters, Rudolph, and David Cook. 2014. "{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|Jihād}}." ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-973935-6}}.</ref> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2"/> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. [[Yale University Press]]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="EI2" /> For most [[Twelver|Twelver Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamate in Twelver doctrine|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s [[occultation (Islam)|occultation]] is 868&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|p=72}}
==Society==
===Family life===
{{See also|Islam and children|Women in Islam|Marriage in Islam|Polygyny in Islam}}
[[File:Minaret roof in constanta.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The dome of the [[Grand Mosque of Constanța|Grand Mosque]] in [[Constanța]], [[Romania]], topped by the [[Islamic crescent]]]]
In a Muslim family, some religious ceremonies attend the birth of a child. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan are pronounced in the right ear of the child.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=106}} On the seventh day, the ''[[aqiqah]]'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} 120]}} The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} 120]}} Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly family members undertake teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge and religious practices to the children.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}} [[Marriage in Islam|Marriage]], which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract that consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=339}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref>
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications|Oneworld]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb/page/141 141]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 68]}}</ref> [[Polyandry]], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref> However, Muslim men are allowed to practice [[polygyny]] and can have up to four wives at the same time, per [[Surah]]&nbsp;4 Verse&nbsp;3. A man does not need approval of his first wife for a second marriage as there is no evidence in the Qur'an or hadith to suggest this. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds, including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world, there are many variations on Muslim weddings. Generally, in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The [[Islamic Texts Society]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato/page/92 92–93]}}</ref> Regarding inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Quran-usc|4|11|s=ns|expand=yes}}.</ref> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}}<ref>[[Muhammad Shafi Usmani]]. ''[[Maariful Quran]]''. English trans. By [[Muhammad Taqi Usmani]]</ref> The Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment of orphaned children while urging kindness and justice towards them, and rebukes those who do not honor and feed them.<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|89|17–18|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref>
Certain religious rites are performed during and after the [[Islamic view of death|death of a Muslim]]. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the ''Shahada'' as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After death, according to [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]], members of the same gender bath the body appropriately and enshrouded it in a threefold white garment called ''kafan''.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/83 83]}} The ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' ("funeral prayer") is said over the bathed and enshrouded body. Placing it on a [[bier]], the body is first taken to a mosque where the funeral prayer is offered for the deceased and then to the graveyard for burial.
===Etiquette and diet===
{{Main|Adab (Islam)|Islamic dietary laws}}
Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu 'alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[Basmala|bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|Islamic hygienic]] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. [[Khitan (circumcision)|Circumcision of male offspring]] is practised in Islam. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, [[carrion]], and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as [[halal]] food.<ref>See:
* {{Cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
* {{harvp|Curtis|2005|p=164}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}
* {{cite web |last=Ghamidi |first=Javed Ahmad |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html |title=Customs and Behavioral Laws |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923142412/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html}}
* {{cite web |last=Ghamidi |first=Javed Ahmad |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html |title=The Dietary Laws |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502045147/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html}}
* {{cite web |last=Ghamidi |first=Javed Ahmad |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm |title=Various types of the Prayer |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923144205/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm}}
* {{harvc |c=Slaughter |author=Ersilia Francesca |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref>
===Character===
{{Main|Morality in Islam}}
{{See also|Islamic ethics}}
[[File:Salat Eid al-Fitr, Tehran (113344343).jpg|thumb|Islamic [[Hijab|veils]] represent [[Morality in Islam#Modesty and humility|modesty]]]]
The Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and [[Moral character|good character]] come within the sphere of the moral guidelines.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=216}} In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a [[Mumin|believer]]{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=116}} 116]}} and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshiping.{{sfnp|Leaman|2006|page=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=140}} 140]}} One typical Islamic teaching on [[morality]] is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=116}} 116]}} The Quran says: "Good and evil cannot be equal. Respond ˹to evil˺ with what is best, then the one you are in enmity with will be like a close friend."<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|41|34|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref> Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only with good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=215}} The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are [[justice]], [[forgiveness]], righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=216}} Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but are not limited to charitable activities, fulfillment of promise, [[modesty]] ([[Haya (Islam)|''haya'']]) and [[humility]], decency in speech, tolerance, trustworthiness, [[Sabr|patience]], truthfulness, [[anger management]], and sincerity of intention.
As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: "The best among you are those who have the best manners and character."<ref group="lower-roman">{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|8|73|56|usc=yes}}</ref> In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khadduri |first=Majid |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=td3XttHLGsEC|page=10}} |title=The Islamic Conception of Justice |publisher=The [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8018-6974-7 |page=10}}</ref> The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice.{{sfnp|Leaman|2006|page=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=214}} 214]}}
Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]". In its broadest sense, it is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of [[wikt:disapprobation|disapprobation]]". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the [[Devil]] and aspects of one's own self (like sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}} Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref name=":17">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=Asma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2021-09-17 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>See:
* {{harvp|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}
* {{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is understood in its military form.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}}<ref name=":17"/> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shia and [[Sufism|Sufis]], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual [[self-improvement|self-perfection]], and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2">{{harvc|last=Tyan, E. |year=2012 |c=D̲j̲ihād |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189}}</ref>
=== Economics ===
{{Main|Islamic economics}}
To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]] encourages trade,<ref>See:
* {{harvp|Mababaya|p=203}}
* {{Cite quran|4|29|style=ref}}</ref> discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (i.e. [[usury]]; Arabic: ''[[riba]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karim, Shafiel A. |title=The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments |publisher=[[Brown Walker Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59942-539-9 |location=Boca Raton, FL}}</ref><ref>Gray, Joanna, and Orkun Akseli. ''Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock''. p. 97.</ref> Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit-sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.<ref>See:
*[[Ibn Majah]], ''[[Sunan ibn Majah]]'' III, hadith 2289
* {{harvp|Mababaya|p=202}}
* Krichene, Noureddine. ''Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice''. p. 119.</ref> Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.<ref>See:
*[[Abu Dawood]], ''[[Sunan Abu Dawood]]'', hadith 2015.
* [[Ibn Majah]], ''[[Sunan ibn Majah]]'' III, hadith 2154.
* Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref>
The taking of land belonging to others is prohibited. The prohibition of usury and the revival of interest-based economies has resulted in the development of [[Islamic banking]]. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state was immediately used to help the poor. Then, in AD&nbsp;634, [[Umar]] formally established the welfare state [[Bayt al-mal|Bayt al-Mal]] ("House of Wealth"), which was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-Maal ran for hundreds of years under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in the 7th&nbsp;century, continuing through the [[Umayyad]] period, and well into the [[Abbasid]] era. Umar also introduced [[child support]] and [[pensions]].<ref>Quddus, Syed Abdul. ''The Challenge of Islamic Renaissance''.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref>
===Calendar===
{{Muslimmonths}}
{{Main|Islamic calendar}}
Caliph Umar reportedly chose the formal beginning of the Muslim era to be the Hijra in 622&nbsp;CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a [[lunar calendar]] with days lasting from sunset to sunset.<ref>"[http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/Sacred-Time.html Sacred Time]." ''[[Patheos]]''. 2020.</ref> Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in [[seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic|عيد الف) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic|عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{harvc |last=Ghamidi(a) |first=Javed Ahmad |year=2001 |c=Customs and Behavioral Laws |pp=321–333 |in=Ghamidi |url=http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923142412/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html}}</ref>
===Arts===
{{Main|Islamic culture}}
{{Seealso|Islamic art|Islamic architecture|Islamic literature}}
The term "[[Islamic culture]]" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as [[festivals]] and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |authorlink=Souren Melikian |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=56}} sometimes referred to as "[[wikt:Islamicate|Islamicate]]".
In [[Islamic architecture]], varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] containing [[marble]] and [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=2010-08-06}}</ref> while [[mosques in Indonesia]] often have multi-tiered roofs from local [[Java]]nese styles.
[[Islamic art]] encompasses the [[visual arts]] including fields as varied as architecture, [[calligraphy]], painting, and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |first2=Oleg |last2=Grabar |first3=Marilyn |last3=Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 3]}}</ref> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with [[Aniconism in Islam|laws against idolatry]], this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[tessellation]], and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref>
<gallery widths="thumb" heights="thumb" class="left">
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], in the [[west Africa]]n country of [[Mali]]
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in [[Po-i-Kalyan]], [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]]
File:1 great mosque xian 2011.JPG|14th century [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]] in China
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|16th century [[Menara Kudus Mosque]] in Indonesia showing Indian influence
File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|The phrase ''[[Basmala|Bismillah]]'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] region.
File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in [[Shiraz]], [[Iran]]
</gallery>
==Derived religions==
{{see also|Islam and Druze}}
Some movements, such as the [[Druze]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse/page/114 114] |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse/page/33 33] |quote=Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Stewart |first=Dona |title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-135-98079-5 |page=33 |quote=Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and kept their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref> [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. [[Yazdânism]] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to [[Kurdistan]] by [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir]] in the 12th&nbsp;century. [[Bábism]] stems from Twelver Shia passed through [[Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab]] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri [[Baha'u'llah]] founded the [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late-fifteenth-century [[Punjab]], incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' [[University of Tennessee Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>
==Criticism==
{{main|Criticism of Islam}}
[[File:John Damascus (arabic icon).gif|right|thumb|upright=0.8|[[John of Damascus]], under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the [[Bible]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus’s Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]]
Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian [[heresy]] or a form of [[idolatry]], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.{{sfnp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC|page=759}} 759]}} Later, criticism from the Muslim world itself appeared, as well as from [[Jewish]] writers and from [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical Christians]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Warraq |first=Ibn |title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out |url=https://archive.org/details/leavingislamapos00warr |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-59102-068-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/leavingislamapos00warr/page/n11 67] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kammuna |first=Ibn |title=Examination of the Three Faiths |date=1971 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher=Moshe Perlmann |pages=148–149}}</ref>
Christian writers criticized Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality. Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion. Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of [[Irenaeus]], the doctrines of the former [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]], [[Augustine of Hippo]], led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the [[Gospel of Matthew]].<ref>''Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions'' [[Cambridge University Press]], 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-521-50637-3}} pp. 18–20</ref>
Defamatory images of [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Muhammad]], derived from early 7th&nbsp;century depictions of the [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Byzantine period|Byzantine Church]],<ref name="ReferenceH">[[Minou Reeves|Reeves, Minou]], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. [[New York University Press|NYU Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]].<ref name="auto">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. [[Springer Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 132.</ref> Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of [[schism]], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="auto" />
Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Timothy Garton Ash |date=5 October 2006 |title=Islam in Europe |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371 |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref> In the wake of the recent [[multiculturalism]] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been [[criticism of multiculturalism|criticized]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=April 6, 2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page=[https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo/page/n43 29] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Both in his public and personal life, others objected to the morality of Muhammad, therefore also the sunnah as a role model.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Warraq |first=Ibn |url=https://archive.org/details/questforhistoric00ibnw/page/103 |title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad |date=2000 |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-1-57392-787-1 |edition=1st |location=Amherst, MA |page=[https://archive.org/details/questforhistoric00ibnw/page/103 103] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Outline of Islam]]
* [[Glossary of Islam]]
* [[Index of Islam-related articles]]
* [[Islamic studies]]
* [[Major religious groups]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
===Citations of Qur'an and hadith===
{{Reflist|30em|group=lower-roman}}
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Books and journals===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Accad |first=Martin |year=2003 |title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) |journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=67–91 |doi=10.1080/09596410305261 |s2cid=170638096}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Akbar |url=https://archive.org/details/islamtoday00akba_0 |title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World|publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]]|year=1999|isbn=978-1-86064-257-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Signs in the heavens |volume=2 |publisher=Amana Publications |year=2006 |isbn=1-59008-040-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Clinton |title=Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8264-9944-8 |page=101 |author-link=Clinton Bennett}}
* {{cite book |last=Blankinship |first=K. |year=2008 |chapter=The early creed |editor=T. Winter |title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology |series=Cambridge Companions to Religion |pages=33–54 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003|isbn=9780521780582 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia |publisher=[[University of South Carolina Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57003-471-8}}
*{{Cite book|last=Bulliet|first=Richard| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]]| isbn = 0-618-42770-8| title = The Earth and Its Peoples
| location = Boston| year = 2005| url = | page = | quote = }}
* {{Cite book |last=Burge|first=Stephen|year=2015|title=Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik |place=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-50473-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Çakmak |first=Cenap |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia |series=4 volumes |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-61069-217-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chittick |first=William C |title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-78074-052-2 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=LI0kjBlXS5UC}} |access-date=17 January 2015}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cohen-Mor |first=Dalya |title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513398-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Patricia A. |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetofoodlawsr0000curt |title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell Publishing Professional]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8138-1946-4 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 |edition=3rd |author-link=John Esposito}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |editor-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |editor-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/unholywarterrori0000espo |title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002a |isbn=978-0-19-516886-0 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002b |isbn=978-0-19-515713-0 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0001espo |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-518266-8 |edition=Revised 3rd |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-539600-3 |edition=4th |author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |year=2011 |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |edition=2nd |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-979413-3 |author-mask=1}}[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/book_wenkai.html Lay summary]
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* {{Cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-512580-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ghamidi |first=Javed |title=Mizan |title-link=Mizan |place=Lahore |publisher=Daru’l-Ishraq |year=2001 |edition=1st |oclc=52901690 |author-link=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi |language=Urdu}}
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* {{Cite book |last1=Griffith |first1=Ruth Marie |title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance |last2=Savage |first2=Barbara Dianne |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8370-5}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Hedayetullah |first=Muhammad |title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55369-842-5}}
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* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=Bernard |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29136-1 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1 |author-link2=Bernard Lewis}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1A |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-21946-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hourani |first1=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |publisher=[[Belknap Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-674-01017-8 |author-link=Albert Hourani}}
* {{cite book |title=The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah |author=Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr |isbn=978-603-500-080-2 |translator=Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad |place=Riyadh |publisher=Maktaba Dar-us-Salam |year=2012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kobeisy |first=Ahmed Nezar |title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger Publishers]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32472-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Martin |title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8133-0453-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Jews of Islam |publisher=[[Routledge & Kegan Paul]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-7102-0462-2 |author-link=Bernard Lewis}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-285258-8 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi |title=The Middle East |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern |title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East |publisher=[[Open Court Publishing Company]]|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 |edition=2nd |author-mask=1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi |title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East |publisher=[[Harper Perennial]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 |edition=reprint |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern |title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror |publisher=[[Random House, Inc.]], New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |author-link=Wilferd Madelung}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Malik |first1=Jamal |title=Sufism in the West |last2=Hinnells |first2=John R. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-27408-1}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Mababaya |first=Mamarinta P. |title=International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment}}{{fcn|date=September 2021|reason=Thesis or book? Either way cite needs more details.}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/ourreligions00shar |title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067700-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon Alexander |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5}}
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* {{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.B. |date=1978 |title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib |journal=[[Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies]] |volume=41 |pages=1–42 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz |title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] US |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511915-2 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}}
* Siljander, Mark D., and John David Mann (2008). ''A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide'' (1st ed.). New York: [[HarperOne]]. {{ISBN|978-0-06-143828-8|}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Teece |first=Geoff |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6 |title=Religion in Focus: Islam |publisher=[[Grolier|Franklin Watts Ltd]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Trimingham |first=John Spencer |title=The Sufi Orders in Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-512058-5}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought |publisher=University Press Edinburgh |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-85224-245-2 |author-link=William Montgomery Watt}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |edition=New |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Bernard G. |title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill Academic publishers]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12066-2 |location=Boston |author-link=Bernard G. Weiss}}
{{Refend}}
===Encyclopedias and Dictionaries===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{harvc |last1=Gardet|first1=L.|last2=Jomier|first2=J.|year=2012|c=Islām |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{DOI|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Berkshire Publishing Group]] |url=https://archive.org/details/berkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1 |editor-last=William H. McNeill |isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1 |editor2=Jerry H. Bentley |editor3=David Christian |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Oussani |editor-first=Gabriel |year=1911 |title=[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]] |volume=10 |publisher=[[Robert Appleton Company]] |location=New York}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale Group]] |editor-first=Paul |editor-last=Lagasse |edition=6th |isbn=978-1-59339-236-9 |editor-first2=Lora |editor-last2=Goldman |editor-first3=Archie |editor-last3=Hobson |editor-first4=Susan R. |editor-last4=Norton}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{harvid|Fahlbusch et al|1999}} |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-first=Erwin |display-editors=etal |year=1999 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2|edition=1st|isbn=978-0-8028-2414-1 |volume=1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{harvid|Fahlbusch et al|2001}} |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-first=Erwin |display-editors=etal |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC}} |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |volume=2}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor-last=John Bowden |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-19-522393-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1913–1936 |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |editor1-last=Houtsma |editor1-first=M.T. |editor1-link=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor2-first=T.W. |editor2-last=Arnold |editor2-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |editor3-first=R. |editor3-last=Basset |editor4-first=R. |editor4-last=Hartmann |edition=1st |place=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.)|1913–1936}}}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |edition=2nd |place=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012}}}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|n.d.}} |year=n.d. |url=https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |series=[[Macmillan Reference Books]] |publisher=[[Thomson-Gale]] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Richard C. |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=n.d.|editor-first=Jane Dammen|editor-last=McAuliffe|editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=2 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2002}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=3 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2003}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor-last=Salamone |editor-first=Frank |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-415-94180-8 |series=Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society |volume=6 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala |jstor=j.ctt1jd94wq}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |series=Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite dictionary |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada |url-access=registration}} {{DOI|10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001}} – via Oxford Reference.
* {{Cite dictionary |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=}} |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
{{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}}
{{Refbegin}}
* [https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/encyclopedia-of-sahih-al-bukhari-arabic-virtual-translation-center/1134457685?ean=2940160787701 Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari] by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, [[Barnes & Noble]] {{ISBN|978-0-359-67265-3}}). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: [[Bethany House Publishers]]. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |last=Ahmad |first=Imad-ad-Dean |author-link=Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=256–258 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |chapter-url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Islam}}
* {{Cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo |title=Islam Without Extremes |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-393-07086-6 |edition=1st |author-link=Mustafa Akyol}}
* {{Cite book |last=Arberry |first=A.J. |url=https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar |title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation |publisher=Touchstone |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-82507-6 |edition=1st |author-link=A. J. Arberry}}
* Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, CA: [[Wadsworth Publishing Company]] 1975. xiii, 145 p. {{ISBN|0-8221-0139-4}}.
* Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. {{ISBN|0-521-42120-9}}; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
* {{Cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Muhsin |title=Noble Quran |last2=Al-Hilali Khan |last3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-9960-740-79-9 |edition=1st |author-link=Muhammad Muhsin Khan}}
* Khanbaghi, A, (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. [[I. B. Tauris]].
* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. {{ISBN|0-915677-55-5}}.
* {{Cite book |title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-965-224-040-8 |editor-last=Kramer |editor-first=Martin |editor-link=Martin Kramer}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Dogan |title=Muslim Religious Architecture |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0 |title=Islam and the West |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-509061-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi |title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-510283-3 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mubarkpuri |first=Saifur-Rahman |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Najeebabadi |first=Akbar Shah |title=History of Islam |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 |title=Islam |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0 |edition=2nd |author-link=Fazlur Rahman}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |title=Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1982-3 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tausch |first=Arno |title=What 1.3&nbsp;Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University |publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers]], New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60692-731-1 |edition=1st |author-link=Arno Tausch}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |first2=Almas |last2=Heshmati |first3=Hichem |last3=Karoui |publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers]] |place=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |edition=1st |author-link=Arno Tausch}} Prepublication text available at: {{cite web |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |last2=Heshmati |first2=Almas |last3=Karoui |first3=Hichem |date=January 2014 |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218}}
* {{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith |publisher=[[Peter Owen Publishers]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3 |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author)}}
{{Refend}}
{{Islam topics}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Portal bar|Islam|Religions}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Islam| ]]
[[Category:610 establishments]]
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 7th century]]
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Wikipedia
Privacy policy Terms of UseDesktop [[User:Merajul Islam|Merajul Islam]] ([[User talk:Merajul Islam#top|talk]]) 13:36, 28 January 2022 (IST)
== Wikipedia:Signatures ==
<noinclude>{{short description|Wikipedia behavioral guideline}}{{pp-semi|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
</noinclude>{{Redirect|Wikipedia:Sign|''The Signpost''|Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost}}
{{for|the essay about signatures of living people in articles|Wikipedia:Signatures of living persons}}
{{subcat guideline|behavioral guideline|Signatures|WP:SIG}}
{{Policy section top}}
{{nutshell|Please sign your posts on talk pages, using four tildes (<code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code>), or clicking the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg|22px]] on the edit toolbar. Keep the coding of your signature short, do not make the signature too large, do not embed files in it, and ensure that the end result is easily readable by virtually everybody.}}
{{Guideline list}}
'''Signing your posts''' on [[Wikipedia:Talk page|talk pages]] (normally using four [[tilde]]s: <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code>), both for the article and non-article [[Wikipedia:Namespace|namespaces]], is required and facilitates discussion by identifying the author of a particular comment. Other users can then navigate to a talk page and address their comments to the specific, relevant user(s). Discussion is an important part of collaborative editing, because it helps all users to understand the progress and evolution of a work.
Comments posted on user talk pages, article talk pages and other discussion pages must be properly signed. Signature use that is intentionally and persistently disruptive may lead to [[WP:BP|blocks]].
When [[Help:Editing|editing a page]], [[Wikipedia:What is an article?|main namespace]] articles {{strong|should not}} be signed, because the article is a shared work, based on the contributions of many people, and one editor should not be singled out above others.
== Purpose of signatures ==
Signatures on Wikipedia identify you as a user and your contributions to Wikipedia. They encourage [[WP:CIVIL|civility in discussions]] by identifying the author of a particular comment and the date and time at which it was made. Because of that, having an uncivil signature is strongly discouraged (in some cases, to the point of blocking the user until it is changed). In general, anything that is not allowed in a [[WP:UN|username]] should not be used in a signature either.
Furthermore, signatures also serve a technical purpose: various [[WP:SCRIPT|user scripts]] and [[WP:BOT|talk-page archiving bots]], including [[User:lowercase sigmabot III|lowercase sigmabot III]], rely on their time stamps to know when to archive old threads. It's because of this that it's also important to avoid overly customizing the date output of a signature, as doing so can lead to stale threads persisting long after they'd otherwise be [[WP:ARCHIVE|archived]].
== When signatures should and should not be used ==
{{shortcut|WP:SIGNHERE}}
Any posts made to any type of discussion page {{em|must be}} signed (this does not include adding WikiProject boxes and other such administrative templates). Note that, as stated [[#How to sign your posts|below]], if you choose to edit those kinds of pages [[Wikipedia:IPs are human too|without logging in]], then you should still sign your posts – regardless of whether or not you have [[Wikipedia:Why create an account?|an account]]. Edits to articles {{em|must {{strong|not}}}} be signed, as signatures on Wikipedia are not intended to indicate [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|ownership or authorship of any article]]. Instead, the [[Help:Page history|page history]] identifies who made edits. Signatures do not translate from <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code> in edit summaries. In other instances when posts {{em|should not}} be signed, specific instructions are provided to contributors. Files used in articles, including image and sound files, should not contain any Wikipedians' signatures.
== How to sign your posts ==
{{shortcut|WP:~|WP:SIGHOW|WP:TILDE}}
=== Preferred option ===
==== Standard signature ====
{{anchor|Using four tildes}}{{Shortcut|WP:4TILDES}}
There are three ways to sign your posts:
# At the end of your comments simply type four [[tilde]]s (~), like this: <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code>.
# If you are using the [[Help:Edit toolbar|edit toolbar]] option (by default, it appears above the edit box), click the signature icon<ref group=Note>If your browser is set to not show pictures, the button will be called "Your signature with timestamp".  If the browser's settings don't allow JavaScript, the buttons will not appear.</ref> [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg|22px]] to add two hyphens and four tildes like this: <code>{{nobr|<nowiki>--~~~~</nowiki>}}</code>.
# Use the [[WP:REPLYTOOL|reply tool]] or [[WP:NEWDISCUSSIONTOOL|new discussion tool]] that are available as beta features in your user preferences. Both of these features will automatically insert a signature, without needing to add any wikicode.
The four tildes will be automatically replaced with your signature after you have published the changes, as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
| <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code>
| <code><nowiki>[[User:Example|Example]] ([[User talk:Example|talk]])</nowiki> {{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)</code><ref group=Note> The actual code is slightly more complicated, turning the talk page link into a link to the top of one's talk page when used at one's talk page itself. It can be found at [[MediaWiki:Signature]].</ref>
| [[User:Example|Example]] ([[User talk:Example|talk]]) {{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)
|}
Since typing four tildes adds the time and date to your resulting signature, this is the preferred option for signing your posts in discussions.
Note that if you choose to [[Wikipedia:IPs are human too|contribute without logging in]], regardless of whether you have [[Wikipedia:Why create an account?|an account]], you should still sign your posts. In this case your [[IP address]] will take the place of your username, and will link to your contributions history. Your IP address might look something like '''192.0.2.213''' or '''2001:DB8:CEEE:21B:DB60:07FE:4277:63FF'''.
If, for some reason, you are not getting the above results when signing, see the [[User talk:SineBot|SineBot Frequently Asked Questions]] for tips.
=== Other options ===
==== Using three tildes ====
{{Shortcut|WP:3TILDES}}
Typing three tildes results in the following:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>~~~</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>[[User:Example|Example]] ([[User talk:Example|talk]])</nowiki></code>
| [[User:Example|Example]] ([[User talk:Example|talk]])
|}
However, since this does not date-stamp your signature, you may wish to sign this way only when leaving general notices on your user page or user talk page. This is also a convenient shortcut (rather than typing out the full code) when you want to provide a link to your user page.
==== Using five tildes ====
{{Shortcut|WP:5TILDES}}
Typing five tildes will convert to a date stamp with the current date and time, without adding your signature, like this:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>~~~~~</nowiki></code>
| <code>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)</code>
| {{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)
|}
In general, when communicating with others, you should use one of the previous options and not only a timestamp.  There are exceptions to this such as, when requesting assistance from the [[WP:3O|Third Opinion project]] the requested format for signing is the five tilde signature to slightly help improve neutrality from the responding volunteer, or when updating one of your submitted posts on a talk page by appending <code><nowiki>(updated ~~~~~)</nowiki></code> to your already existing signature.
In some [[Help:Template|templates]], this is the preferred way to add the date.
== Customizing your signature ==
{{Shortcut|WP:CUSTOMSIG}}
Every editor's default signature (defined by [[MediaWiki:Signature]]) will display when <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code> is typed. This looks like:
<blockquote>
[[User:Example|Example]] ([[User talk:Example|talk]]) {{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)
</blockquote>
Unregistered/not-logged-in users may choose to sign manually with a pseudonym or tag (e.g. ''anon.'') as their IP address will be stored in the page history. If you choose to sign your posts in such a way, you should still finish your signature with four tildes (such as <code><nowiki>Anonymous editing as ~~~~</nowiki></code>) to aid others in reading the thread and communicating with you.
=== Customizing how you see your signature ===
To change how your signature appears to you, e.g. to make it easier to spot, without affecting how it appears to other users, you can create a personal [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS style sheet]]. For example, to display your username in bold white text on an orange background (like <span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #ffa500; color: #ffffff;">Your username</span>), add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.css]], replacing ''Your username'' with your actual username:
:<code><nowiki>#bodyContent a[title="User:</nowiki>''Your username''<nowiki>"] { background-color: #ffa500; color: #ffffff; font-weight: bold; }</nowiki></code>
When you use this technique, bright colors can help you to more quickly scan long pages that contain <code><nowiki>[[User:</nowiki>''Your&nbsp;username''<nowiki>]]</nowiki></code>, including [[Help:Talk pages|Talk pages]], [[Help:Page history|page histories]], your [[Help:Watching pages|watchlist]], and if anyone links to you in a discussion. Colors to use for this can be researched via the [[Web colors]] article, and you can update your common.css file at any time to modify the display style.
=== Customizing how everyone sees your signature ===
{{Shortcut|WP:FANCYSIG}}{{Anchor|CustomSig}}
[[File:Raw signature.png|250px|thumb|Screenshot of the [[Special:Preferences]] page, containing the section '''''Raw Signature'''''.]]
Registered users can customize their signatures by going to [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-personal-signature|Special:Preferences]] and changing the field "Signature". This changes the signature seen by everyone. It can be used to sign your posts with a nickname, or with custom formatting, or both.
This technique only applies where you have signed a page while logged in. It doesn't affect how your username appears in your watchlist, in page histories, or where someone else has linked to your user page in a discussion. When you remove or modify your signature, the change will apply to your future posts, but the signatures on your existing posts will be unchanged.
==== Treat as wiki markup ====
If you do not check the "Treat the above as wiki markup" box, the exact content you enter will be used as your signature. For example, if [[User:Example]] had set their signature to read <code>NICKNAME</code>, thereafter the signature (generated when they mark a post with <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code>) would be:
<blockquote>
[[User:Example|NICKNAME]] ([[User talk:Example|talk]]) {{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)
</blockquote>
Note how NICKNAME still links to [[User:Example]].
If you do check the "Treat the above as wiki markup" box, you can describe your signature using "raw" wikitext (such as <nowiki><span> and wiki-markup</nowiki>) which will be substituted unchanged when you sign your posts. If [[User:Example]] had set their signature to read <code><nowiki>[[User:Example|Ex@''mple'']]<sup>[[User talk:Example|t@lk]]</sup></nowiki></code>, the signature generated by <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code> would be:
<blockquote>
[[User:Example|Ex@''mple'']]<sup>[[User talk:Example|t@lk]]</sup> {{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)
</blockquote>
In this case, you are responsible yourself for linking to your user page (e.g. [[User:Example]]).
To visibly include the pipe (<code>|</code>) or equals (<code>=</code>) characters in your signature, you must [[Escape character|escape]] them, or they will break templates unexpectedly when your signature is present. To escape the <code>|</code> symbol, use the following special code: <code>&amp;#124;</code> (including everything from the ampersand to the semi-colon). To escape the <code>=</code> character, use <code>&amp;#61;</code>.
Putting two or more exclamation points (<code>!!</code>) in a row in your signature can break tables in which your signature appears. Use <code>&amp;#33;</code> as a substitute in order to avoid having two exclamation points in a row.
==== Guidelines and policies ====
{{shortcut|WP:CUSTOMSIG/P}}
Because these signatures are seen by everyone, be aware of the guidelines and policies summarized below:
* A customised signature should make it easy to identify your username.
* A customised signature should provide an easily identified link to your talk page. You are encouraged to also provide a link to your user page.
* Do not impersonate other users.
* Do not use images, transcluded templates, or external links in your signature.
* A distracting, confusing, or otherwise unsuitable signature may adversely affect other users. For example, some editors find that long formatting disrupts discourse on talk pages, or makes working in the edit window more difficult.
* It is common practice for a signature to resemble to some degree the username it represents.<ref group=Note>A [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:Signatures&oldid=1029971563#RfC:_usernames_in_signatures 2021 RfC] was closed with consensus against signatures being required to correspond exactly to usernames and no consensus to require that signatures be easily recognizable to a new user as referring to the username they link to.</ref>
* Complicated signatures contain a lot of code ("[[WP:MARKUP|markup]]") that is revealed in the edit window, and can take up unnecessary amounts of narrative space, which can make both reading and editing harder.
* Always keep the time/date-stamp: these are used by bots to determine when a discussion is eligible to be archived.
====Syntax guidance====
If you attempt to save a signature with certain types of errors, you will see an error message. These errors can be a little tricky to diagnose, but here are some tips:
* Each opening tag must have a corresponding closing tag. Example: each {{tag|b|o}} needs a matching {{tag|b|c}}. This applies to <code><nowiki>''</nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki>'''</nowiki></code> markup as well.
* Tags must be "nested" correctly. Example: <code><nowiki><b>User:<i>Example</i></b></nowiki></code>, not <code><nowiki><b>User:<i>Example</b></i></nowiki></code>.
* If an opening tag appears within a wikilink, it must be closed within a wikilink. Example: <code><nowiki>[[User:'''Example''']]</nowiki></code>, not <code><nowiki>[[User:'''Example]]'''</nowiki></code>
*Your signature must include a link to your user page, talk page, or contributions. (This is a technical requirement enforced by the MediaWiki software.)
=== Signature forgery ===
{{policy section|WP:SIGFORGE|WP:Signature forgery}}
{{strong|Never use another editor's signature.}} Impersonating another editor by using their username or signature is forbidden. Altering the markup code of your signature to make it look substantially like another user's signature may also be considered a form of impersonation. Editing the code of your signature to link it to another editor's user page is not permitted. It is also ineffective, as the change log of the page records the IP address and (if applicable) username of all editors; as such, any impersonators can easily be caught if the signature in the ''diff'' view differs from the editor's default signature. While not an absolute requirement, it is common practice for a signature to resemble to some degree the username it represents.
If you encounter a user whose signature is disruptive or appears to be impersonating another account, it is appropriate to ask that user to consider changing their signature to meet the requirements of this policy. When making such a request, always be polite, and [[WP:Good faith|assume good faith]]. Do not immediately assume that the user has intentionally selected a disruptive or inappropriate signature. If {{em|you}} are asked to change your signature, please avoid interpreting a polite request as an attack. Since the success of Wikipedia is based on effective teamwork, both parties should work together to find a mutually acceptable solution.
Signature formatting has been the subject of [[WP:RFC|Requests for Comment]], and has also resulted in some very heated debates. In one case, a user who refused to cease using "<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>" as their signature was [[Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/-Ril-#Sig change|required to change it]] by the Arbitration Committee. This is an extreme measure for refusal to cooperate with reasonable requests, and should be considered a last resort. When dealing with potentially problematic signatures, simply being [[WP:POLITE|polite]] is often sufficient and can prevent the situation from escalating into a [[WP:DISPUTE|dispute]].
=== Appearance and color ===
{{Policy section|WP:SIGAPP|WP:Appearance and color}}
{{nutshell|title=This section|Make sure that your signature is easily readable and does not cause disruption to other editors.}}
'''Your signature must not blink, scroll, or otherwise cause inconvenience to or annoy other editors.'''
* Avoid markup such as {{Tag|big|o}} and {{Tag|span|params=style="font-size: 200%;"|o}}<sup>(or more)</sup> tags (which {{Big|enlarge}} text); this is likely to disrupt the way that surrounding text displays.
* Do not add line breaks ({{Tag|br|s}}), which can also negatively affect nearby text display. The use of [[non-breaking space]]s to ensure that the signature displays on one line is recommended.
* Be sparing with [[subscript and superscript]]. In some cases, this type of script can also affect the way that surrounding text is displayed.
* Do not make your signature so small that it is difficult to read.
* As some users have vision problems, be conscious of color and contrast issues. If you use different colors in your signature, please ensure that the result will be readable by people with [[color blindness]], defective color vision, and other visual disabilities.<ref group=Note>The [[Web Content Accessibility Guidelines]] specify a [[contrast ratio]] of {{em|at least}} 4.5:1 for text, and {{section link|Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Accessibility|Color}} requires 7:1 "where feasible". To use named CSS colors on a white background, refer to [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Accessibility/CSS colors for text on white]] for recommended colors. For other usage, use this [http://www.msfw.com/Services/ContrastRatioCalculator Contrast ratio calculator] to help determine if the colors will be visible to everyone. Signatures do not always appear on white backgrounds. Other colors for calculations range from the [[Wikipedia:Skin|Monobook skin's]] very pale blue ({{Color box|#F8FCFF|#F8FCFF}}) to the closed discussion [[Template:hat|Hidden archive]] tan ({{Color box|#F2DFCE|#F2DFCE}}) title bar. Other tools for checking contrast are described at {{section link|Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Accessibility|Color}}.</ref>
* Do not include horizontal rules (<code><nowiki>----</nowiki></code> or {{Tag|hr|s}}).
* Do not include {{tag|div}}s because those cause the surrounding text to make a new line.
For guidance on how to use color and other effects to customize the appearance of your signature, see [[Wikipedia:Signature tutorial|this tutorial]].
=== Font tags ===
{{shortcut|WP:SIGFONT}}
{{tag|font}} tags were deprecated in [[HTML4]] and are entirely obsolete in [[HTML5]]. This means that the popular browsers may drop support for them at some point. Wikipedia is already preparing for this by [[lint (software)|delinting]] code project-wide through [[Wikipedia:Linter|Linter]]. When support is finally dropped, the tags will be ignored in all signatures; any properties such as color and font family will revert to their default values. For this reason, it is recommended that you use {{tag|span}} tags and CSS properties instead. For usage examples, see {{section link|Wikipedia:Signature tutorial|Real-life examples}}. You may request additional coding assistance at [[Wikipedia:Help desk]].
A change to your signature definition does not affect signatures created before then. Therefore, if you currently use {{tag|font}} tags in your signature, switching to {{tag|span}} tags now will reduce the number of your signatures (including those in the archives of talk spaces) that will render incorrectly after the browsers drop support for {{tag|font}}. Moreover, [[Wikipedia:Refactoring talk pages|refactoring]] old signatures from you and other users (including in archive pages) by changing {{tag|font|o}} tags to {{tag|span|o}} tags can help prepare the project for this eventual loss of support.
=== Images ===
{{policy section|WP:SIGIMAGE}}
{{See also|Phabricator:T68006}}
{{strong|Images of any kind must not be used in signatures}} for the following reasons.
* Excessive or large images can cause issues for users on low-performance devices or mobiles.
* A new image can be uploaded in place of the one you chose, making your signature a target for possible vandalism
* They make pages more difficult to read and scan
* They make it more difficult to copy text from a page
* They are potentially distracting from the actual content
* Images do not scale with the text, making the lines with images higher than those without them
* They clutter up the "file links" list on the respective image's page every time one signs on a different talk page
* Images in signatures give undue prominence to a given user's contribution
=== <span id="LENGTH"></span> Length ===
{{Shortcut|WP:SIGLEN|WP:SIGLENGTH}}
{{strong|Keep signatures short, both in display and in markup.}}
Extremely long signatures with a lot of HTML/wiki markup make page editing and discussion more difficult for the following reasons:
* Signatures that take up more than two or three lines in the edit window clutter the page and make it harder to distinguish posts from signatures.
* Long signatures give undue prominence to a given user's contribution.
* Signatures that occupy more space than necessary in the edit box displace meaningful comments, thus forcing editors to scroll when writing their replies.
* The presence of such long signatures in the discussion also disrupts the reading of comments when editors are formulating their replies.
The software will automatically truncate both plain and raw signatures to 255 characters of {{em|code}} in the Signature field. If [[#NT|substitution]] of templates or another page is used, please be careful to verify that your signature does not violate the 255-character length limit when the templates are expanded, as the software will not do this automatically.
=== Overriding custom signatures ===
==== <span id="Signature minimisation"></span>Unclutter signature minimiser ====
[[File:Keφr's Unclutter signature minimiser.png|thumb|right|Custom-styled Unclutter and [[Wikipedia:Comments in Local Time|Comments in Local Time]] reformatting signatures and timestamps in a Wikipedia discussion.]]
If you prefer not to see other users' custom signatures, you can use the custom [[JavaScript]] module ''Unclutter''. By default, Unclutter scans non-special non-article pages for timestamped signatures, wraps them up and replaces with a text of the form:
: <span class="plainlinks" style="background: rgba(0,0,0,.05);">— [[User:Example|Example]] (annotation) <small>([[User talk:Example|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Example|ctb]] • [[Special:Log/Example|act]] • [{{fullurl:Special:Log|page=User:Example}} log] • [[#Signature minimisation|sig]])</small></span>
This technique displays the actual username to you and is extensively configurable. It doesn't affect how anyone else sees the signatures. See [[User:Kephir/gadgets/unclutter]] for more details.
While this script works in practice for most signatures found on the English Wikipedia, there are [[User:Kephir/gadgets/unclutter#Limitations|several unavoidable limitations]] which make Unclutter fail to recognise every possible signature. Signatures which violate policies laid out on this page may not be recognised. Unclutter is not an excuse to violate or decline to enforce the signature policy.
==== Using custom CSS ====
[[File:manage enwiki signatures with css - thumbnail.png|thumb|right|Overriding custom signature formatting ([[:File:manage enwiki signatures with css.png|→more examples]])]]
It's also possible to use your personal [[Special:MyPage/common.css|common.css]] style sheet to override the formatting of other users' signatures.
This allows you to decide how links to user pages should be displayed to you when you are logged-in. For example, you could highlight <span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #6633ff; color: #ffffff;">Your username</span> in bold reversed mauve and <span style="font-weight: normal; color: #6633ff; ">Other signatures</span> in normal mauve. This approach works by reversing a variety of commonly used signature formatting techniques, but it doesn't attempt to replace the text content of the signature. For example, if <code>[[User:Example]]</code> has customized their signature to read <span style="background-color: #804; color: #fa0;">Ex</span><span style="font-weight: normal; background-color: inherit; color: #5b2;">@</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: #804; color: #fa0;">mple</span>, changing the formatting would display <span style="font-weight: normal; color: #6633ff; ">Ex@mple</span> rather than their actual name <span style="font-weight: normal; color: #6633ff; ">Example</span>.
No other users will see your custom effects. You can remove or modify them at any time by changing the instructions in your style sheet. The change will apply to all pages regardless of how old they may be. For an example stylesheet, see [[User:Pointillist/reformat-signatures.css]].
== <span id="LINK"></span>Links ==
{{shortcut|WP:SIGLINK}}
=== Internal links ===
Signatures must include at least one direct internal link to your [[Wikipedia:User pages|user page]], user talk page, or contributions page; this allows other editors easy access to your talk page and contributions log. The lack of such a link is widely viewed as obstructive.
If, while making modifications, you accidentally disable this link, see [[Help:How to fix your signature]]. When you insert your signature on your talk page or user page, a link to that page will appear black, bold and inactive, so test your signature elsewhere, such as the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]].
=== <span id="DL"></span>Disruptive links ===
{{shortcut|WP:SIG#DL}}
It is better to put information on your user page rather than in your signature. Brief additional internal links are generally tolerated when used to facilitate communication or to provide general information, but undesirable if seen as [[Wikipedia:canvassing|canvassing]] for some purpose.
Do not place any disruptive internal links (especially when combined with custom formatting, for example <span style="color:#002BB8; cursor:pointer; vertical-align:super;" title="this is just an example, and does not link to anything">CLICK HERE!!!</span>) in your signature.
=== <span id="EL"></span>External links ===
{{shortcut|WP:SIG#EL}}
{{strong|Do not include links to external websites in your signature.}}
Mass posting of links to a particular website is strongly discouraged on Wikipedia. Posting a link to an external website with each comment you make on a talk page could be taken as link spamming, or an attempt to improve your website's ranking on search engines (which doesn't actually work in the first place). If you want to tell other Wikipedians about a website with which you are associated, you can do so on your user page.
<div id="NoTemplates"><div id="NT">
===Transclusion of templates (or other pages)===
{{shortcut|WP:SIG#NoTemplates|WP:SIG#NT}}
* [[Wikipedia:Transclusion|Transclusions]] of [[Wikipedia:Template namespace|templates]], [[WP:LUA|Lua modules]], [[mw:Help:Extension:ParserFunctions|parser functions]], and [[Wikipedia:TemplateStyles|TemplateStyles]] in signatures (like those which appear as <code><nowiki>{{User:Name/sig}}</nowiki></code>, <code><nowiki>{{#invoke:...}}</nowiki></code>, <code><nowiki>{{#if:...}}</nowiki></code> or <code><nowiki><templatestyles ... /></nowiki></code>) are forbidden for the following reasons:
** Certain automated scripts (bots) are used to automatically archive particularly active talk pages. These bots read the source of the talk page, but don't transclude templates, and so don't recognize the template as a signature.
** Signature templates are vandalism targets, and will be forever, even if the user leaves the project.
** Signature templates are a small but unnecessary drain on the servers. Transcluded signatures require extra processing—whenever you change your signature source, all talk pages you have posted on must be [[Web cache|re-cached]].
** [[WP:PING|User mention notifications]] will not work if the mentioning user's signature is contained in a template.
** If you try to use a transcluded signature, it will automatically be converted to <nowiki>{{SUBST:User:Name/sig}}</nowiki>.
* [[WP:SUBST|Substitutions]] of templates in signatures is permissible but <u>discouraged</u>, as the template that is substituted may be vandalized without the user knowing.
** Users who choose to substitute their signature are {{strong|required}} to be {{strong|highly vigilant}} of their signature whenever they sign.
** Substitution must not be used to circumvent the normal restrictions on signature content, including the use of [[#Images|images]], [[#Appearance and color|obnoxious markup]], or [[#LENGTH|excessive length]].
Simple text signatures, which are stored along with the page content and use no more resources than the comments themselves, avoid these problems.
</div></div>
<div id="NoCAT">
=== Categories ===
{{shortcut|WP:SIG#NoCAT}}
Signatures must not contain [[Help:Category|categories]]. Categorizing talk pages by who has edited them is unhelpful, and the same information can be found by using [[Help:User contributions|your contributions list]]. Many of the various [[Wikipedia:WikiProject edit counters|edit counting utilities]] also provide this data.
</div>
<div id="Non-Latin"><div id="NL">
== Non-Latin usernames ==
{{see also|Wikipedia:Username policy#Usernames with non-Latin characters}}
{{shortcut|WP:NLS|WP:SIG#NL|WP:SIG#Non-Latin}}
Editors with non-[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] usernames are welcome to edit in Wikipedia. However, non-Latin scripts, such as Arabic, Armenian, Chinese, Cyrillic, Greek, Hebrew, Indic scripts, Japanese, Korean, Persian, Thai and others,<!--Please expand/reduce as you see fit--> are illegible to most other contributors of the English Wikipedia. Not everyone uses a keyboard that has immediate access to non-Latin characters, and names that cannot be pronounced may be difficult to remember. As a courtesy to the rest of the contributors, users with such usernames are encouraged to sign their posts (at least in part) with Latin characters. For an example refer to [[User:Παράδειγμα]] with the signature ''Παράδειγμα/Paradigma''.
A signature consisting of or ending with characters from a right-to-left script will appear (in modern browsers) when viewing pages as
:''--DD ,HH:MM NAME Month YYYY''
e.g.,
: --18 ,23:58 &lrm;שֵׁם&lrm; May 2016
and similarly misordered text in the edit box. Adding a [[Left-to-right mark|left-to-right marker symbol]], at the end of the raw signature (HTML code: <code>&amp;lrm;</code>), will resolve this. Or, if you include both Latin and a right-to-left script, such as Hebrew or Arabic, in your signature, consider putting Latin second, where it will be directly next to the timestamp.
</div></div>
== Dealing with unsigned comments ==
{{Redirect|WP:UNSIGNED|the actual template|Template:Unsigned}}
{{shortcut|WP:UNSIGNED}}
The templates {{tl|unsigned}} and {{tl|unsigned IP}} can be used at the end of an unsigned comment to attach the username or IP to the comment. None of these templates automatically populates (fills in) the name or IP of the poster or the time of the post. That information is best copied from the history page and pasted into the following templates. All of the unsigned templates must be [[WP:SUBST|substituted]].
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned|</nowiki><var>username or IP</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned|Example}}</nowiki></code>
|{{unsigned|Example|demo=yes}}
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned|</nowiki><var>username or IP</var><nowiki>|</nowiki><var>date</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned|Example|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|{{unsigned|Example|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)|demo=yes}}
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned IP|</nowiki><var>IP address</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned IP|127.0.0.1}}</nowiki></code>
|{{unsigned IP|127.0.0.1|demo=yes}}
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned IP|</nowiki><var>IP address</var><nowiki>|</nowiki><var>date</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned IP|127.0.0.1|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|{{unsigned IP|127.0.0.1|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)|demo=yes}}
|}
The templates {{tl|unsigned2}} and {{tl|unsignedIP2}} do almost the same as {{tl|unsigned}} and {{tl|unsigned IP}} when used with two parameters, but the ordering of the parameters is reversed. The resulting display is the same. These templates may be useful when copying and pasting from the edit history, where the timestamp appears before the username.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned2|</nowiki><var>date</var><nowiki>|</nowiki><var>username or ip</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsigned2|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)<nowiki>|Example}}</nowiki></code>
|{{unsigned2|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)|Example|demo=yes}}
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsignedIP2|</nowiki><var>date</var><nowiki>|</nowiki><var>IP address</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:unsignedIP2|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}<nowiki>|127.0.0.1}}</nowiki></code>
|{{unsignedIP2|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}|127.0.0.1|demo=yes}}
|}
The template {{tl|xsign}} is a wrapper for {{tl|unsigned}} and {{tl|unsigned IP}} that will parse the username and date string copied and pasted directly from the edit history. The resulting display is the same.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:xsign|</nowiki><var>date/username string</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:xsign|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} Example}}</code>
|{{xsign|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} Example|demo=yes}}
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:xsign|</nowiki><var>date/IP string</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:xsign|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} 127.0.0.1}}</code>
|{{xsign|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} 127.0.0.1|demo=yes}}
|}
It is also a good idea to notify users, especially new users, that they should sign their comments. You may use the template {{tl|uw-tilde}} on the user's talk page or one of the [[Wikipedia:Template messages/User talk namespace#Welcoming new users|welcome messages]] for new users.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:uw-tilde}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:uw-tilde}}</nowiki></code>
|{{uw-tilde|demo=yes}}
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:uw-tilde|</nowiki><var>Article</var><nowiki>|</nowiki><var>Additional text</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:uw-tilde|</nowiki>Article name<nowiki>|</nowiki>Comments go here.}}</code>
|{{uw-tilde|Article name|Comments go here.|demo=yes}}
|}
Also, the template {{tl|undated}} can be used at the end of comments where the user gave their username but no timestamp:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Wikimarkup !! Resulting code !! Resulting display
|-
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:undated|</nowiki><var>date</var><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|<code><nowiki>{{subst:undated|</nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>
|{{undated|{{CURRENTTIME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} (UTC)|demo=yes}}
|}
=== Automatic adding of signatures ===
The [[wp:bots|bot]] [[User:SineBot|SineBot]] signs comments on talkpages and pages in [[:Category:Non-talk pages that are automatically signed]], for unregistered users and users who have fewer than 800 edits. To re-enable autosigning of your unsigned comments, you can place {{tl|YesAutosign}} on your [[wp:user page|user page]] or user talk page.
== Dealing with problematic signatures ==
{{shortcut|WP:SIGPROB}}
Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Username policy|Username policy]] describes accepted practices and behavior in naming and operating a user account on Wikipedia that apply to both usernames and signatures. A purpose of your signature is to identify you as a contributor. If your signature is unnecessarily confusing, editors may request that you change it. Our guidelines for talk page usage also [[WP:TPO|permit editors to change signatures that contravene this guideline back to the standard form]]. An editor with a confusing signature may be blocked sooner than usual for other inappropriate behavior such as disruption or vandalism, if their confusing signature contributes to the disruption.
{{anchor|confusing}}Signatures that link to, but do not display, the user's username (for example by signing with a nickname, as in <kbd><nowiki>[[User:Example|User:Nickname]]</nowiki></kbd> or <kbd><nowiki>[[User:Example|Nickname]]</nowiki></kbd>) can be confusing for editors (particularly newcomers). The actual username always appears in the page history, so using just the nickname on the relevant talk page can make your signed comments appear to be from a different person. Alternatives include [[WP:CHU|changing your username]] and including your account name in addition to the username, e.g., in the form <kbd><nowiki>[[User:Example|User:Example]]/Nickname</nowiki></kbd>.
The timestamp must adhere to the system-generated format (<code>HH:MM, D MM YYYY (UTC)</code>) and must not be customized. This is necessary for clear communications and for archiving bots to function correctly<!-- as well as gadgets and the soon-WMF talk pages improvement work -->. Timestamps that are customized may be considered disruptive and editors using them may be blocked accordingly.
Persistent failure to sign after being reminded may become disruptive and be subject to sanctions.
==History==
[[UseModWiki]], the wiki software in use on the English Wikipedia from its inception to 25 January 2002, did not have markup to create a signature, so signatures had to be made manually where desired. (c.f., for example, several such signatures in [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Larry_Sanger/old&oldid=6644889 this diff] ''et al.'') The modern tilde feature was a part of the earliest MediaWiki coding from mid-2001; the original developer of MediaWiki, [[User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]], intended it to resemble scribbled physical signatures like that of his father.<ref group=Note>See [https://twitter.com/MagnusManske/status/1083507467802365952 this Twitter exchange] for further information.</ref> Images in signatures have been banned since 2006, but had been discouraged beforehand.
The concept of {{strong|not}} signing one's contributions to the main namespace has also not always been here. The first ever revision to the page [[WikiPedia]], from 15 January 2001, indicated that "You can [write an article] anonymously or give yourself credit," and indeed several pages from early 2001 have signatures at the end of them, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AlchemY&oldid=233236 here] and [https://reagle.org/joseph/2010/wp/redux/TestThreePhasePumps/981560160.html here].
== See also ==
* [[Wikipedia:Signature tutorial]]
* [[Help:Editing shortcuts]]
* [[Template:Uw-tilde]] – Note for talk page for user to sign comments
* [[Wikipedia:Use a custom signature]] (essay)
* [[Wikipedia:Use the default signature]] (essay)
* [[User:Kephir/gadgets/unclutter|Unclutter]] – for those tired of fancy signatures
* [[toolforge:signatures]] signature check
== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}
{{Wikipedia policies and guidelines}}
[[Category:Wikipedia how-to]]
[[Category:Wikipedia discussion]]
[[Category:Wikipedia project content guidelines]]
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