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Pokhran-II: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description| | {{Short description|Successful nuclear test series by India in May 1998}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2016}} | {{Use Indian English|date=December 2016}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}} | ||
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== India's nuclear bomb project == | == India's nuclear bomb project == | ||
Efforts towards building the [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]], infrastructure, and research on related [[Nuclear technology|technologies]] have been undertaken by India since [[World War II]]. Origins of [[Indian nuclear programme|India's nuclear program]] date back to 1944 when [[Nuclear Physics|nuclear physicist]] [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] began persuading the [[Indian National Congress|Indian Congress]] towards the harnessing of [[Nuclear power in India|nuclear energy]]— a year later he established the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (TIFR).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Homi Bhabha and how World War II was responsible for creating India's nuclear future|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/homi-bhabha-and-how-world-war-ii-was-responsible-for-creating-indias-nuclear-future/312842/|website=The print}}</ref> | Efforts towards building the [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]], infrastructure, and research on related [[Nuclear technology|technologies]] have been undertaken by India since [[World War II]]. Origins of [[Indian nuclear programme|India's nuclear program]] date back to 1944 when [[Nuclear Physics|nuclear physicist]] [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] began persuading the [[Indian National Congress|Indian Congress Party]] towards the harnessing of [[Nuclear power in India|nuclear energy]]— a year later he established the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (TIFR).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Homi Bhabha and how World War II was responsible for creating India's nuclear future|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/homi-bhabha-and-how-world-war-ii-was-responsible-for-creating-indias-nuclear-future/312842/|website=The print}}</ref> | ||
In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]] and plans were developed to produce [[plutonium]] and other [[bomb]] components. In 1962, India and [[People's Republic of China|China]] [[Sino-Indian War|engaged]] in the disputed [[Northern India|northern front]], and was further intimidated with a Chinese [[596 (nuclear test)|nuclear test]] in 1964. Direction towards [[militarisation]] of the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]] slowed down when [[Vikram Sarabhai]] became its head and [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] showed little interest after becoming the [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] in that year.<ref name=":1" /> | In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]] and plans were developed to produce [[plutonium]] and other [[bomb]] components. In 1962, India and [[People's Republic of China|China]] [[Sino-Indian War|engaged]] in the disputed [[Northern India|northern front]], and was further intimidated with a Chinese [[596 (nuclear test)|nuclear test]] in 1964. Direction towards [[militarisation]] of the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]] slowed down when [[Vikram Sarabhai]] became its head and [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] showed little interest after becoming the [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] in that year.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
After [[Indira Gandhi]] became [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] in 1966, the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]] was consolidated when [[ | After [[Indira Gandhi]] became [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] in 1966, the [[Indian nuclear programme|nuclear program]] was consolidated when [[physicist]] [[Raja Ramanna]] joined the efforts. Another [[Test No. 6|nuclear test]] by China eventually led to India's decision to build [[nuclear weapon]]s in 1967 and conduct its first nuclear test, [[Smiling Buddha]], in 1974.<ref name=Bates>{{cite book|last=Bates|first=Crispin|title=Subalterns and Raj: South Asia Since 1600|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-21484-1|page=343}}</ref> | ||
=== Post-Smiling Buddha === | === Post-Smiling Buddha === | ||
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[[File:Tracking Nuclear Proliferation, India.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Marine Corps Intelligence Activity|US Marine Intelligence]] maps showing the Indian test site, 1997.]] | [[File:Tracking Nuclear Proliferation, India.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Marine Corps Intelligence Activity|US Marine Intelligence]] maps showing the Indian test site, 1997.]] | ||
Unlike Pakistan's [[Nuclear test site|weapon–testing laboratories]], there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at [[Pokhran]].<ref name="India Today">{{cite news | title = Books: Weapons of Peace—How the CIA was Fooled | newspaper = India Today | url = http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html | access-date = 30 October 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160112002020/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html | archive-date = 12 January 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Unlike the | Unlike Pakistan's [[Nuclear test site|weapon–testing laboratories]], there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at [[Pokhran]].<ref name="India Today">{{cite news | title = Books: Weapons of Peace—How the CIA was Fooled | newspaper = India Today | url = http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html | access-date = 30 October 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160112002020/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.html | archive-date = 12 January 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Unlike the high-altitude [[Mountain ranges of Pakistan|granite mountains]] in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the [[Rajasthan Desert]] don't provide much cover from [[Surveillance satellite|probing satellites]].<ref name="India Today" /> The [[Indian Intelligence Agency]] had been aware of United States [[Nuclear MASINT|spy satellites]] and the [[CIA]] had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995. Therefore, the tests required complete [[secrecy]] in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries.<ref name="India Today" /> The [[58th Engineer Regiment (India)|58th Engineer Regiment]] of the [[Indian Army Corps of Engineers]] was commissioned to prepare the test sites to avoid detection by the United States [[Nuclear MASINT|spy satellites]]. The 58th Engineer's commander [[Colonel]] Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy."<ref name="India Today" /> | ||
Extensive planning was done by a small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the [[Indian government]] didn't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)]], [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam|Dr. Abdul Kalam]], and [[R. Chidambaram|Dr. R. Chidambaram]], the Director of the [[Department of Atomic Energy|Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)]], were the chief coordinators of this test planning.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> The scientists and engineers of the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)]], the [[Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research|Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER)]], and the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)]] were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and data collection.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> A small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process. All scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned how to avoid satellite detection.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> | Extensive planning was done by a small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the [[Indian government]] didn't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)]], [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam|Dr. Abdul Kalam]], and [[R. Chidambaram|Dr. R. Chidambaram]], the Director of the [[Department of Atomic Energy|Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)]], were the chief coordinators of this test planning.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> The scientists and engineers of the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)]], the [[Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research|Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER)]], and the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)]] were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and data collection.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> A small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process. All scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned how to avoid satellite detection.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.<ref name="Nuclear politics" /> | ||
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In keeping with its preferred approach to [[Foreign policy of the clinton administration|foreign policy]] in [[History of the United States (1991–present)|recent decades]], and in compliance with the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|1994 anti-proliferation law]], the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.<ref name="BBC America">{{cite news|last=BBC Release|title=US imposes sanctions on India|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92797.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|publisher=BBC America|date=13 May 1998}}</ref> The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/13/india.us/ | publisher=CNN | title=U.S. imposes sanctions on India}}</ref> | In keeping with its preferred approach to [[Foreign policy of the clinton administration|foreign policy]] in [[History of the United States (1991–present)|recent decades]], and in compliance with the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|1994 anti-proliferation law]], the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.<ref name="BBC America">{{cite news|last=BBC Release|title=US imposes sanctions on India|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/india_nuclear_testing/92797.stm|access-date=17 January 2013|publisher=BBC America|date=13 May 1998}}</ref> The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/13/india.us/ | publisher=CNN | title=U.S. imposes sanctions on India}}</ref> | ||
From | From 1998 to 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming [[Party (politics)|party]] of the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|CTBT]] and [[Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]].<ref name="South Asia analysis">{{cite web|last1=Chandrasekharan|first1=S.|title=CTBT : where does India stand?|url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper8#sthash.0vCRukPh.dpuf|website=southasiaanalysis.org/|publisher=South Asia analysis|access-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the [[rollback]] of [[Indian nuclear programme|India's nuclear program]].<ref name="arms control interview">{{cite web|title=Clarifying India's Nascent Nuclear Doctrine|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/1999_12/jsde99|website=armscontrol.org/|publisher=arms control interview|access-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> India took a firm stand against the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|CTBT]] and refusing to be signatory [[Party (politics)|party]] of it despite under pressure by the [[United States President|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]], and noted the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|treaty]] as it was not consistent with India's national security interest.<ref name="arms control interview" /> | ||
=== UN condemnation === | === UN condemnation === | ||
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== In popular culture == | == In popular culture == | ||
* ''[[Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran]]'' is a 2018 [[Bollywood]] movie based on India's underground Pokhran-II nuclear tests. | * ''[[Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran]]'' is a 2018 [[Bollywood]] movie based on India's underground Pokhran-II nuclear tests. | ||
* ''[[War and Peace (2002 film)|War and Peace]]'': A documentary by [[Anand Patwardhan]].<ref>{{Citation|last=SatyaShodak|title=War and Peace—Anand Patwardhan|date=2017-12-18|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSieC-Qbeb8|access-date=2019-06-01}}</ref> | * ''[[War and Peace (2002 film)|War and Peace]]'': A documentary by [[Anand Patwardhan]].<ref>{{Citation|last=SatyaShodak|title=War and Peace—Anand Patwardhan|date=2017-12-18|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSieC-Qbeb8|access-date=2019-06-01}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links}}</ref> | ||
== See also == | == See also == | ||