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Annexation of Hyderabad: Difference between revisions
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{{short description| | {{short description|1948 military invasion of Hyderabad State by the Dominion of India}} | ||
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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2015}} | {{Use Indian English|date=August 2015}} | ||
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| image = Hyderabad state from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909.jpg | | image = Hyderabad state from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909.jpg | ||
| image_size = 300px | | image_size = 300px | ||
| caption = The [[Hyderabad state|State of Hyderabad]] in 1909 (excluding [[Berar Province|Berar]]) | | caption = The [[Hyderabad state|State of Hyderabad]] in 1909 (excluding [[Berar Province|Berar]]) | ||
| date = 13–18 September 1948 | | date = 13–18 September 1948 | ||
| place = [[Hyderabad State]], (parts of [[South India|South]] and [[Western India]]) | | place = [[Hyderabad State]], (parts of [[South India|South]] and [[Western India]]) | ||
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*Responsible observers: 200,000 civilians killed{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=46}}<ref name=NooraniUntold/>}} | *Responsible observers: 200,000 civilians killed{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=46}}<ref name=NooraniUntold/>}} | ||
}} | }} | ||
<section begin=Lead /> | |||
'''Operation Polo''' was the code name of the Hyderabad "[[police action]]" in September 1948,<ref>{{cite web |newspaper=The Times of India |date=15 September 2019 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/hyderabad-had-tried-nrc-71-years-ago-and-failed/articleshow/71132138.cms|title=Hyderabad had tried 'NRC' 71 years ago, and failed}}</ref> by the then newly independent [[Dominion of India]] against [[Hyderabad State]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyderabad Police Action |url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=nmnz/S66ueKkrJc8PBO1kw==&ParentID=z2xdy5FtH8G+oZz4hw/CKg== |publisher=Indian Army |access-date=13 September 2014}}</ref> It was a military operation in which the [[Indian Armed Forces]] invaded the [[Nizam]]-ruled princely state, annexing it into the [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]].<ref>{{cite book|author=B. Cohen|title=Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850–1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZKHDAAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-60344-8|pages=159–161}}</ref> | '''Operation Polo''' was the code name of the Hyderabad "[[police action]]" in September 1948,<ref>{{cite web |newspaper=The Times of India |date=15 September 2019 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/hyderabad-had-tried-nrc-71-years-ago-and-failed/articleshow/71132138.cms|title=Hyderabad had tried 'NRC' 71 years ago, and failed}}</ref> by the then newly independent [[Dominion of India]] against [[Hyderabad State]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyderabad Police Action |url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=nmnz/S66ueKkrJc8PBO1kw==&ParentID=z2xdy5FtH8G+oZz4hw/CKg== |publisher=Indian Army |access-date=13 September 2014}}</ref> It was a military operation in which the [[Indian Armed Forces]] invaded the [[Nizam]]-ruled princely state, annexing it into the [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]].<ref>{{cite book|author=B. Cohen|title=Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850–1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZKHDAAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-60344-8|pages=159–161}}</ref> | ||
At the time of [[Partition of India|Partition]] in 1947, the [[princely state]]s of India, who in principle had self-government within their own territories, were subject to [[subsidiary alliance]]s with the British, giving them control of their external relations. | At the time of [[Partition of India|Partition]] in 1947, the [[princely state]]s of India, who in principle had self-government within their own territories, were subject to [[subsidiary alliance]]s with the British, giving them control of their external relations. With the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]], the British abandoned all such alliances, leaving the states with the option of opting for full independence.<ref name=Mehotra>{{cite book |last1=Mehrotra |first1=S.R. |title=Towards Indias Freedom And Partition |date=1979 |publisher=Vikash Publishing House |location=Delhi |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.100154/page/n259 247] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.100154 |access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref><ref>See Section 7 (1) (b): "the suzerainty of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in force at the date of the passing of this Act between His Majesty and the rulers of Indian States, all functions exercisable by His Majesty at that date with respect to Indian States, all obligations of His Majesty existing at that date towards Indian States or the rulers thereof, and all powers, rights, authority or jurisdiction exercisable by His Majesty at that date in or in relation to Indian States by treaty, grant, usage, sufferance or otherwise."</ref> However, by 1948 almost all had [[Instrument of Accession|acceded]] to either India or Pakistan. One major exception was that of the wealthiest and most powerful principality, Hyderabad, where the Nizam, ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'' [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII]], a Muslim ruler who presided over a largely Hindu population, chose independence and hoped to maintain this with an [[Hyderabad army|irregular army]].<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2006">{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC|year=2006|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521682251}}</ref>{{rp|224}} The Nizam was also beset by the [[Telangana uprising]], which he was unable to subjugate.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2006"/>{{rp|224}} | ||
In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] with the | In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] with the Dominion of India, continuing all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state. Fearing the establishment of a Communist state in Hyderabad<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-15|title=Delhi felt Razakars, communists a threat to India|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/150918/delhi-felt-razakars-communists-a-threat-to-india.html|access-date=2021-02-04|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref> and the rise of militant [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]], India invaded the state in September 1948 following a crippling economic blockade.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New book on Hyderabad's Invasion, 1948's Police Action|url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/13-books/15587-new-book-on-hyderabad-s-invasion-1948-s-police-action/|access-date=2021-02-04|website=The Milli Gazette — Indian Muslims Leading News Source|language=en}}</ref><ref name=ShermanLSE/> Subsequently, the Nizam signed an instrument of accession, joining India.{{sfn|Chandra|Mukherjee|Mukherjee|2008|p=96}} | ||
The operation led to massive violence on communal lines, often perpetrated by the Indian | The operation led to massive violence on communal lines, often perpetrated by the Indian Army.<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/> The Indian prime minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], appointed a commission known as the '''Sunderlal Committee'''. Its report, which was not released until 2013, concluded that "as a very reasonable & modest estimate...the total number of deaths in the state...somewhere between 30,000 & 40,000."<ref name=Sunderlal>{{harvnb|Noorani|2014|loc=Appendix 15: Confidential notes attached to the Sunderlal Committee Report, pp. 372–373}}</ref> Other responsible observers estimated the number of deaths to be 200,000 or higher.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=46}}<section end=Lead /> | ||
== Background == | == Background == | ||
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==Events preceding hostilities== | ==Events preceding hostilities== | ||
{{Main|Political | {{Main|Political integration of India|Partition of India}} | ||
===Political and diplomatic negotiations=== | ===Political and diplomatic negotiations=== | ||
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According to the writer [[A. G. Noorani]], Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]]'s concern was to defeat what he called Hyderabad's "secessionist venture", but he favoured talks and considered military option as a last resort. [[Vallabhbhai Patel|Sardar Patel]] of the [[Indian National Congress]], however, took a hard line, and had no patience with talks.{{sfn|Noorani|2014|pp=213–4}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=VENKATESHWARLU|first1=K.|title=Destructive merger|journal=Frontline|issue=19 September 2014|url=http://www.frontline.in/books/destructive-merger/article6365005.ece?homepage=true}}</ref> | According to the writer [[A. G. Noorani]], Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]]'s concern was to defeat what he called Hyderabad's "secessionist venture", but he favoured talks and considered military option as a last resort. [[Vallabhbhai Patel|Sardar Patel]] of the [[Indian National Congress]], however, took a hard line, and had no patience with talks.{{sfn|Noorani|2014|pp=213–4}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=VENKATESHWARLU|first1=K.|title=Destructive merger|journal=Frontline|issue=19 September 2014|url=http://www.frontline.in/books/destructive-merger/article6365005.ece?homepage=true}}</ref> | ||
Accordingly, the Indian government offered Hyderabad a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] which made an assurance that the status quo would be maintained and no military action would be taken for one year. According to this agreement India would handle Hyderabad's foreign affairs, but Indian Army troops stationed in Secunderabad would be removed.<ref name=ShermanLSE/> In Hyderabad city there was huge demonstration by Razakars led by Syed Qasim Razvi in October 1947, against the administration's decision to sign Standstill Agreement. This demonstration in front of the houses of the Prime Minister, Nawab of Chattari | Accordingly, the Indian government offered Hyderabad a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] which made an assurance that the status quo would be maintained and no military action would be taken for one year. According to this agreement India would handle Hyderabad's foreign affairs, but Indian Army troops stationed in Secunderabad would be removed.<ref name=ShermanLSE/> In Hyderabad city there was huge demonstration by Razakars led by Syed Qasim Razvi in October 1947, against the administration's decision to sign Standstill Agreement. This demonstration in front of the houses of the main negotiators, the Prime Minister, [[Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari|the Nawab of Chattari]], Sir [[Walter Monckton]], advisor to the Nizam, and Minister Nawab Ali Nawaz Jung, forced them to call off their Delhi visit to sign the agreement at that time.<ref>{{Cite news |first=K. |last=Venkateshwarlu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/how-the-nizam-lost-hyderabad-in-1948/article3765710.ece|title=How the Nizam lost Hyderabad in 1948|date=14 August 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=20 June 2018}}</ref> | ||
Hyderabad violated all clauses of the agreement: in external affairs, by carrying out intrigues with Pakistan, to which it secretly loaned 15 million pounds; in defence, by building up a large semi-private army; in communications, by interfering with the traffic at the borders and the through traffic of Indian railways.{{sfnp|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=480–481}} India was also accused of violating the agreement by imposing an economic blockade. It turned out that the state of [[Bombay State|Bombay]] was interfering with supplies to Hyderabad without the knowledge of Delhi. The Government promised to take up the matter with the provincial governments, but scholar Lucien Benichou states that it was never done. There were also delays in arms shipments to Hyderabad from India.<ref>{{harvp|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=480–481}}; {{harvp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=77}}; {{harvp|Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration|2000|pp=214–215}}</ref> | Hyderabad violated all clauses of the agreement: in external affairs, by carrying out intrigues with Pakistan, to which it secretly loaned 15 million pounds; in defence, by building up a large semi-private army; in communications, by interfering with the traffic at the borders and the through traffic of Indian railways.{{sfnp|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=480–481}} India was also accused of violating the agreement by imposing an economic blockade. It turned out that the state of [[Bombay State|Bombay]] was interfering with supplies to Hyderabad without the knowledge of Delhi. The Government promised to take up the matter with the provincial governments, but scholar Lucien Benichou states that it was never done. There were also delays in arms shipments to Hyderabad from India.<ref>{{harvp|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=480–481}}; {{harvp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=77}}; {{harvp|Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration|2000|pp=214–215}}</ref> | ||
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On 16 September, faced with imminent defeat, [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'' [[Osman Ali Khan|Sir Osman Ali Khan]] summoned his Prime Minister, ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'' [[Mir Laiq Ali|Laiq Ali]], and requested his resignation by the morning of the following day. The resignation was delivered along with the resignations of the entire cabinet. | On 16 September, faced with imminent defeat, [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'' [[Osman Ali Khan|Sir Osman Ali Khan]] summoned his Prime Minister, ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'' [[Mir Laiq Ali|Laiq Ali]], and requested his resignation by the morning of the following day. The resignation was delivered along with the resignations of the entire cabinet. | ||
On the noon of 17 September, a messenger brought a personal note from the Nizam to India's [[Agent General]] to Hyderabad, [[K.M. Munshi]], summoning him to the Nizam's office at 1600 hours. At the meeting, the Nizam stated "The vultures have resigned. I don't know what to do". Munshi advised the Nizam to secure the safety of the citizens of Hyderabad by issuing appropriate orders to the Commander of the Hyderabad State Army, [[Major-General]] [[Syed Ahmed El Edroos|El Edroos]]. This was immediately done. | On the noon of 17 September, a messenger brought a personal note from the Nizam to India's [[Agent General]] to Hyderabad, [[Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi|K. M. Munshi]], summoning him to the Nizam's office at 1600 hours. At the meeting, the Nizam stated "The vultures have resigned. I don't know what to do". Munshi advised the Nizam to secure the safety of the citizens of Hyderabad by issuing appropriate orders to the Commander of the Hyderabad State Army, [[Major-General]] [[Syed Ahmed El Edroos|El Edroos]]. This was immediately done. | ||
===Radio broadcast after surrender by the Nizam=== | ===Radio broadcast after surrender by the Nizam=== | ||
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== Communal violence during and after the operation == | == Communal violence during and after the operation == | ||
{{Main| | {{Main|Hyderabad Massacre}} | ||
<section begin=communalLater /> | <section begin=communalLater /> | ||
There were reports of [[looting]], [[mass murder]] and [[rape]] of Muslims in reprisals by Hyderabadi Hindus.<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/><ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.84"/> Jawaharlal Nehru appointed a mixed-faith committee led by Pandit [[Sunder Lal]] to investigate the situation. The findings of the report ('''Pandit Sunderlal Committee Report''') were not made public until 2013 when it was accessed from the [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library|Nehru Memorial Museum and Library]] in [[New Delhi]].<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/><ref>{{citation |title=Lessons to learn from Hyderabad's past |newspaper=The Times of India |date=16 December 2013 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Lessons-to-learn-from-Hyderabads-past/articleshow/27390337.cms |id={{proquest|1468149022}}}}</ref> | There were reports of [[looting]], [[mass murder]] and [[rape]] of Muslims in reprisals by Hyderabadi Hindus.<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/><ref name="Kate, P. V. 1948, p.84"/> Jawaharlal Nehru appointed a mixed-faith committee led by Pandit [[Sunder Lal]] to investigate the situation. The findings of the report ('''Pandit Sunderlal Committee Report''') were not made public until 2013 when it was accessed from the [[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library|Nehru Memorial Museum and Library]] in [[New Delhi]].<ref name="BBC Hyderabad 1948"/><ref>{{citation |title=Lessons to learn from Hyderabad's past |newspaper=The Times of India |date=16 December 2013 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Lessons-to-learn-from-Hyderabads-past/articleshow/27390337.cms |id={{proquest|1468149022}}}}</ref> | ||
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* {{citation |first=Lucien D. |last=Benichou |title=From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938-1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Loiq3YrFy40C&pg=PA214 |year=2000 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-1847-6 |ref={{sfnref|Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration|2000}}}} | * {{citation |first=Lucien D. |last=Benichou |title=From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938-1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Loiq3YrFy40C&pg=PA214 |year=2000 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-1847-6 |ref={{sfnref|Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration|2000}}}} | ||
* {{citation |first=Mohammed |last=Hyder |title=October Coup, A Memoir of the Struggle for Hyderabad |publisher=Roli Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-8174368508 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdumBAAAQBAJ}} | * {{citation |first=Mohammed |last=Hyder |title=October Coup, A Memoir of the Struggle for Hyderabad |publisher=Roli Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-8174368508 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdumBAAAQBAJ}} | ||
* {{citation |last=Hodson |first=H. V. |title=The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2UoAEACAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=Hutchinson |location=London |ref={{sfnref|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969}}}} | * {{citation |last=Hodson |first=H. V. |title=The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2UoAEACAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=Hutchinson |location=London |isbn=9780090971503 |ref={{sfnref|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969}}}} | ||
* {{citation |first=V. P. |last=Menon |title=The Story of Integration of the Indian States |publisher=Orient Longman |year=1956 |url=https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf}} | * {{citation |first=V. P. |last=Menon |title=The Story of Integration of the Indian States |publisher=Orient Longman |year=1956 |url=https://hidf1.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/the-story-of-the-integration-of-the-indian-states-by-v-p-menon.pdf}} | ||
* {{cite journal |first=Sukumar |last=Muralidharan |title=Alternate Histories: Hyderabad 1948 Compels a Fresh Evaluation of the Theology of India's Independence and Partition |journal=[[History and Sociology of South Asia]] |year=2014 |volume=8 |number=2 |pages=119–138 |doi=10.1177/2230807514524091 |s2cid=153722788 }} | * {{cite journal |first=Sukumar |last=Muralidharan |title=Alternate Histories: Hyderabad 1948 Compels a Fresh Evaluation of the Theology of India's Independence and Partition |journal=[[History and Sociology of South Asia]] |year=2014 |volume=8 |number=2 |pages=119–138 |doi=10.1177/2230807514524091 |s2cid=153722788 }} | ||