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#REDIRECT [[Islam#Islam_in_the_world]]
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{short description|Overview of the role of the Islam in India}}
{{Infobox religious group
| group      = Indian Muslims (ہندوستانی مسلمان)
| population = '''172.2 million'''<ref name=bynumbers>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|title=India's religions by numbers|newspaper=The Hindu|date=26 August 2015|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> <br/> '''14.2%''' of population(2011) {{increase}}
|region1    = [[Islam in Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]]
|pop1      = 38,400,000<ref name="census-numbers">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|title=India's religions by numbers|date=2015-08-26|work=The Hindu|access-date=2020-01-04|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name="census-2011">{{Cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2020-01-04}}</ref><ref name="statista-numbers">{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/616679/muslim-population-by-state-and-union-territory-india/|title=India - Muslim population 2011|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2020-02-20}}</ref>
|region2    = [[Islam in West Bengal|West Bengal]]
|pop2      = 24,600,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region3    = [[Islam in Bihar|Bihar]]
|pop3      = 17,500,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region4    = [[Islam in Maharashtra|Maharashtra]]
|pop4      = 12,900,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region5    = [[Islam in Assam|Assam]]
|pop5      = 10,600,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region6    = [[Islam in Kerala|Kerala]]
|pop6      = 8,800,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region7    = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
|pop7      = 8,500,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region8    = [[Karnataka]]
|pop8      = 7,800,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region9    = [[Islam in Rajasthan|Rajasthan]]
|pop9      = 6,200,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
|region10  = [[Gujarat]]
|pop10      = 5,800,000<ref name=census-numbers/><ref name=census-2011/><ref name=statista-numbers/>
| languages  = {{Plainlist|
* '''Predominant spoken language'''<br>{{Hlist| [[Urdu]]}}
*'''Recognized regional languages'''<br>{{Hlist|[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Maharashtrian Konkani]], [[Beary language|Beary]], [[Malvani Konkani]], [[Meitei language|Pangon]], and other [[languages of India]]}}
* '''Traditional language'''<br>{{Hlist| [[Arwi]], [[Arabi Malayalam]]}}
*'''Sacred language'''<br>{{Hlist|[[Arabic]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |year=2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-17702-4 |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030}}</ref> }}
}}
|rels= [[Islam]] (vast majority [[Sunni]] and significant minority [[Shia]])
}}
{{Islam in India}}
{{Islam by country}}
[[Islam]] is [[India#Demographics, languages, and religion|the second-largest religion]] in [[India]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/jammu-and-kashmir-the-view-from-india-29991|title=Jammu and Kashmir: The view from India|website=Jammu and Kashmir: The view from India|language=en|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref> with 14.2% of the country's population, approximately 172.2 million people,<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-08-26|title=India's religions by numbers|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|access-date=2021-02-18|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> identifying as adherents of Islam in the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Muslim-population-growth-slows/article10336665.ece|title=Muslim population growth slows|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/india-has-79-8-percent-hindus-14-2-percent-muslims-2011-census-data-on-religion-2407708.html|title=India has 79.8% Hindus, 14.2% Muslims, says 2011 census data on religion|date=2015-08-26|work=Firstpost|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-US}}</ref> It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outside [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority]] countries. The majority of Indian Muslims belong to the [[Sunni]] sect of Islam, while the [[Shia]] form a sizeable minority.
 
'''Islam in India''' existed in communities along the Arab coastal trade routes on the western shoreline of India particularly in [[Gujarat]], and [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] as soon as the religion originated and had gained early acceptance in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], though the first incursion through sea by the new Muslim successor states of the [[Arab World]] occurred around 636 [[Common Era|CE]] or 643 AD, during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], long before any Arab army reached the frontier of India by land. The Barwada Mosque in [[Ghogha]], [[Gujarat]] built before 623 CE, [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]] (629 CE) in [[Methala]], [[Kerala]] and [[Palaiya Jumma Palli]] (or The Old Jumma Masjid - 628 - 630 CE) in [[Kilakarai]], [[Tamil Nadu]] are three of [[List of mosques in India|the first mosques in India]] which were built by [[seafaring]] [[Arabs|Arab]] [[merchant]]s.<ref>Prof.Mehboob Desai,''Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam, Divy Bhasakar, Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May, page 4''</ref><ref>Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad, July 2012, P 444</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms|title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat|date=5 November 2016|work=The Times of India|access-date=28 July 2019}} {{verify source|date=August 2019|reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/911246496]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/911172027]] cite #21 - please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/indias-oldest-mosque-and-growing-irrelevance-of-muslim-vote-in-gujarat/articleshow/61985802.cms|title=India's oldest mosque and growing irrelevance of Muslim vote in Gujarat {{!}} Ahmedabad News|date=8 December 2017|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2019-07-28}} {{verify source|date=August 2019|reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/911246496]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/911172027]] cite #22 - please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gujaratexpert.com/blog/muslim-religious-places-in-gujarat/|title=Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat|last=Sharma|first=Indu|date=2018-03-22|website=Gujarat Travel Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-28}} {{verify source|date=August 2019|reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/911246496]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/911172027]] cite #23 - please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> Islam arrived in the inland of [[Indian subcontinent]] in the 7th century when the Arabs conquered [[Sindh]] and later arrived in [[North India]] in the 12th century via the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids conquest]] and has since become a part of India's [[Culture of India|religious and cultural heritage]].<ref name="Information of Pakistan">{{cite web |url=http://www.infopak.gov.pk/History.aspx |title=History in Chronological Order |publisher=Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan |access-date=15 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723113602/http://infopak.gov.pk/History.aspx |archive-date=23 July 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/735610/figuring-qasim-how-pakistan-was-won |title=Figuring Qasim: How Pakistan was won |work=Dawn|access-date=19 February 2015|date=19 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1175127/the-first-pakistani |title=The first Pakistani? |work=Dawn|access-date=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1098562/muhammad-bin-qasim-predator-or-preacher |title=Muhammad Bin Qasim: Predator or preacher? |work=Dawn|access-date=19 February 2015|date=8 April 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/721012/the-curious-case-of-dressing-up-an-8th-century-arab-as-the-true-founder-of-pakistan|title=Why some in Pakistan want to replace Jinnah as the founder of the country with an 8th century Arab|last=Paracha|first=Nadeem F.|work=Scroll.in|access-date=9 January 2018}}</ref>
 
The [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the [[Mughal Empire]] have ruled most of South Asia and the [[Bengal Sultanate]], the [[Deccan sultanates]] and the [[Sur Empire]] have played major economic and political roles. The peak of the [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic rule in India]] was marked under the [[sharia]] and [[proto-industrialization|proto-industrialised]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650-1800, (Volume 1)|author=Abhay Kumar Singh|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2006|isbn=9788172112011}}</ref> reign of emperor [[Aurangzeb]], [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)#Indian empires|the world's largest economy]], upon the compilation and establishment of the [[Fatawa Alamgiri]].<ref name="Richards1996p130">{{cite book |title=The Mughal Empire |series=The New Cambridge History of India |volume=5 |first=John F. |last=Richards |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780521566032 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA1 |page=130 |access-date=28 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb : The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King|last=Truschke|first=Audrey|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|year=2017|isbn=9781503602595|chapter=Chapter 1: Introducing Aurangzeb|chapter-url=https://www.sup.org/books/extra/?id=28067&i=Chapter%201.html|access-date=17 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Roy|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref> The re-introduction of further Islamic policies by [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore King]] [[Tipu Sultan]] and [[Arakkal kingdom]] based at [[Kannur]]<ref>Logan, William (2006). Malabar Manual, Mathrubhumi Books, Calicut. {{ISBN|978-81-8264-046-7}}</ref> contributed to [[South Indian culture]].<ref name="mehta">{{cite book|title=Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle|author=Binita Mehta|publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]]|year=2002|pages=110–111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wK1fAwgOercC&pg=PA110|isbn=9780838754559}}</ref><ref name="pande">{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies|author=B. N. Pande|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgbXAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9788185220383}}</ref> The [[Hyderabad State]] ruled by the [[Nizams]] served as the last self-governing princely state of India until its [[Annexation of Hyderabad|annexation]] by the [[Dominion of India]]. Over the centuries, there has been significant integration of [[Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] cultures across India<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js8qHFVw2gEC|title=The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century|last=Dunn|first=Ross E.|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520931718|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRSC_uTGhZ8C|title=India: From Midnight to the Millennium and Beyond|last=Tharoor |first=Shashi|date=2006|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=978-1559708036|language=en}}</ref> and Muslims have played a notable role in the economics, politics, and culture of India.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqdJ7LlfVWUC&pg=PA1|title=Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims|last=Madani|first=Mohsen Saeidi|date=1993|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-8185880150|pages=1 |language=en}}</ref>
 
==History==
===Origins===
The vast majority of the Muslims in India belong to [[South Asian ethnic groups]]. However, some Indian Muslims were found with detectable, traceable, minor to some levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Journal of Human Genetics |url=http://www.nature.com/jhg/journal/v54/n6/full/jhg200938a.html |title=Diverse genetic origin of Indian Muslims: evidence from autosomal STR loci |journal=Nature |date=8 May 2009 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=340–348 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2009.38 |pmid=19424286 |s2cid=153224 |access-date=14 September 2010|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="genestudy"/><ref name="Kashif-ul-Huda">{{cite web|author=Kashif-ul-Huda |url=http://www.radianceweekly.com/57/407/draught-of-character-in-the-high-ups/2007-05-06/science-amp-technology/story-detail/genetically-indianstory--of-indian-muslims.html |title=Genetically Indian: Story of Indian Muslims |publisher=Radiance Viewsweekly |date=6 May 2007 |access-date=18 March 2011}}</ref> However, they are found in very low levels.<ref name="Kashif-ul-Huda"/> Sources indicate that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of the concept of Kafa'a.<ref name="EoI">[[John Burton-Page|Burton-Page, J.]], [http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-2884 Hindū], ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Edited by: [[Peri Bearman|P. Bearman]], Th. Bianquis, [[C. E. Bosworth]], E. van Donzel and [[W. P. Heinrichs]]. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.</ref><ref>Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, p. 66</ref><ref name="Sikand">{{cite web |last=Singh Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Caste in Indian Muslim Society |publisher=[[Hamdard University]] |url=http://stateless.freehosting.net/Caste%20in%20Indian%20Muslim%20Society.htm |access-date=18 October 2006 }}</ref> Those who are referred to as [[Ashraf]]s (see also [[Sharif]]) are presumed to have a superior status derived from their foreign [[Arabs|Arab]] ancestry,<ref name="pratap_caste">{{cite book| last = Aggarwal|first = Patrap|title = Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India|publisher=Manohar|year = 1978 }}</ref><ref name="zarina_social_strat">{{cite book
|last        = Bhatty
|first      = Zarina
|editor      = M N Srinivas
|title      = Caste: Its Twentieth Century Avatar
|access-date  = 12 June 2007
|year        = 1996
|publisher  = Viking, Penguin Books India
|isbn        = 0-14-025760-8
|pages      = 249–253
|chapter    = Social Stratification Among Muslims in India
|chapter-url  = http://www.anti-caste.org/muslim_question/caste/bhatty_article.html
|url-status    = dead
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070312061216/http://www.anti-caste.org/muslim_question/caste/bhatty_article.html
|archive-date = 12 March 2007}}</ref> while the Ajlafs are assumed to be converts from [[Hinduism]], and have a lower status.
 
Many of these ulema also believed that it is best to marry within one own caste. The practice of endogamous marriage in one's caste is strictly observed in India.<ref name="dalitmuslims.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.dalitmuslims.com/2008/08/caste-and-social-hierarchy-among-indian.html |title=Pasmanda Muslim Forum: Caste and Social Hierarchy Among Indian Muslims: M.A.Falahi (Interview) |publisher=Dalitmuslims.com |date=10 August 2008 |access-date=14 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708221902/http://www.dalitmuslims.com/2008/08/caste-and-social-hierarchy-among-indian.html |archive-date=8 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BsBEgVa804IC&q=kasai+caste&pg=PA942 |title=People of India: Maharashtra |via= Google Books |access-date=14 September 2010|isbn=978-81-7991-101-3|year=2004|last1=Bhanu |first1=B. V. }}</ref> In two of the three genetic studies referenced here, in which is described that samples were taken from several regions of India's Muslim communities, it was again found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated, with some having minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the Arabian peninsula.<ref name="genestudy">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2009/10/the-mostly-south-asian-origins-of-indian-muslims/|title=The mostly South Asian origins of Indian Muslims|work=Gene Expression|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>
 
A research regarding the comparison of Y chromosomes of Indian Muslims with other Indian groups was published in 2005.<ref name="genestudy"/><ref name="Kashif-ul-Huda"/> In this study 124 Sunnis and 154 Shias of Uttar Pradesh were randomly selected for their genetic evaluation. Other than Muslims, Hindu higher and middle caste group members were also selected for the genetic analysis. Out of 1021 samples in this study, only 17 samples showed E haplogroup and all of them were Shias. The very minor increased frequency however, does place these Shias, solely with regards to their haplogroups, closer to Iraqis, Turks and Palestinians.<ref name="genestudy"/><ref name="Kashif-ul-Huda"/>
 
===Early history of Islam in India===
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]]
[[File:Cheraman jumamasjid.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Cheraman Juma Masjid|Cheraman Perumal Juma Masjid]] on the Malabar Coast, probably the first Mosque in India.]]
Trade relations have existed between Arabia and the [[Indian subcontinent]] since ancient times. Even in the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic era]], Arab traders used to visit the [[Konkan]]-[[Gujarat]] coast and [[Malabar Coast]], which linked them with the ports of [[Southeast Asia]]. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islam's first contact with India. Historians Elliot and Dowson say in their book ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]'', that the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. H.G. Rawlinson in his book ''Ancient and Medieval History of India''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY3fPAAACAAJ |title=Ancient and Medieval History of India|last=Rawlinson|first=H. G.|date=2001-01-01|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|isbn=9788186050798 |language=en}}</ref> claims that the first [[Arab Muslims]] settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century CE. ([[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] "[[Tuhafat Ul Mujahideen]]" is also a reliable work.)<ref>{{Cite book |isbn = 983-9154-80-X|title = Tuḥfat-al-mujāhidīn: A Historical Epic of the Sixteenth Century|year = 2006}}</ref> This fact is corroborated by J. Sturrock in his ''Madras District Manuals''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkNJnwEACAAJ |title=Madras District Manuals: South Canara|date=1894|publisher=Superintendent, Government Press|language=en}}</ref> and by Haridas Bhattacharya in ''Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV''.<ref>{{ISBN|8187332050}} Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV</ref> It was with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world. Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jaihoon.com/456.htm|title=Genesis and Growth of the Mappila Community {{!}} JAIHOON.COM|date=2009-11-03|work=JAIHOON.COM|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of [[Malabar Coast]], by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]], [[Kerala]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |article=Mappila |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VI |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1988 |pages=458–66}}</ref> According to [[Mappila|Kerala Muslim]] tradition, the [[Masjid Zeenath Baksh]] at [[Mangalore]] is one of the oldest mosques in [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.karnataka.com/mangalore/zeenath-baksh-masjid/|title=Zeenath Baksh Masjid {{!}} Zeenath Baksh Masjid Mangalore {{!}} Zeenath Baksh Masjid History|date=2017-12-02|work=Karnataka.com|access-date=2018-06-30|language=en-US}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] in present-day [[Kerala]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] was died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref>
 
The first Indian [[mosque]], [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]], is thought to have been built in 629 CE by [[Malik Deenar]]<ref name="The Times of India">{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Cheraman-Juma-Masjid-A-1000-year-old-lamp-burns-in-this-mosque/articleshow/47486911.cms|title=Cheraman Juma Masjid: A 1,000-year-old lamp burns in this mosque|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> although some historians say the first mosque was in [[Gujarat]] in between 610 CE to 623 CE.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms|title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> In [[Malabar region|Malabar]], the [[Mappila]]s may have been the first community to convert to Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA506|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West|first=Barbara A.|date=2010-05-19|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438119137|language=en}}</ref> Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and many other natives embraced Islam. According to legend, two travellers from India, Moulai [[Abdullah (Ismaili Mustaali Missionary)|Abdullah]] (formerly known as Baalam Nath) and Maulai Nuruddin (Rupnath), went to the court of [[Imam]] [[Al-Mustansir Billah|Mustansir]] (427–487&nbsp;AH)/(1036-1094 CE) and were so impressed that they converted to Islam and came back to preach in India in 467&nbsp;AH/1073 CE. Moulai Ahmed was their companion. [[Abdullah (Ismaili Mustaali Missionary)|Abadullah]] was the first [[List of Dai of Dawoodi Bohra|Wali-ul-Hind]] (saint of India). He came across a married couple named Kaka Akela and Kaki Akela who became his first converts in the [[Taiyabi Ismaili|Taiyabi]] ([[Dawoodi Bohra|Bohra]]) community.
 
===Arab–Indian interactions===
There is much historical evidence to show that Arabs and Muslims interacted with Indians from the very early days of Islam or even before the arrival of Islam in Arab regions. Arab traders transmitted the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|numeral system developed by Indians]] to the Middle East and Europe.
 
Many [[Sanskrit]] books were translated into Arabic as early as the 8th century. [[George Saliba]]in his book "Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance", writes that "some major Sanskrit texts began to be translated during the reign of the second [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] [[Caliphate|caliph]] [[al-Mansur]] (754–775), if not before; some texts on logic even before that, and it has been generally accepted that the Persian and Sanskrit texts, few as they were, were indeed the first to be translated."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Boc0JjGRPF0C|title=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance|last=Saliba|first=George|date=2007|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=9780262195577|pages=74|language=en}}</ref>
 
Commercial intercourse between Arabia and India had gone on from time immemorial, with for example the sale of dates and aromatic herbs by Arabs traders who came to Indian shores every spring with the advent of the [[monsoon]] breeze. People living on the western coast of India were as familiar with the annual coming of Arab traders as they were with the flocks of monsoon birds; they were as ancient a phenomenon as the monsoon itself. However, whereas monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of few months, not all traders returned to their homes in the desert; many married Indian women and settled in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nsGAQAAIAAJ|title=A history of the Sikhs|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|date=1963|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=20|language=en}}</ref>
 
The advent of [[Muhammad]] (569–632 CE) changed the [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|idolatrous]] and easy-going Arabs into a nation unified by faith and fired with zeal to spread the gospel of Islam. The merchant seamen who brought dates year after year now brought a new faith with them. The new faith was well received by South India. Muslims were allowed to build mosques, intermarry with Indian women, and very soon an Indian-Arabian community came into being. Early in the 9th century, Muslim missionaries gained a notable convert in the person of the King of Malabar.<ref name=":0" />
 
According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a [[Companions of the Prophet|companion of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad]], who traveled across Sind to [[Makran]] in the year 649AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported [[Ali]], and died in the [[Battle of the Camel]] alongside Sindhi [[Jats]].<ref>M. Ishaq, "Hakim Bin Jabala - An Heroic Personality of Early Islam", Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, pp. 145-50, (April 1955).</ref> He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of Ali ibn Abu Talib have survived, as reported in Chachnama:<ref>Derryl N. Maclean," '''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", p. 126, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref>
 
{{Quote|text=({{lang-ar|
 
ليس الرزيه بالدينار نفقدة
 
ان الرزيه فقد العلم والحكم
 
وأن أشرف من اودي الزمان به
 
أهل العفاف و أهل الجود والكريم
<ref>چچ نامہ، سندھی ادبی بورڈ، صفحہ 102، جامشورو، (2018)</ref>
}}
 
"Oh Ali, owing to your alliance (with the prophet) you are truly of high birth, and your example is great, and you are wise and excellent, and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love".<ref>Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, "The Chachnama", p. 43, The Commissioner's Press, Karachi (1900).</ref> |sign=|source=|title=}}
 
During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.<ref>Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day [[Quetta]]) in the year 658.<ref>Ibn Sa'd, 8:346. The raid is noted by Baâdhurî, "fatooh al-Baldan" p. 432, and Ibn Khayyât, Ta'rîkh, 1:173, 183–84, as cited in: Derryl N. Maclean," '''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", p. 126, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> Sayfi was one of the seven partisans of Ali who were beheaded alongside [[Hujr ibn 'Adi|Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi]]<ref>Tabarî, 2:129, 143, 147, as cited in: Derryl N. Maclean," '''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", p. 126, Brill, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> in 660AD, near Damascus.
 
===Political history of Islam in India===
{{See also|Medieval India|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Indo-Persian culture|Delhi Sultanate|Mughal Empire|#Conversion controversy|l6=Conversion controversy}}
[[File:Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]], India. It was built under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]] in the 17th century, and represents [[Indo-Islamic architecture]].]]
[[File:Renaldis muslin woman.jpg|right|thumb|Muslim woman clad in fine [[Muslin trade in Bengal|Bengali muslin]], in 18th-century [[Dhaka]], [[Bengal Subah]].]]
 
[[Muhammad bin Qasim]] (672 CE) at the age of 17 was the first Muslim general to invade the Indian subcontinent, managing to reach [[Sindh]]. In the first half of the 8th century CE, a series of battles took place between the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and the Indian kingdoms; resulted in [[Umayyad campaigns in India]] checked and contained to Sindh.<ref name=Crawford>{{cite book |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |first=Peter |last=Crawford |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |location=Barnsley, Great Britain |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84884-612-8 |page=216}}</ref>{{efn|"India" in this page refers to the territory of present-day [[India]].}} Around the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic empire, the [[Ghaznavids]], under [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] (971 - 1030 CE), was the second, much more ferocious invader, using [[courser (horse)|swift-horse]] cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains. Eventually, under the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid]]s, the Muslim army broke into the North Indian Plains, which lead to the establishment of the Islamic [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 by the slaves of the Ghurid dynasty.<ref>{{citation|last=Ludden|first=D.|date=13 June 2002|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|publisher=[[One World Media|One World]]|isbn=978-1-85168-237-9|page=68}}</ref> The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. However, internal squabbling resulted in the decline of the sultanate, and new Muslim sultanates such as the [[Bengal Sultanate]] in the east and the [[Deccan sultanates]] in the southern territory breaking off.<ref>Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd Edition, Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-15482-0}}, pp 187–190</ref> In 1339, [[Shah Mir]] became the first [[Muslim]] ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the ''Salatin-i-Kashmir'' or [[Shah Mir dynasty]].<ref name=imp-gazet-history>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.</ref>
 
Under the [[Delhi Sultanate]], there was a synthesis of [[Indian civilization]] with that of [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]], and the integration of the Indian subcontinent with a growing world system and wider international networks spanning large parts of [[Afro-Eurasia]], which had a significant impact on [[Indian culture]] and society.<ref name="asher-50-52">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|pages=50–52|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC|page=50}}}}</ref> The time period of their rule included the earliest forms of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]],<ref>A. Welch, "Architectural Patronage and the Past: The Tughluq Sultans of India," Muqarnas 10, 1993, Brill Publishers, pp 311-322</ref><ref>J. A. Page, [https://archive.org/stream/guidetothequtbde031434mbp#page/n15/mode/2up/search/temple Guide to the Qutb], Delhi, Calcutta, 1927, page 2-7</ref> increased growth rates in [[Demographics of India|India's population]] and [[Economic history of India|economy]],<ref name="maddison379">{{cite book|last=Madison|first=Angus|title=Contours of the world economy, 1–2030 AD: essays in macro-economic history|date=6 December 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-922720-4|page=379}}</ref> and the emergence of the [[Hindustani language]].<ref name="brown2008">{{Citation | title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |author1=Keith Brown |author2=Sarah Ogilvie | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 | publisher=Elsevier | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC | quote=... Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi ...}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate was also responsible for repelling the [[Mongol Empire]]'s potentially devastating [[Mongol invasions of India|invasions of India]] in the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref name="asher">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19|pages=19, 50–51}}</ref> The period coincided with a greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. From the 13th century onwards, India began widely adopting mechanical technologies from the [[Islamic world]], including [[Water wheel|water-raising wheels]] with [[gear]]s and [[pulley]]s, machines with [[cam]]s and [[Crank (mechanism)|cranks]],<ref name="Pacey">{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace | url-access = registration | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/26 26]–29}}</ref> [[papermaking]] technology,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Habib |first1=Irfan |author-link1=Irfan Habib |title=Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500 |date=2011 |publisher=[[Pearson Education India]] |isbn=9788131727911 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA96}}</ref> and the [[spinning wheel]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace | url-access = registration | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/23 23]–24}}</ref>
 
In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,<ref>{{citation|last=Robb|first=P.|title=A History of India|year=2001|publisher=London: Palgrave|isbn=978-0-333-69129-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete/page/80 80]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete/page/80}}</ref> fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|date=16 June 1998|title=A History of India|edition=1st|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-20546-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC|page = 164}}</ref> The resulting [[Mughal Empire]] did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices<ref>{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|pages = 90–91}}</ref> and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under [[Akbar]], the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 158}} and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 169}} caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} resulting in greater patronage of [[Mughal painting|painting]], literary forms, textiles, and [[Mughal architecture|architecture]].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 186}} The Mughal Empire was the world's largest economy in the 17th century, larger than [[Qing China]] and [[Western Europe]], with Mughal India producing about a quarter of the world's economic and industrial output.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|author-link=Angus Maddison|title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=rHJGz3HiJbcC}}|date=25 September 2003|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-10414-3|page=259}}</ref><ref name="williamson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]], David Clingingsmith|publisher=[[Harvard University]]|date=August 2005|access-date=18 May 2017}}</ref>
 
In the 18th century, Mughal power had become severely limited. By the mid-18th century, the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]] had routed Mughal armies and invaded several Mughal provinces from the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] to [[Bengal]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Sailendra Nath Sen |date=2010 |title=An Advanced History of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82 |publisher=Macmillan India |page=Introduction 14 |isbn=978-0230328853}}</ref> By this time, the dominant economic powers in the Indian subcontinent were [[Bengal Subah]] under the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] and the South Indian [[Kingdom of Mysore]] under [[Hyder Ali]] and [[Tipu Sultan]], before the former was devastated by the [[Maratha invasions of Bengal]],<ref name="Chaudhuri253">{{cite book|author=Kirti N. Chaudhuri|title=The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660–1760|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|page=253|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=9xt7Fgzq9e8C|page=253}}|isbn=9780521031592|author-link=Kirti N. Chaudhuri}}</ref><ref name="Marshall73">{{cite book|title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828|author=P. J. Marshall|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|page=73|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=lIZrfokYSY8C|page=73}}|isbn=9780521028226|author-link=P. J. Marshall}}</ref> leading to the [[economy of the Kingdom of Mysore]] overtaking Bengal.<ref name="Parthasarathi45">{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |page=45 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1_YEcvo-jqcC|page=45}}}}</ref> The [[British East India Company]] conquered [[Battle of Plassey|Bengal in 1757]] and then [[Anglo-Mysore Wars|Mysore in the late 18th century]]. The last Mughal emperor, [[Bahadur Shah II]], had authority over only the city of Old Delhi ([[Shahjahanabad]]), before he was exiled to Burma by the [[British Raj]] after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].
 
===Role in the Indian independence movement===
{{Further|Indian independence movement}}
The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is documented in the history of India's struggle for independence. [[Titumir]] raised a revolt against the [[British Raj]]. [[Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]] and [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]] are other Muslims who engaged in this endeavour.
[[Ashfaqulla Khan]] of [[Shahjahanpur]] conspired to loot the British treasury at [[Kakori]]([[Lucknow]]) (See [[Kakori conspiracy]]).
[[Bacha Khan|Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan]] (popularly known as "Frontier Gandhi") was a noted nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail; [[Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah|Barakatullah of Bhopal]] was one of the founders of the [[Ghadar Party]], which created a network of anti-British organisations; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar Party worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessful [[Ghadar Mutiny]] in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of [[Faizabad]] (UP) planned the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Mutiny]] in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and [[Myanmar|Burma]], along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]], and was hanged in 1917; [[Vakkom Moulavi|Vakkom Abdul Khadir]] of [[Kerala]] participated in the "[[Quit India Movement|Quit India]]" struggle in 1942 and was hanged; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire from Bombay, provided [[Mahatma Gandhi]] with Congress expenses and ultimately died for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, [[Begum Hazrat Mahal|Hazrat Mahal]], Asghari Begum, and Bi Amma contributed in the struggle for independence from the British.
 
[[File:Gandhi, Patel and Maulana Azad Sept 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Abul Kalam Azad|Maulana Azad]] was a prominent leader of the Indian independence movement and a strong advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity. Shown here is Azad (left) with [[Vallabhbhai Patel|Sardar Patel]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in 1940.]]
Other famous Muslims who fought for independence against [[British Raj|British rule]] were [[Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Mahmud al-Hasan]] of [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], who was implicated in the famous [[Silk Letter Movement]] to overthrow the British through an armed struggle, [[Husain Ahmad Madani]], former Shaikhul Hadith of [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], [[Ubaidullah Sindhi]], [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]], [[Hasrat Mohani]], Syed Mahmud,  [[Ahmadullah Shah]], Professor [[Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah|Maulavi Barkatullah]], [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]], [[Saifuddin Kitchlew]], [[Vakkom Moulavi|Vakkom Abdul Khadir]], Manzoor Abdul Wahab, [[Bahadur Shah II|Bahadur Shah Zafar]], Hakeem Nusrat Husain, [[Bacha Khan|Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan]], [[Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai]], Colonel Shahnawaz, [[Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari]], [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]], [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, V. M. Obaidullah, S.R. Rahim, [[Badruddin Tyabji]], [[Abid Hasan]] and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.<ref name="zakaria">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMlKSmWRQ8cC|title=Indian Muslims: Where Have They Gone Wrong?|last=Zakaria|first=Rafiq|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=2004|isbn=9788179912010|pages=281–286|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ali">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XQCYl6T1vIC|title=They Too Fought for India's Freedom: The Role of Minorities|last2=Roy|first2=Shantimoy|publisher=Hope India Publications|year=2006|isbn=9788178710914|pages=103–116|last1=Ali|first1=Asghar|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref>
 
Until 1920, [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], later the founder of [[Pakistan]], was a member of the [[Indian National Congress]] and was part of the independence struggle. [[Muhammad Iqbal]], poet and philosopher, was a strong proponent of Hindu–Muslim unity and an undivided India, perhaps until 1930. [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] was also active in the Indian National Congress in Bengal, during his early political career. [[Mohammad Ali Jouhar]] and [[Shaukat Ali]] struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for independence alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.
 
=== Partition of India ===
{{Main|Partition of India}}
{{Rquote|left|I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to be a nation apart from the parent stock.|[[Mahatma Gandhi]], opposing the division of India on the basis of religion in 1944.<ref name="Prasoon2010">{{cite book|author=Prof. Prasoon|title=My Letters.... M.K.Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qfEbNpv7ggC&pg=PA120|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Pustak Mahal|isbn=978-81-223-1109-9|pages=120}}</ref>}}
[[File:1946 Map of British India with areas demanded for separate Pakistan by Muslim League.jpg|thumb|260px|The Partition of British India was based on religion. The negotiations failed several times, with differing demands about boundaries, as shown in this map of 1946.]]
The [[partition of India]] was the [[Partition (politics)|partition]] of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] on the basis of [[Two-nation theory|religious demographics]]. This led to the creation of the [[dominion]]s of [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] (that later split into the [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] and the [[Bangladesh|People's Republic of Bangladesh]]) and [[Dominion of India|India]] (later [[India|Republic of India]]). The [[Indian Independence Act 1947]] had decided 15 August 1947, as the appointed date for the partition. However, Pakistan celebrates its day of creation on 14 August.
 
The partition of India was set forth in the Act and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire and the end of the [[British Raj]]. It resulted in a struggle between the newly constituted states of India and Pakistan and displaced up to 12.5&nbsp;million people with estimates of loss of life varying from several hundred thousand to a million (most estimates of the numbers of people who crossed the boundaries between India and Pakistan in 1947 range between 10 and 12&nbsp;million).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C|title=A Concise History of Modern India|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|date=2006-09-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139458870|pages=221–222|language=en}}</ref> The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of mutual hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues [[India–Pakistan relations|their relationship]] to this day.
 
[[File:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] with [[Gandhi]] in 1930. Also known as ''Frontier Gandhi'', Khan led the non-violent opposition against the British Raj and strongly opposed the [[partition of India]].]]
The partition included the geographical [[Partition of Bengal (1947)|division of the Bengal province]] into [[East Bengal]], which became part of Pakistan (from 1956, [[East Pakistan]]). [[West Bengal]] became part of India, and a similar partition of the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab province]] became [[West Punjab]] (later the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Pakistani Punjab]] and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]]) and [[East Punjab]] (later the [[Punjab, India|Indian Punjab]], as well as [[Haryana]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]]).  The partition agreement also included the division of Indian government assets, including the [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|Indian Civil Service]], the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]], the [[Royal Indian Navy (1612–1950)|Royal Indian Navy]], the [[History of rail transport in India|Indian railways]] and the central treasury, and other administrative services.
[[File:Islam In India By Population.png|thumb|Muslims in India by population.]]
The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in [[Karachi]], at the time the capital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last British [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]], [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] of Burma, could attend both the ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony in [[Delhi]]. Thus, [[Independence Day (Pakistan)|Pakistan's Independence Day]] is celebrated on 14 August and [[Independence Day (India)|India's]] on 15 August.
 
After [[Partition of India]] in 1947, two-thirds of the Muslims resided in Pakistan (both east and West Pakistan) but a third resided in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/842925/muslims-in-indian-army|title=Muslims in Indian army|date=2010-03-15|work=Dawn|location=Pakistan|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref> Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East) from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2017/aug/14/when-muslims-left-pakistan-for-india-1642817.html|title=When Muslims left Pakistan for India}}</ref> Some critics allege that British haste in the partition process increased the violence that followed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJHTif-WA6oC|title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley|date=2009-09-17|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199745043|language=en}}</ref> Because independence was declared ''prior'' to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sXVCAAAAYAAJ|title=The Making of Pakistan|last=Symonds|first=Richard|date=1950|publisher=National Committee for Birth Centenary Celebrations of Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan|pages=74|language=en}}</ref>
 
However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FciqvzTfAuEC|title=Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World|last=Butler|first=L. J.|date=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781860644481|pages=72|language=en}}</ref> Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.<ref name=":2" /> Law and order had broken down many times before Partition with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,<ref name=":2" /> perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9Qe_mLjs8MC|title=Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968|last=Hyam|first=Ronald|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521866491|pages=113|language=en}}</ref> The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DMS3r_BxOYC|title=The Rise and Fall of the British Empire|last=James|first=Lawrence|date=1997-09-15|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9780312169855|language=en}}</ref>
 
==Demographics==
{{Main|Islam by country#Countries}}
With around 204&nbsp;million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is about the [[Islam by country|world's third-largest]]<ref name="MuslimPopulation2020" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bangladesh-wants-indias-entry-in-oic-as-observer/articleshow/64044678.cms|title=Make India observer in forum of Islamic nations: Bangladesh}}</ref> and the world's largest Muslim-minority population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/minorities/South-Asia/Muslims-of-India.html|title=Muslims of India – World Directory of Minorities|website=faqs.org|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/chart/interactive-data-table-world-muslim-population-by-country/|title=World Muslim Population by Country|date=17 November 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> According to Pew Research Center, there can be 213 million Muslims in 2020, India's 15.5% population.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-04-02|title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/|access-date=2021-06-26|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
'''Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020<ref name="MuslimPopulation2020">{{cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/muslim-population-by-country/|title=Muslim Population By Country by Population 2020}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html|title=Muslim Population in India - Muslims in Indian States|website=www.indiaonlinepages.com|access-date=2017-10-04|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908034112/http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html|archive-date=8 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country !! Muslim Population !! Percentage of Total Muslim Population
|-
|{{Flag|Indonesia}}|| 229,000,000 || 12.7%
|-
|{{Flag|Pakistan}}|| 208,800,000 || 11.1%
|-
|'''{{Flag|India}}'''||'''207,000,000'''||'''10.9%'''
|-
|{{Flag|Bangladesh}}|| 153,700,000 || 9.20%
|-
|{{Flag|Nigeria}}|| 99,000,000 || 5.3%
|}
 
Muslims represent a majority of the local population in [[Lakshadweep]] (96.2%) and [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] (68.3%). The largest concentration – about 47% of all Muslims in India, live in the three states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[West Bengal]], and [[Bihar]]. High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Assam]], [[Delhi]], [[Gujarat]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Manipur]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Telangana]], [[Tripura]], and [[Uttarakhand]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/5-myths-about-muslim-voters-in-modern-india/129628/|title=5 myths about Muslim voters in modern India}}</ref>
 
===Population by states===
[[File:Muslim In India By Percentage.png|alt=|thumb|481x481px|Muslims as percentage of total population in different states of India (2018 Estimate).]]
[[File:District wise Muslim population percentage India census 2011.png|alt=|thumb|435x480px|Muslims as percentage of total population in different districts of India as per census 2011]]
{{As of|2015}}, Muslims comprise the majority of the population in the only Indian state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and in a Union territory [[Lakshadweep]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|title=Religious communities Census 2011: What the numbers say|work=The Hindu|date=26 August 2015|access-date=26 April 2016}}</ref> In 110 minority-concentrated districts, at least a fifth of the population are Muslim.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/when-the-good-is-not-good-enough/article5733354.ece|title=When the good is not good enough|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Population growth rate===
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2013}}
'''[[Muslim population growth]] per Census'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Total population !! Muslim population !! Percentage
|-
| 1951||361,088,090||35,856,047||9.9%
|-
| 1961||439,234,771||46,998,120||10.7%
|-
| 1971||548,159,652||61,448,696||11.2%
|-
| 1981*||683,329,097||77,557,852||11.4%
|-
| 1991**||846,427,039||102,586,957||12.1%
|-
| 2001||1,028,737,436||138,159,437||13.4%
|-
| 2011||1,210,726,932 ||172,245,158||14.2%
|-
|}
 
1981 Census: * Parts of Assam were not included in the 1981 Census Data due to violence in some districts.
 
1991 Census: ** Jammu and Kashmir was not included in the 1991 Census Data due to militant activity in the state.
 
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|+ ''Table : Census information for 2011: Hindu and Muslim compared''<ref name=":3" />
|-
! Composition
! [[Hindu]]s
! Muslims
|-
| % total of population 2011
| 79.8
| 14.2
|-
| 10-yr. Growth % (est. 2001–11)
| 16.8
| 24.6
|-
| Sex ratio*
| 939
| 951
|-
| Literacy rate (avg. 64.8)
| 63.6
| 57.9
|-
| Work Participation Rate
| 41
| 33
|-
| Urban sex ratio
| 894
| 907
|-
| Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs.)
| 913
| 943
|}
 
{{Historical populations|1951|10=102,586,957|align=left|source=[[Census of India]]|14=172,245,158|13=2011|12=138,159,437|11=2001|9=1991|35,856,047|8=77,557,852|7=1981|6=61,448,696|5=1971|4=46,998,120|1961|title=Growth of Muslims in India}}
 
Muslims in India have a much higher [[total fertility rate]] (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/nation/fertility-rate-indian-muslim-women-beat-others.html|title=Fertility rate: Indian Muslim women beat others|last=Pioneer|first=The|work=The Pioneer|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref> Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 10% in 1951 to 14% by 2013. The Muslim population growth rate from 1991 to 2001 was higher by more than 10% of the total growth compared to that of [[Hindu]]s.<ref name="censuspresentation">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/|title=A snapshot of population size, distribution, growth and socio economic characteristics of religious communities from Census 2001|work=Census of India 2001: Data on Religion|publisher=Office of the Registrar General, India|pages=1–9|access-date=20 April 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/|archive-date=14 May 2007}}</ref> However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2009/karimpolicyseminar.aspx|title=Changes in Fertility Rates Among Muslims in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh|website=prb.org|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The Population Growth rate is also attributable to the fact that majority of Muslim populations are concentrated in the states that are lagging behind in social reforms and services which have shown higher birth rates than other states. However, the [[Sachar Committee|Sachar Committee Report]] shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Muslim-population-may-decline-Sachar-report/articleshow/672785.cms|title=Muslim population may decline: Sachar report|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/705283/five-charts-that-puncture-the-bogey-of-muslim-population-growth|title=Five charts that puncture the bogey of Muslim population growth|last=Daniyal|first=Shoaib|work=Scroll.in|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
'''Social and economic reasons behind population growth'''
 
Demographers have put forward several factors behind high birthrates among Muslims in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/813651/socio-economic-factors-not-religion-influence-indias-fertility-rate-and-population-growth|title=Socio-economic factors, not religion, influence India's fertility rate and population growth|last=Indiaspend.com|first=Shreya Shah|work=Scroll.in|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-US}}</ref> According to sociologists Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic conditions rather than religious determinism is the main reason for higher Muslim birthrates. Indian Muslims are poorer and less educated compared to their Hindu counterparts.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Jeffery, Roger and Patricia Jeffery
|title = Population, gender, and politics
|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997
|isbn = 978-0-521-46653-0  }}</ref> Noted Indian sociologist, B.K. Prasad, argues that since India's Muslim population is more urban compared to their Hindu counterparts, infant mortality rates among Muslims is about 12% lower than those among Hindus.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Prasad
|title = Population and family life education
|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|year=2004
|isbn = 978-81-261-1800-7
|first = B.K.}}</ref>
 
However, other sociologists point out that religious factors can explain high Muslim birthrates. Surveys indicate that Muslims in India have been relatively less willing to adopt [[family planning]] measures and that Muslim women have a larger fertility period since they get married at a much younger age compared to Hindu women.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Shakeel Ahmad
|title = Muslim attitude towards family planning
|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=2003
|isbn = 978-81-7625-389-5  }}</ref> On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/conquering-a-muslim-myth/article4372042.ece|title=Conquering a Muslim Myth|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref> A study conducted by K.C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Nair, V. Balakrishnan
|title = Social development and demographic changes in South India: focus on Kerala
|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=1994
|isbn = 978-81-85880-50-1 }}</ref> According to [[Paul Kurtz]], Muslims in India are much more resistant to modern contraception than are Hindus and, as a consequence, the decline in fertility rate among Hindu women is much higher compared to that of Muslim women.<ref name="Christ">{{cite book|title=Fertility transition in south India|last=Guilmoto|first=Christophe|publisher=Sage|year= 2005|isbn=978-0-7619-3292-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last = Paul Kurtz
|title = Multi-Secularism: A New Agenda
|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2010
|isbn = 978-1-4128-1419-5  }}</ref> The National Family and Health survey conducted in 1998–99 highlighted that Indian Muslim couples consider a substantially higher number of children to be ideal for a family as compared to Hindu couples in India.<ref name="Surya">{{cite book
|last = Narain Singh
|first = Surya
|title = Muslims in India
|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|year= 2003
|isbn = 978-81-261-1427-6  }}</ref> The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims.
 
== Population Controversy ==
 
[[File:Indian Muslim.jpg|thumb|An Indian Muslim man reading Quran inside a mosque]]
 
'''Controversy of Muslim population in India'''
 
As per as 2011 census of India, it was found that 172.2 million Muslims we're living in India as it's citizens, constituting 14.2% of the country's population.<ref>https://www.firstpost.com/india/bjp-leaders-cite-growing-muslim-population-as-threat-to-india-facts-dont-back-their-claims-4303403.html</ref> As per as recent estimation of year (2020) Indian religious demography by Pew research center, it has been found that 213.34 million Muslims are living in India constituting 15.4% of the country's population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/india#/?affiliations_religion_id=16&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2020|title = Religion in India &#124; Indian Religious Information &#124; PEW-GRF}}</ref> But however, at a same time, many individuals and experts have said that the Muslim population in India is more than the expected census results, leading to a heated debate and controversies as their claim of being that estimation as truth is still not known today.
As per as [[Zakir Naik]], he claimed that India has over 250-300 million Muslims. He also told that the government of India suppress real Muslim population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/08/22/indian-muslims-should-form-exclusive-party-consider-moving-to-kerala-zakir-naik.html|title=Indian Muslims should form exclusive party, consider moving to Kerala: Zakir Naik}}</ref> As per as author Shakir Lakhani, there should be at least 90 million Indian Muslims who have not been registered by the Indian authorities during last census. He have also said that there should have been about 262 million Muslims in 2011 census, instead of 172.2 million as reported by census authority earlier.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/article/58687/fudging-the-population-the-missing-90-million-indian-muslims|title = Fudging the population: The missing 90 million Indian Muslims|date = 26 October 2017}}</ref> On 2021, Congress MLA from Bhopal Arif Masood have also said, that " The country’s population is over 130 crores and the Muslim population stands at around 25 crores.”<ref>https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/population-control-madhya-pradesh-child-birth-1830422-2021-07-20</ref>
'''Muslim Population controversy table'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''Number of Muslims residing in India as an estimation research of (2014-21)''
|-
! Source/claimed by
! Population
! Year of claimed
|-
| Claimed by AIMIM leader [[Akbaruddin Owaisi]]<ref>http://twocircles.net/2013aug18/through_my_speeches_i_made_country_sense_presence_25_crore_indian_muslims_akabruddin_owais</ref>
| 250,000,000
| 2014
|-
| Claimed by Indian author Shakir Lakhani<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/article/58687/fudging-the-population-the-missing-90-million-indian-muslims|title = Fudging the population: The missing 90 million Indian Muslims|date = 26 October 2017}}</ref>
| 262,000,000
| 2017
|-
| Claimed by [[Zakir Naik]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/08/22/indian-muslims-should-form-exclusive-party-consider-moving-to-kerala-zakir-naik.html|title=Indian Muslims should form exclusive party, consider moving to Kerala: Zakir Naik}}</ref>
| 250,000,000-300,000,000
| 2020
|-
| Claimed by Congress member Ajay Verma<ref>https://www.eastcoastdaily.in/2020/02/01/congress-leader-demands-separate-country-for-25-crore-indian-muslims-watch-video.html</ref>
| 250,000,000
| 2020
|-
| Claimed by Congress MLA  [[Arif Masood]]<ref>https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/population-control-madhya-pradesh-child-birth-1830422-2021-07-20</ref>
| 250,000,000
| 2021
|}
 
==Denominations==
There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch of Islam while a substantial minority (over 13%) belong to the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] branch.<ref name="USSD-IRFR">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208640.pdf |title=India 2012 International Religious Freedom Report |publisher=[[U.S. Departent of State]] |at=Section I. Religious Demography |date=13 May 2013 |access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> There are also tiny minorities of [[Ahmadiyya]] and [[Quranism|Quranists]] across the country. Many Indian Muslim communities, both [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]], are also considered to be Sufis.
 
===Sunni===
Indian Sunnis largely follow the [[Hanafi]] school of Islamic law.
 
The majority of Indian Sunnis follow the [[Barelvi|Barelvi movement]] which was founded in 1904 by [[Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi|Ahmed Razi Khan]] of Bareilly in defense of traditional Islam as understood and practised in South Asia and in reaction to the revivalist attempts of the Deobandi movement.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ali Riaz |author-link=Ali Riaz |date=2008 |title=Faithful Education: Madrassahs in South Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/faithfuleducatio00riaz |url-access=limited |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/faithfuleducatio00riaz/page/n88 75]–76 |isbn=978-0-8135-4345-1 |quote="The emergence of ... Barelvis, under the leadership of Maulana Ahmed Riza Khan ... he succeeded in founding the Madrassah Manzar al-Islam in Bareilly in 1904 ... Barlevis' vehement opposition to Deobandis and other contemporary reformists led Barbar Metcalf to conclude that the Barlevis were 'an oppositional group as much as they were reformers.'"}}</ref><ref name=roy>{{cite book |title=The Columbia World Dictionary of Islamism |editor1-last=Sfeir |editor1-first=Antoine |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-231-14640-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaworlddic0000unse }}</ref> In the 19th century the [[Deobandi]], a revivalist movement in Sunni Islam was established in India. It is named after Deoband a small town northeast of Delhi, where the original madrasa or seminary of the movement was founded. From its early days this movement has been influenced by [[Wahhabism]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Taliban: Ascent to Power |author=M. J. Gohari |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/talibanascenttop00goha/page/30 30] |isbn=0-19-579560-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/talibanascenttop00goha/page/30 |year=2000 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Ahmad |editor1-first=Imtiaz |editor2-last=Reifeld |editor2-first=Helmut |title=Lived Islam in South Asia: Adaptation, Accommodation, and Conflict |page=114 |date= 2006 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=81-87358-15-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Urban Terrorism: Myths and Realities| author= N. C. Asthana| author2= Anjali Nirmal |pages=66–67 |publisher=Aavishkar Publishers |place=Jaipur|year=2009|isbn=978-81-7132-598-6}}</ref> A minority of Indian Muslims also follow the [[Ahl-i Hadith]] movement.
 
===Shia===
{{Main|Shia Islam in India}}
[[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] are a large minority among [[India]]'s Muslims forming about 13% of the total Muslim population.<ref name="USSD-IRFR" /> However, there has been no particular census conducted in India regarding sects, but Indian sources like [[Times of India]] and [[Daily News and Analysis]] reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 to be up to 25% of the entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000<ref name="TOI-20061106" /><ref name="TOI-20061106b">{{cite news |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Only-a-few-people-have-right-to-issue-fatwas/articleshow/334751.cms |title=Only a few people have right to issue fatwas |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 November 2006 |access-date=17 July 2010 }}</ref> to 50,000,000<ref name="DNA-20061106">{{cite news |url= http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_talaq-rights-proposed-for-shia-women_1062327 |title=Talaq rights proposed for Shia women | work=Daily News and Analysis |date=5 November 2006| access-date=2010-06-21}}</ref> of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://twocircles.net/2009oct08/india_third_global_muslim_population_1_57_bn.html|title= India Third in Global Muslim Population|date= 8 October 2009| publisher=[[Twocircles.net]] |access-date=2010-07-03}}</ref> However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30&nbsp;million with [[Sayyid]]s comprising just a tenth of the Shia population.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.alimaan.org/whyindia.html|title= Why India| publisher=Alimaan Charitable Trust |access-date=2010-07-03}}</ref> According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest after [[Iran]].<ref name="IDSA-20081205">{{cite web |last=Roy |first=Meena Singh |url=http://www.idsa.in/event/india-iranrelations_meenasinghroy_051208 |title=India – Iran relations: Converging Interests or Drifting Equations |publisher=[[Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses]] |date=5 December 2008 |access-date=2010-08-21}}</ref><ref name="Trib-20090725">{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090725/edit.htm#4 |title=Obama's Overtures |last=Puri |first=Balraj |date=25 July 2009 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=29 May 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Boloji-20070626">{{cite web |url=http://www.boloji.com/opinion/0360.htm |last=Singh |first=K. Gajendra |title=Imperialism and Divide & Rule Policy |website=boloji.com |date=26 June 2007 |access-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071122084607/https://www.boloji.com/opinion/0360.htm |archive-date=22 November 2007 }}</ref><ref name="IE-20080421">{{cite news |last=Pubby |first=Manu |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/ahmadinejad-on-way-nsa-says-india-to-be-impacted-if-iran-wronged-by-others/299498/ |title=Ahmadinejad on way, NSA says India to be impacted if Iran 'wronged by others' |date=21 April 2008 |work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=2010-07-21 }}</ref><ref name="TOI-20091110">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-10/india/28070350_1_jundallah-iran-pakistan-india-sistan-balochistan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105070948/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-10/india/28070350_1_jundallah-iran-pakistan-india-sistan-balochistan |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=India, Iran to make common cause over terror from Pak |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=17 July 2010 |first1=Sachin |last1=Parashar |date=10 November 2009 }}</ref><ref name="TOI-20090201">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-01/special-report/28005869_1_india-and-iran-india-iran-south-pars |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105070953/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-01/special-report/28005869_1_india-and-iran-india-iran-south-pars |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=Aspiring powers and a new old friendship |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=12 July 2010 |first1=Ramin |last1=Jahanbegloo |date=1 February 2009}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20040902">{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/3605950.stm |title= India's Polite Refusal| work=BBC News |date=2 September 2004 |access-date=2010-07-01 |first=Vinod |last=Mehta}}</ref>
 
====Bohra====
{{Main|Dawoodi Bohra}}
[[File:Moulai Abadullah khambhat.JPG|thumb|right|Mausoleum of 1 st Wali–ul–Hind:Moulai Abadullah, Khambat, Gujarat, era 1050–1100&nbsp;CE.]]
[[File:Mufaddal Saifuddin Houstan Ashara.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dawoodi Bohra]] 53rd Dai Syedna [[Mufaddal Saifuddin]], with Dawat office at Mumbai.]]
[[Dawoodi Bohra|Bohra]] Shia was established in Gujarat in the second half of the 11th century. This community's belief system originates in [[Yemen]], evolved from the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] were persecuted due to their adherence to Fatimid Shia Islam{{snd}} leading the shift of Dawoodi Bohra to India. After occultation of their 21st [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] Imam [[At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim|Tayyib]], they follow Dai as representative of Imam which are continued till date.
 
Dā'ī Zoeb appointed Maulai Yaqoob (after the death of Maulai Abdullah), who was the second Walī al-Hind of the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] dawat. Moulai Yaqoob was the first person of Indian origin to receive this honour under the Dā'ī. He was the son of Moulai Bharmal, minister of [[Hindu]] [[Chaulukya dynasty|Solanki King]] [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]] (Anhalwara, Patan). With Minister Moulai Tarmal, they had honoured the Fatimid dawat along with their fellow citizens on the call of Moulai Abdullah. [[Syedi Fakhruddin]], son of Moulai Tarmal, was sent to western [[Rajasthan]], India, and [[List of Dai of Dawoodi Bohra|Moulai Nuruddin]] went to the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] (death: Jumadi al-Ula 11 at Don Gaum, [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]], [[Maharashtra]], India).
 
One Dai succeeded another until the 23rd Dai in Yemen. In India also Wali-ul-Hind were appointed by them one after another until Wali-ul-Hind Moulai Qasim Khan bin Hasan (11th and last Wali-ul-Hind, d. 950 AH, [[Ahmedabad]]).
 
Due to persecution by the local [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi Shi'a]] ruler in Yemen, the 24th Dai, [[Yusuf Najmuddin ibn Sulaiman]] (d. 1567 CE), moved the whole administration of the ''Dawat'' (mission) to India. The 25th Dai [[Jalal Shamshuddin]] (d. 1567 CE) was first dai to die in India. His mausoleum is in Ahmedabad, India. The Dawat subsequently moved from Ahmedabad to Jamnagar<ref>The Ismaili, their history and doctrine by Farhad Daftary. Chapter – Mustalian Ismailism, pp. 300–310</ref> Mandvi, Burhanpur, [[Surat]] and finally to Mumbai and continues there to the present day, currently headed by 53rd Dai.
 
[[Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee]] was a Bohra and 20th century Islamic scholar from India who promoted modernization and liberalization of Islam through his writings. He argued that with changing time modern reforms in Islam are necessary without compromising on basic "spirit of Islam".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780195693010.do |title=A Modern Approach to Islam: Asaf A. A. Fyzee – Oxford University Press |publisher=Ukcatalogue.oup.com |date=2007-12-20 |access-date=2015-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e690?_hi=0&_pos=8 |title=Fyzee, Asaf Ali Asghar – Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com |date=2008-05-06 |access-date=2015-10-04}}</ref><ref name="Daftary2014">{{cite book|author=Farhad Daftary|title=Fifty Years in the East: The Memoirs of Wladimir Ivanow|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbCbBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|date=2014|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-78453-152-2|pages=91–}}</ref>
 
====Khojas====
The Khojas are a group of diverse people who converted to [[Islam]] in [[South Asia]]. In [[India]], most Khojas live in the states of [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Rajasthan]] and the city of [[Hyderabad]]. Many Khojas have also migrated and settled over the centuries in [[East Africa]], [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. The Khoja were by then adherents of [[Nizari]] [[Ismailism]] branch of Shi'ism.  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the aftermath of the [[Aga Khan case]] a significant minority separated and adopted [[Twelver Shi'ism]] or [[Sunni Islam]], while the majority remained [[Nizari|Nizārī Ismā'īlī]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316803/Khoja |title=Khoja (Islam) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=2012-08-03}}</ref>
 
===Sufis===
{{Main|Sufism in India}}
[[Image:TombSalimChisti.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Sufi saint Shaikh [[Salim Chisti]] in [[Fatehpur Sikri]], Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Sufism|Sufis]] (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and [[monism]]. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. [[Erwadi|Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed]], [[Moinuddin Chishti|Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti]], [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki]], [[Nizamuddin Auliya]], [[Shah Jalal]], [[Amir Khusrow]], [[Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari]], Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi, [[Ashraf Jahangir Semnani]], [[Waris Ali Shah]], [[Ata Hussain Fani Chishti]] trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic empire was established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of colour and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the [[artisan]] and [[Dalit|untouchable]] communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. [[Ahmad Sirhindi]], a prominent member of the [[Naqshbandi]] [[Sufism|Sufi]] advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.<ref name="ErnstLawrence2016">{{cite book|author1=C. Ernst|author2=B. Lawrence|title=Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-UYDAAAQBAJ|date= 2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-09581-7}}</ref>
 
===Ahmadiyya===
[[File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg|thumbnail|Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya movement]]
{{Main|Ahmadiyya in India}}
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] of [[Qadian]]. He claimed to be the promised messiah and [[mahdi]] awaited by the Muslims and obtained a considerable number of followers initially within the United Provinces, the [[Punjab]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/page.php?title=&record=1512 |title=H.H. Risley and E.A. Gait, (1903), Report of the Census of India, 1901, Calcutta, Superintendent of Government Printing, p. 373 |publisher=Chinese Heritage of the Australian Federation Project |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205180023/http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/page.php?title=&record=1512 |archive-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> Ahmadis claim the Ahmadiyya movement to embody the latter day revival of Islam and the movement has also been seen to have emerged as an Islamic religious response to the Christian and [[Arya Samaj]] missionary activity that was widespread in 19th century India. After the death of Ghulam Ahmad, his [[Khalifatul Masih|successors]] directed the Ahmadiyya Community from Qadian which remained the headquarters of the community until 1947 with the creation of [[Pakistan]]. The movement has grown in organisational strength and in its own missionary programme and has expanded to over 200 countries as of 2014 but has received a largely negative response from mainstream Muslims who see it as heretical, due mainly to Ghulam Ahmad's claim to be a prophet within Islam.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8711026.stm|title=Who are the Ahmadi}}</ref>
 
Ahmaddiya have been identified as sects of Islam in [[2011 Census of India]] apart from Sunnis, Shias, Bohras and Agakhanis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/ahmadiyyas-islam-sects-islam-ahmadiyyas-sect-ahmadiyyas-islam-islamic-sects-islam-india-ahmadiyya-legal-status-2011-census-india-population-india-news-2952701/|title=Sunnis, Shias, Bohras, Agakhanis and Ahmadiyyas were identified as sects of Islam.|date=4 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Protest-against-inclusion-of-Ahmediyyas-in-Muslim-census/articleshow/53645457.cms|title=Protest against inclusion of Ahmediyyas in Muslim census}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/ahmadiyya-community-census-india-muslims-2954285/|title=Minority in a minority|date=5 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/in-their-search-for-pure-islam-many-muslim-sects-consider-others-insufficient-or-infidels-2941564.html|title=Ahmadiyyas find place as Islam sect in census|date=8 August 2016}}</ref> India has a significant Ahmadiyya population.<ref name="Number of Ahmadis in India">{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,464db4f52,47f237db2,3ae6ad202c,0.html|title=Number of Ahmadis in India|publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada|date=1 November 1991|access-date=9 March 2009}}</ref> Most of them live in Rajasthan, [[Odisha]], Haryana, Bihar, Delhi, [[Uttar Pradesh]], and a few in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in the area of Qadian. In India, Ahmadis are considered to be Muslims by the Government of India (unlike in neighbouring Pakistan). This recognition is supported by a court verdict (Shihabuddin Koya vs. Ahammed Koya, A.I.R. 1971 Ker 206).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1400223/|title=Shihabuddin Imbichi Koya Thangal vs K.P. Ahammed Koya on 8 December, 1970 Kerala High Court}}</ref><ref name=hoque>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/03/03/index.htm|title=On right to freedom of religion and the plight of Ahmadiyas|author=Hoque, Ridwanul|newspaper=The Daily Star|date=21 March 2004}}</ref> There is no legislation that declares Ahmadis non-Muslims or limits their activities,<ref name="hoque"/> but they are not allowed to sit on the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]], a body of religious leaders India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.<ref name="Naqvi, Jawed">{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/weekly/jawed/20080109.htm|title=Religious violence hastens India's leap into deeper obscurantism|work=Dawn|author=Naqvi, Jawed|date=1 September 2008|access-date=23 December 2009}}</ref> Ahmadiyya are estimated to be from 60,000 to 1&nbsp;million in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/wretched-of-the-land/265665|title=Wretched of the Land}}</ref>
 
===Quranists===
Non-sectarian Muslims who reject the authority of [[hadith]], known as [[Quranism|Quranists]], Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in India. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the [[Ahl-i Hadith|Ahle Hadith]] movement whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith. Notable Indian Quranists include [[Chiragh Ali]], [[Aslam Jairajpuri]], [[Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din]], and Abdullah Chakralawi.<ref>Ali Usman Qasmi, [http://www.thefridaytimes.com/beta3/tft/article.php?issue=20130125&page=16 A mosque for Qurani Namaz], The Friday Times. Retrieved 16 February 2013</ref>
 
===Islamic traditions in India===
{{Main|Islam in South Asia}}
[[Image:Dargah Shareef of Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti.JPG|200px|thumb|An outside view of the Maqbara.]]
[[Sufism]] is a mystical dimension of Islam, often complementary with the legalistic path of the [[sharia]] had a profound impact on the growth of Islam in India. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behaviour, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples ([[murid]]s) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of [[Moinuddin Chishti]] (1142–1236), who settled in [[Ajmer]] and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His [[Chishti Order]] went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in [[regional language]]s that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.
 
===Intra-Muslim relations===
====Shia–Sunni relations====
The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups, especially in the city of Lucknow.<ref>{{cite book|last=Engineer|first=Asghar Ali|title=Communal Riots in Post-independence India|year=1984|publisher=Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division|isbn=0-86131-494-8|pages=144–155|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yB5NM0o3I9QC}}</ref>
 
==Society==
===Religious administration===
{{Main|Grand Mufti of India}}
The religious administration of each [[States and union territories of India|state]] is headed by the ''Mufti of the State'' under the supervision of the [[Grand Mufti of India]], the most senior, most influential religious authority and spiritual leader of [[Muslims]] in [[India]]. The system is executed in India from the Mughal period.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/kanthapuram-selected-grand-mufti-of-india/articleshow/68175547.cms|title=Kanthapuram selected Grand Mufti of India|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=24 February 2019|language=en|issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/kanthapuram-elected-as-new-grand-mufti-religion-1.3599882|title=Kanthapuram elected as new Grand Mufti|access-date=2019-08-07|website=[[Mathrubhumi]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/grand-mufti-calls-for-talks-not-war-to-resolve-indo-pak-issues/article26413125.ece|title=Grand Mufti calls for talks, not war, to resolve Indo-Pak issues|date=2019-03-02|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-08-07|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/grant-full-membership-to-india-kanthapuram-to-oic/articleshow/68227741.cms|title=Grant full membership to India: Kanthapuram to OIC {{!}} Kozhikode News |date=2 March 2019|website=The Times of India (TNN)|language=en|access-date=2019-08-07}}</ref>
 
===Muslim institutes===
{{See also|List of Islamic universities and colleges in India}}
[[Image:Victoria gate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aligarh Muslim University]] ]]
There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims in [[India]].
 
===Modern universities and institutes===
<!-- ONLY ADD A UNIVERSITY OR INSTITUTE TO THIS LIST IF THEY ALREADY HAVE AN ARTICLE IN THE ENGLISH WIKIPEDIA -->
* [[Al-Ameen Educational Society]]
* [[Aliah University]]
* [[Aligarh Muslim University]]
* [[Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya|Jamia Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya]]
* [[Ma'din|Ma'dinu Ssaquafathil Islamiyya]]
* [[B. S. Abdur Rahman University]]
* [[Darul Huda Islamic University]]
* [[Darul Uloom Deoband]]
* [[Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama]]
* [[Farook College]], [[Kozhikode]]
* [[Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences]]
* [[Integral University (Lucknow)|Integral University]]
* [[Jamal Mohamed College]], [[Tiruchirappalli]]
* [[Jamia Hamdard|Hamdard University]], [[Delhi]]
* [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], [[New Delhi]]
* [[M.S.S. Wakf Board College]], [[Madurai]] (The only college in India run by a State Wakf Board)
* [[Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College]], [[Pulikkal]], [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]]
*[[Maulana Azad National Urdu University]] [[Hyderabad]]
* [[Maulana Azad College of Arts and Science]], [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]]
* [[Muslim Educational Association of Southern India]]
* [[Muslim Educational Society]], [[Kerala]]
* [[National College of Engineering]], Tirunelveli
* [[Osmania University]], [[Hyderabad]]
* [[Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College]], [[Tirurangadi]]
* [[Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering]], [[Kollam]]
* [[Karim City College, Jamshedpur]]
<!-- ONLY ADD A UNIVERSITY OR INSTITUTE TO THIS LIST IF THEY ALREADY HAVE AN ARTICLE IN THE ENGLISH WIKIPEDIA -->
 
===Traditional Islamic universities===
* [[Al Jamea tus Saifiyah]], Bohra
* [[Al Jamiatul Ashrafia]], Barelvi
* [[Jamia Darussalam]], [[Oomerabad]]
* [[Al-Jame-atul-Islamia]], Uttar Pradesh
* [[Jamia Nizamia]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]
* [[Manzar-e-Islam]], [[Bareilly]]
* [[Raza Academy]]
* [[Sunni Cultural Center, Karanthur]], Kerala
 
===Leadership and organisations===
[[File:Protest in U.P against Caricature of Prophet of Islam.jpg|thumb|400px|[[All India Ulema and Mashaikh Board|AIUMB
]] protest against caricature of Prophet of Islam in the city of [[Sambhal]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]].]]
* The [[Ajmer Sharif Dargah]] and [[Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat]] at [[Bareilly]] Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/zG3aMfKAuC26PNQsW8ODZJ/The-sufi-solution.html|title=The sufi solution|website=livemint.com|date=3 February 2012|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>
* Indian [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] form a substantial minority within the Muslim community of India comprising between 25 and 31% of total Muslim population in an estimation done during mid-2005 to 2006 of the then Indian Muslim population of 157&nbsp;million. Sources like [[The Times of India]] and [[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]] reported Indian [[Shia Islam|Shia]] population during that period between 40,000,000<ref name="TOI-20061106">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-06/lucknow/27799200_1_model-nikahnama-new-nikahnama-shia-personal-law-board |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811081425/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-06/lucknow/27799200_1_model-nikahnama-new-nikahnama-shia-personal-law-board |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 August 2011 |title=Shia women too can initiate divorce|location=India |date=6 November 2006 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=21 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="TOI-20061106b" /> to 50,000,000<ref name="DNA-20061106" /> of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.
*The Deobandi movement, another section of the Sunni Muslim population, originate from the [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], an influential religious seminary in the district of [[Saharanpur]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind]], founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, became a political mouthpiece for the Darul Uloom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arts.monash.edu.au/politics/terror-research/proceedings/gtrec-proceedings-2009-10-kamala-dash.pdf|title=Global Terrorism Research Centre (GTReC)|author=Monash Arts Online Presence Team|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>
* The [[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind]], founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an Islamic government and has been active in promoting education, social service and ecumenical outreach to the community.<ref>Introduction, A Historical Overview of Islam in South Asia, Islam in South Asia in Practice by Barbara D. Metcalf Princeton University Press, 2009. p. 32</ref>
 
==Culture==
===Indo-Islamic art and architecture===
{{main|Indo-Islamic architecture|Mughal painting}}
<gallery align="center">
File:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] is one of India's most iconic monuments.
File:Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg|A rebuilt structure of the old [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]], [[Kerala]], which is often considered as the first [[Mosque|''Masjid'']] of India
File:Bara Imambara Lucknow.jpg|Asafi Imambargah, also known as [[Bara Imambara]] at [[Lucknow]]
File:Delhi Humayun 02.JPG|The [[Humayun's Tomb]] in [[Delhi]]
File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|[[Gol Gumbaz]] at [[Bijapur, Karnataka|Bijapur]], Karnataka, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine [[Hagia Sophia]].
File:Bahauddin Makbara, Junagadh.jpg|''Bahauddin Makbara'', mausoleum of the [[Vizier|Wazir]] of [[Junagadh]], Gujarat
File:Mecca Masjid, Hyderabad, India.jpg|400-year-old [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid]], [[Hyderabad]]. (Photo: 1885)
File:The mosque within the bara imambara , lucknow.JPG|The Asafi Mosque within the [[Bara Imambara|Asafi Imambargah]] Complex at Lucknow
File:The Rumi Darwaza.JPG|The Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow
File:Gole gummaj.jpg|Gole-Gumma, Mousoleum of Nawab Wahab Khan, [[Kurnool]], Andhra Pradesh
File:Charminar.jpg|[[Charminar]], the most famous of the monuments of [[Hyderabad]]
File:RedFort LahoreGate.JPG| [[Red Fort]], [[Delhi]]
File:Jama Masjid, Delhi, morning view.jpg|[[Jama Masjid]], [[Delhi]], one of the largest mosques in [[India]]
</gallery>
 
[[Architecture of India]] took new shape with the advent of [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|Islamic rule in India]] towards the end of the 12th century CE. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles. [[Qutb complex#Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque|Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque]] built in 1193 CE was the first mosque to be built in the [[Indian subcontinent]]; its adjoining "Tower of Victory", the [[Qutb Minar]] also started around 1192 CE, which marked the victory of [[Muhammad of Ghor]] and his general [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]], from [[Ghazni]], Afghanistan, over local [[Rajput]] kings, is now a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in [[Delhi]].
 
In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order, i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate, i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilisations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the [[Indo-Islamic architecture]] was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.
 
[[Islamic architecture]] in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.
 
====Mosques====
{{Main|List of mosques in India}}
[[File:Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Charminar|Char Minar]] at Old City in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]].]]
There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including the [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newseastwest.com/multicultural-india-has-more-mosques-than-any-muslim-country/ |title=Multicultural India has more mosques than any Muslim country |publisher=Newseastwest.com |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109134740/http://newseastwest.com/multicultural-india-has-more-mosques-than-any-muslim-country/ |archive-date=9 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A ''[[mihrab]]'' indicates the direction of the ''qibla'' for prayer. Towards the right of the ''mihrab'' stands the ''minbar'' or pulpit from where the ''Imam'' presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.
 
====Tombs and Mausoleum====
The tomb or [[maqbara]] could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur ([[Taj Mahal]]). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the ''huzrah'' in whose centre is the cenotaph or ''zarih''. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the ''[[maqbara]]'', in which the corpse is buried in a grave or ''qabr''. Smaller tombs may have a ''mihrab'', although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or ''rauza'' is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a [[dargah]]. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.
 
====Styles of Islamic architecture in India====
Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191 to 1557 CE); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like [[Ahmedabad]], [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] and the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]; and the [[Mughal architecture]] style (1526 to 1707 CE).<ref>(Courtesy: Culturopedia.com)</ref>
 
==Law, Politics, and Government==
Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance and [[waqf]] properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.law.yale.edu/rcw/rcw/jurisdictions/assc/india/India_Musl_Personal.htm |title=Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937 – Resources for Jurisdictional Research, Yale |access-date=8 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728183442/http://www.law.yale.edu/rcw/rcw/jurisdictions/assc/india/India_Musl_Personal.htm |archive-date=28 July 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which was developed during British rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments.<ref name="Emory-19491126">{{cite web|url=http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/india.htm |title=India |publisher=law.emory.edu |date=26 November 1949 |access-date=18 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.law.yale.edu/research/guides/resources/outlines-muhammadan-law-fyzee-aaa-new-dehli-oup-2008-5th-ed |title=Outlines of Muhammadan Law / FYZEE, A.A.A." New Delhi : OUP, 2008 (5th ed.) &#124; Yale Law School Library |publisher=Library.law.yale.edu |date=2013-04-21 |access-date=2014-08-18}}</ref> Indian Muslim personal law is not developed as a Sharia law but as an interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part of [[common law]]. The [[Supreme Court of India]] has ruled that [[Sharia]] or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/11/world/hatreds-india-hindu-memory-scarred-centuries-sometimes-despotic-islamic-rule.html The Hatreds of India; Hindu Memory Scarred by Centuries Of Sometimes Despotic Islamic Rule] ''The New York Times'', Published: 11 December 1992</ref>
 
Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."<ref name="MPL">[http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/muslimperact/muslimpersonalact.htm The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211800/http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/muslimperact/muslimpersonalact.htm |date=5 February 2012 }} Vakilno1.com</ref> It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts, [[waqf]], wills and inheritance.<ref name="Emory-19491126" /> The courts generally apply the [[Hanafi]] Sunni law for Sunnis; Shia Muslims are independent of Sunni law for those areas where [[Shia Islam|Shia]] law differs substantially from Sunni practice.
 
The [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]] provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion. Article 44 of the constitution recommends a [[uniform civil code]]. However, attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under a common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. The [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]] was established for the protection and continued applicability of "Muslim Personal Law", i.e. Shariat Application Act in India. The [[Sachar Committee]] was asked to report about the condition of Muslims in India in 2005. Almost all the [[Sachar Committee|recommendations of the Sachar Committee]] have been implemented.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=50202 |title=Implementation of Sachar Committee recommendations |date=13 July 2009 |website=Press Information Bureau |publisher=Government of India |access-date=21 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minorityaffairs.gov.in/sachar |title=Sachar Committee Report |date=5 March 2014 |website=Ministry of Minority Affairs |publisher=Government of India |access-date=21 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317203317/http://www.minorityaffairs.gov.in/sachar |archive-date=17 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
The following laws/acts of Indian legislation are applicable to Muslims in India (except in the state of Goa) regarding matters of marriage, succession, inheritance, child adoption etc.
 
# Muslim Personal Law Sharia Application Act, 1937
# The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939
# [[The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986|Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986]]
 
Note: the above laws are not applicable in the state of Goa. The [[Goa civil code]], also called the Goa Family Law, is the set of civil laws that governs the residents of the Indian state of Goa. In India, as a whole, there are religion-specific civil codes that separately govern adherents of different religions. Goa is an exception to that rule, in that a single secular code/law governs all Goans, irrespective of religion, ethnicity or linguistic affiliation. The above laws are also not applicable to Muslims throughout India who had civil marriages under the [[Special Marriage Act, 1954]].
 
[[Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan]] is an Indian Muslim women's organisation in [[India]]. It released a draft on 23 June 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act', recommending that [[polygamy]] be made illegal in the [[Law of India|Muslim Personal Law]] of India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/no-second-wife-please/article6158039.ece|title=No second wife, please|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref>
 
The Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2016 was proposed for the changes in the citizenship and immigration norms of the country by relaxing the requirements for Indian citizenship. The applicability of the amendments are debated in news as it is on religious lines (excluding Muslims).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/67272/citizenship-amendment-bill-2016/|title=If India Wants to Stay Secular, the New Citizenship Bill Isn't the Way to Go|last=Garg|first=Lovish|website=thewire.in|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thequint.com/opinion/2016/07/29/narendra-modi-wants-bangladeshi-hindus-in-sonowal-wants-muslims-out|title=Modi Wants Bangladeshi Hindus in, Sonowal Wants Muslims Out|work=The Quint|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/%E2%80%98Citizenship-amendment-bill-communally-motivated%E2%80%99-Activists/article15007768.ece|title='Citizenship amendment bill communally motivated': Activists|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref>
 
India's Constitution and Parliament have protected the rights of Muslims but, according to some sources,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://harvardkennedyschoolreview.com/the-rising-tide-of-intolerance-in-narendra-modis-india/|title=The Rising Tide of Intolerance in Narendra Modi's India|date=2016-07-27|work=Kennedy School Review|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-34553015|title=A week of worrying about rising intolerance in India|last=Devichand|first=Mukul|date=2015-10-17|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/US-concerned-about-%E2%80%98rising-intolerance-violence%E2%80%99-in-India/article14517044.ece|title=US concerned about 'rising intolerance, violence' in India|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en}}</ref> there has been a growth in a 'climate of fear' and 'targeting of dissenters' under the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and [[First Modi ministry|Modi ministry]], affecting the feelings of security and tolerance amongst Indian Muslims. However, these allegations are not universally supported.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-myth-of-intolerant-india/|title=The myth of Intolerant India|date=2015-12-04|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2017-07-28|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
===Active Muslim political parties===
* [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]] (AIMIM), led by [[Asaduddin Owaisi]] active in states of [[Telangana]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Bihar]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Post Maharashtra win, Owaisi's MIM to contest 100 seats | website=The Indian Express | date=2 February 2015 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/post-maharashtra-win-owaisis-mim-to-contest-100-seats/ | access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>
* [[Indian Union Muslim League]] (IUML), led by [[E. Ahamed]] active in [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite web | title=IUML's crescent and star in question paper evokes protest | website=The Indian Express | date=18 March 2015 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/iumls-crescent-and-star-in-question-paper-evokes-protest/ | access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>
* [[All India United Democratic Front]] (AIUDF), led by [[Badruddin Ajmal]] active in [[Assam]] state.<ref>{{cite web | title=Ajmal's AIUDF makes foray into Bodo bastion, wins 4 seats | website=The Indian Express | date=15 April 2015 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/ajmals-aiudf-makes-foray-into-bodo-bastion-wins-4-seats/ | access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>
*[[Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference]] (JKPC), founded by Abdul Ghani Lone and Molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari.<ref>{{citation |first=Sten |last=Widmalm |title=The Rise and Fall of Democracy in Jammu and Kashmir |journal=Asian Survey |volume=37 |number=11 |date= November 1997 |pages=1005–1030 |jstor=2645738 |ref={{sfnref|Widmalm, The Rise and Fall of Democracy in Jammu and Kashmir|1997}} |doi=10.1525/as.1997.37.11.01p02937}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=Balraj |last=Puri |title=Fundamentalism in Kashmir, Fragmentation in Jammu |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=22 |number=22 |date=30 May 1987 |pages=835–837 |jstor=4377036 |ref={{sfnref|Puri, Fundamentalism in Kashmir, Fragmentation in Jammu|1987}}}}</ref> Led by Sajjad Lone.<ref>Rekha Chowdhary, [http://qz.com/317154/kashmir-election-has-reshaped-language-and-agenda-of-all-parties/ The Kashmir elections have reshaped the language and agenda of all parties], Quartz India, 23 December 2014</ref> It is active in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].
* [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference]] (NC) main party of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].
* [[Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party|Peoples Democratic Party]] (PDP) main party of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].
* [[Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party|Apni Party]] (JKAP) a newly formed party of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Peace Party of India]] of [[Mohamed Ayub]]
 
===Ghettoisation of Muslim areas===
[[Ghetto]]isation among Indian Muslims began in the mid-1970s when the first [[Religious violence in India|communal riots]] occurred. This was heightened after the [[1989 Bhagalpur violence]] in Bihar and became a trend after the [[demolition of the Babri Masjid]] in 1992. Soon several major cities developed [[ghetto]]s, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/subverse/Pariahs-in-our-own-home/articleshow/4436167.cms|title=Pariahs in our own home |work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref> This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the [[2002 Gujarat riots]], several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Banu|first=Musarrath|title=The Ghettoisation of Muslims in Bengaluru: Its Socio-Cultural and Economic Impact|url=https://www.academia.edu/6244911|website=academia.edu}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=COJRDb5RyJUC&pg=PA119&dq=Ghettoisation+of+Indian+muslims&as_brr=0#PPA119,M1 Post Gujarat Riots]  ''Crisis and contention in Indian society'', by T. K. Oommen.  Sage, 2005. {{ISBN|0-7619-3359-X}}. p. 119.</ref><ref>''Human Development and Social Power: Perspectives from South Asia'', by Ananya Mukherjee Reed. Published by Taylor & Francis, 2008. {{ISBN|0-415-77552-3}}. p. 149.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2030055.stm|title=BBC NEWS {{!}} World {{!}} South Asia {{!}} India's Muslims feel backlash|publisher=BBC|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref> This kind of ghettoisation can be seen in [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] and many cities of [[Gujarat]] where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods.
 
In places like [[Gujarat]], riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large-scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, the [[Juhapura]] area of [[Ahmedabad district|Ahmadabad]] has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/worlds-apart-in-a-divided-city/article5278661.ece|title=Worlds apart in a divided city|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en}}</ref>
 
An increase in [[ghetto]] living has also shown a strengthening of [[Stereotype|stereotyping]] due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. [[Secularism in India]] is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/in-indias-largest-muslim-ghetto/article7330090.ece|title=In India's largest Muslim ghetto|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30204806|title=Why segregated housing is thriving in India|last=Biswas|first=Soutik|date=2014-12-10|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/the-price-of-exclusion/article3232925.ece|title=The price of exclusion|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Muslims in government===
India has seen three Muslim presidents and many [[Chief Minister (India)|chief ministers]] of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the centre and at the state level.
 
===Haj subsidy===
{{Main|Haj subsidy}}
The government of India subsidises the cost of the airfare for [[Hajj]] pilgrims. All pilgrims travel on [[Air India]]. <!-- Dubious assertion commented out: but from 2011 pilgrims fly on planes operated by [[Hellenic International Airways]].<ref>{{cite news|last=George|first=Daniel P|title=Haj may cost less; new airline to carry pilgrims|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-17/chennai/29669335_1_haj-pilgrims-flight-tickets-and-accommodation-airline|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108175024/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-17/chennai/29669335_1_haj-pilgrims-flight-tickets-and-accommodation-airline|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 January 2012|access-date=14 July 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=17 June 2011}}</ref>--> In compliance with [[Supreme Court of India]] and Allahabad High Court directions, the Government of India has proposed that, starting from 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person will be decreased and by 2017 will be ended completely.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Abolish-Haj-subsidy-in-10-years-Supreme-Court/articleshow/13058161.cms|title=Abolish Haj subsidy in 10 years: Supreme Court|work=The Times of India|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Ranjan|first=Amitav|title=Haj subsidy cuts start soon|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/haj-subsidy-cuts-start-soon/696844/|access-date=14 July 2011|newspaper=The India Express|date=13 October 2010}}</ref> Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]] and general secretary of the [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind]], declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic [[Sharia]], since the [[Quran]] declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/haj-subsidy-unislamic-use-that-money-on-our-education-health/16740/ |title=Haj subsidy unIslamic, use that money on our education, health |work=The Indian Express |date=17 November 2006 |access-date=2012-05-10}}</ref> Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/newdelhi/Muslim-leaders-back-cutting-Haj-subsidy/Article1-529806.aspx |title=Muslim leaders back cutting Haj subsidy |work=Hindustan Times |date=11 April 2010 |access-date=2012-05-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121122532/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/newdelhi/Muslim-leaders-back-cutting-Haj-subsidy/Article1-529806.aspx |archive-date=21 January 2012}}</ref>
 
Out of the 12 [[President of India|Presidents of the Republic of India]], three were Muslims – [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]], [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] and [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]. Additionally, [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]], [[Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi]], [[Mirza Hameedullah Beg]] and [[Altamas Kabir]] held the office of the [[Chief Justice of India]] on various occasions since independence. [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]] also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the [[President of India]], the [[Vice-President of India]] and the [[Chief Justice of India]].<ref name="M. Hidayatullah"/><ref name="EBC article on J. Hidayatullah"/>
 
The former [[Vice-President of India]], [[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]], former Foreign Minister [[Salman Khurshid]] and former Director (Head) of the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Ibrahim was the first Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. [[S. Y. Quraishi]] served as the [[Chief Election Commissioner of India]].<ref name="yahind.com"/> He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include [[Abid Hussain]], [[Ali Yavar Jung]] and [[Asaf Ali]]. [[Zafar Saifullah]] was [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretary]] of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Salman Haidar was the [[Foreign Secretary (India)|Foreign Secretary]] from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.<ref name="apcd.anu.edu.au"/><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/> Influential Muslim politicians in India include [[Sheikh Abdullah]], [[Farooq Abdullah]] and his son [[Omar Abdullah]] (former Chief Minister of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]), [[Mufti Mohammad Sayeed]], [[Mehbooba Mufti]], [[Sikander Bakht]], [[A. R. Antulay]], [[Ahmed Patel]], [[C. H. Mohammed Koya]], [[A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury]], [[Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi]], [[Salman Khurshid]], [[Saifuddin Soz]], [[E. Ahamed]], [[Ghulam Nabi Azad]], [[Syed Shahnawaz Hussain]], [[Asaduddin Owaisi]], [[Azam Khan (politician)|Azam Khan]] and [[Badruddin Ajmal]], [[Najma Heptulla]].
 
==Conflict, and controversy==
===Conversion controversy===
{{See also|Medieval India|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Religious violence in India|Persecution of Hindus#Medieval persecution by Muslim rulers}}
[[File:Sun temple martand indogreek.jpg|right|thumb|Ruins of the [[Surya]] Temple at [[Martand]], which was destroyed due to the iconoclastic policies of [[Sikandar Butshikan]], photo taken by John Burke in 1868.]]
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Somnath temple ruins (1869).jpg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 = Somnath temple in ruins, 1869
| caption1  = Somnath temple in ruins, 1869
| image2 = Somnath-current.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 = Front view of the present Somnath Temple
| caption2 = Front view of the present Somnath Temple
| footer = The [[Somnath temple]] was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] and repeatedly rebuilt after being demolished by successive Muslim rulers, including the Mughals under [[Aurangzeb]].
}}
Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:<ref name="der Veer">der Veer, pp. 27–29</ref>
 
# The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the [[Iranian Plateau]] or Arabs.<ref name="Eaton">Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.[http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft067n99v9/ Online version last accessed on 1 May 2007]</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2015}}
# Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes<ref name="der Veer"/><ref name="Eaton"/>
# Conversion was a result of the actions of [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Sufism|Sufi]] saints and involved a genuine change of heart.<ref name="der Veer"/>
# Conversion came from [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive [[Caste system in India|Hindu caste strictures]].<ref name="Eaton"/>
# A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart.<ref name="der Veer"/>
# As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant [[Muslim world|Muslim civilisation and global polity]] at large.<ref name="Eaton"/>
 
Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to [[Islamization|Islamize]] the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of the [[Partition of India|partition]] and [[communalism]] in India.<ref name="der Veer"/>
 
Historians such as [[Will Durant]] described Islamic invasions of India as "The bloodiest story in history.<ref>{{cite book|last=Durant|first=Will|author-link=Will Durant|title=The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage |page= 459}}</ref><ref name=willdurant>Will Durant (1976), The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0671548001}}, pp. 458–472, Quote: "The Mohammedan conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. It is a discouraging tale, for its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing, whose delicate complex of order and liberty, culture and peace may at any time be overthrown by barbarians invading from without or multiplying within. The Hindus had allowed their strength to be wasted in internal division and war; they had adopted religions like Buddhism and Jainism, which unnerved them for the tasks of life; they had failed to organize their forces for the protection of their frontiers and their capitals."</ref> [[Jadunath Sarkar]] contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic [[jihad]] against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects".<ref>{{cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Jadunath|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |title=How the Muslims forcibly converted the Hindus of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to Islam}}</ref> Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the [[Caste system among South Asian Muslims|Muslim Caste System]] in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the ''Fatawa-i Jahandari'',<ref name="Sikand" /> where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes.<ref name="one">{{cite book|last=Aggarwal|first=Patrap|title=Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India|publisher=Manohar|year=1978}}</ref> Others argue that, during the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]], Indian-origin religions experienced persecution from various Muslim conquerors<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tv-4tyO9u_QC&pg=PA248|title=Beyond Orientalism: The Work of Wilhelm Halbfass and Its Impact on Indian and Cross-cultural Studies|author=Eli Franco, Karin Preisendanz|page=248|publisher=Motlilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120831100|year=2007}}</ref> who massacred Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, attacked temples and monasteries, and forced conversions on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19mPVOBZ_9YC&pg=PA16|title=The Making of Terrorism in Pakistan: Historical and Social Roots of Extremism|author=Eamon Murphy|page=16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415565264|year=2013}}</ref>
 
Disputers of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as a refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today.
 
Muslim invaders were not all simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born to Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of [[Ibn Battuta]] who travelled through [[Delhi]] in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, [[Greater Iran|Persia]] and [[Anatolia]] were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts, suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (''The Wonder That Was India – II'') however points to [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://india_resource.tripod.com/islam.html |title=Islam and the sub-continent – appraising its impact |access-date=27 November 2006 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209030754/india_resource.tripod.com/islam.html |archive-date=9 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
Numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyXxEX5PQH8C&pg=PA362|title=Ornament in Indian Architecture|first=Margaret Prosser|last=Allen|page=362|isbn=978-0874133998 |publisher=University of Delaware Press|year=1991}}</ref> Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors,<ref>Richard M. Eaton, ''Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States'', Part II, ''[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]'', 5 January 2001, 70–77.[http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples2.pdf]</ref> but notes this was not unusual in [[medieval India]] where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.<ref name="Eaton-dec">{{cite journal|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|title=Temple desecration in pre-modern India|journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=December 2000|volume=17|issue=25|publisher=[[The Hindu Group]]|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1725/17250620.htm}}</ref><ref name="Eaton-sep">{{cite journal|last1=Eaton|first1=Richard M.|title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States|journal=[[Journal of Islamic Studies]]|date=September 2000|volume=11|issue=3|pages=283–319|doi=10.1093/jis/11.3.283|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Eaton-2004">{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|title=Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India|date=2004|publisher=Hope India Publications|location=Gurgaon|isbn=978-8178710273}}</ref> He also notes there were many instances of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources, and that attacks on temples had significantly declined under the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Richard M. |last=Eaton |url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf |title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States |year=2000 |page=297 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106040012/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref>
 
[[K. S. Lal]], in his book ''[[Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India]]'', claimed that between 1000 and 1500 the Indian population decreased by 30&nbsp;million,<ref>{{citation |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |author-link=K.S. Lal |title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmBuAAAAMAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |isbn=978-81-86471-72-2 |page=343}}: "I have arrived at the conclusion that the population of India in A.D. 1000 was about 200 million and in the year 1500 it was 170 million."</ref> but stated his estimates were tentative and did not claim any finality.<ref>{{citation |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |author-link=K.S. Lal |title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7U8AQAAIAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Research Publications |isbn=978-81-86471-72-2 |page=89}}</ref><ref name=Elst>{{citation |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |author-link=Koenraad Elst |chapter=The Ayodhya Debate |editor=Gilbert Pollet |title=Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact : Proceedings of the 8th International Rāmāyaạ Conference, Leuven, 6–8 July 1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C |year=1995 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-6831-701-5 |page=33}}</ref><ref name=Miller>{{citation |last=Miller |first=Sam |author-link=Sam Miller (journalist) |chapter=A Third Intermission|title=A Strange Kind of Paradise: India Through Foreign Eyes |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FnOAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-14-4819-220-5 |page=80}}</ref> His work has come under [[Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India#Criticism|criticism]] by historians such as [[Simon Digby (oriental scholar)|Simon Digby]] ([[SOAS, University of London]]) and [[Irfan Habib]] for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times.<ref name="Digby1975">{{cite journal |last=Digby |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Digby (oriental scholar) |year=1975 |title=Reviews: K. S. Lal: ''Growth of Muslim population in medieval India (A.D. 1000-1800)'' |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3802960&fulltextType=BR&fileId=S0041977X0004739X |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=176–177 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X0004739X |jstor=614231}}</ref><ref name="Habib">{{cite journal |last=Habib |first=Irfan |author-link=Irfan Habib |date=January 1978 |title=Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate - An Essay in Interpretation |journal=The Indian Historical Review |volume=IV |issue=2 |pages=287–303}}</ref> Different population estimates by economics historians [[Angus Maddison]] and Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35&nbsp;million during that time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2006}}</ref><ref>Biraben, Jean-Noël (2003). "The rising numbers of humankind", ''Populations & Societies'' '''394'''.</ref> The [[Demographics of India|Indian population]] estimates from other economic historians including [[Colin Clark (economist)|Colin Clark]], John D. Durand and [[Colin McEvedy]] also show there was a population increase in India between 1000 and 1500.<ref name="maddison">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=242 pp. 241–242], [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref><ref name="maddison236">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=237 p. 236], [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref>
 
===Relations non-Muslim communities===
 
====Muslim–Hindu conflict====
{{See also|Persecution of Muslims|Persecution of Hindus#During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent|Religious violence in India|Anti-Muslim violence in India}}
[[File:North East Delhi Riots 2020 (1).jpg|thumb|right|Muslim homes and businesses burned during the [[2020 Delhi riots]].<ref>{{citation|last=Ameen|first=Furquan|title=Shiv Vihar: Home for 15 years, but not any more|work=The Telegraph, Kolkata|date = 28 February 2020|location = New Delhi|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/shiv-vihar-home-for-15-years-but-not-any-more/cid/1749520}}</ref>]]
;Before 1947
The conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent has a complex history which can be said to have begun with the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]'s invasion of [[Sindh]] in 711. The persecution of Hindus during the Islamic expansion in India during the medieval period was characterised by destruction of temples, often illustrated by historians by the repeated destruction of the Hindu Temple at [[Somnath]]<ref>
{{cite web | url=http://www.indhistory.com/somnath-temple.html|title=Somnath Temple | access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl1608/16081210.htm | title=Somanatha and Mahmud | access-date=17 April 2008 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517102331/http://www.flonnet.com/fl1608/16081210.htm | archive-date=17 May 2008}}</ref> and the anti-Hindu practices of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Aurangzeb]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Richards | first = John F. | title = The Mughal Empire | year = 1995 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-56603-7 | pages = 130, 177}}</ref>
Although there were instances of conflict between the two groups, a number of Hindus worshipped and continue to worship at the tombs of Muslim Sufi Saints.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burman|first=J. J. Roy|title=Hindu-Muslim Syncretic Shrines and Communities|year=2002|publisher=Naurang Rai for Mittal Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7099-839-5| pages = 26, 27}}</ref>
 
During the [[Noakhali riots]] in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.<ref name="khan68-69">{{cite book |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn= 978-0-300-12078-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan |url-access=registration |quote=Noakhali. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan/page/68 68]–69}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fatal flaw in communal violence bill |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/column/fatal-flaw-in-communal-violence-bill/20110602.htm |newspaper=Rediff.com |date=July 2, 2011 |access-date=August 2, 2011}}</ref>
 
;From 1947 to 1991
The aftermath of the [[Partition of India]] in 1947 saw large scale [[Sectarian violence|sectarian strife]] and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These include the [[1969 Gujarat riots]], the [[1970 Bhiwandi riots]], the 1983 [[Nellie massacre]], and the [[1989 Bhagalpur violence]]. These conflicts stem in part from the ideologies of [[Hindu nationalism]] and [[Islamic extremism]]. Since independence, [[India]] has always maintained a [[Indian constitution|constitutional]] commitment to [[secularism]].
 
;Since 1992
The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period was compromised greatly by the razing of the [[Babri Mosque]] in [[Ayodhya]]. The demolition took place in 1992 and was perpetrated by the [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]] [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and organisations like [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]], [[Bajrang Dal]], [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]] and [[Shiv Sena]]. This was followed by [[tit for tat]] violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country, giving rise to the [[Bombay riots]] and the [[1993 Bombay bombings]].
 
In the [[1998 Prankote massacre]], 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.<ref name="jk9">[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/20/world/gunmen-kill-25-hindus-in-kashmir-attacks.html] 26 Hindus beheeaded by Islamist militants in Kashmir</ref>
 
'''Kashmir (1990s)'''
 
During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the native [[Kashmiri Pandit|Kashmiri Hindus]] were forced into an exodus from [[Kashmir]], a Muslim-majority region in Northern India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1246_land/page9.shtml|title=Paradise Lost|publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.rediff.com/news/2005/jan/19kanch.htm|title=19 January 1990:When Kashmiri Pandits fled Islamic terrorists|work=Rediff.com}}</ref> Mosques issued warnings, telling them to leave Kashmir, convert to Islam or be killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/kashmiri-pandits-offered-three-choices-by-radical-islamists/|title=Kashmiri Pandits offered three choices by radical Islamists}}</ref> Approximately 300,000–350,000 pandits left the valley during the mid-80s and the 90s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ |title=CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2013-03-28}}</ref> Many of them have been living in abject conditions in refugee camps of [[Jammu]].<ref name="rediff1">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/column/kashmiri-pandits-remain-refugees-in-their-own-nation/20120119.htm |title=23 years on, Kashmiri Pandits remain refugees in their own nation |publisher=Rediff.com India News|date=2012-01-19 |access-date=2013-03-28}}</ref>
 
'''Gujarat (2002)'''
 
One of the most violent events in recent times took place during the [[2002 Gujarat riots|Gujarat riots]] in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.<ref name="India's Great Divide">[https://web.archive.org/web/20030806223353/http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story.html India's Great Divide]. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</ref> There were also allegations made of state involvement.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030807013939/http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story2.html India's Great Divide]. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/002200411132124.htm Demand for CBI probe into Zaheera's u-turn] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505143121/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/002200411132124.htm |date=5 May 2007 }}.''[[The Hindu]]''. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</ref> The riots were in retaliation to the [[Godhra train burning]] in which 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed site of the [[Babri Masjid]], were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2203/stories/20050211004203200.htm|title=Still a burning question|website=frontline.in|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Banerjee-panel-illegal-Gujarat-HC/articleshow/1457456.cms|title=Banerjee panel illegal: Gujarat HC |work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref>
 
[[Image:Ahmedabad riots1.jpg|right|thumb|The skyline of [[Moradabad]] filled with smoke as buildings and shops are set on fire.<ref>These figures were reported to the Rajya Sabha by the Union Minister of State for Home Affairs Sriprakash Jaiswal in May 2005. {{cite news |title=Gujarat riot death toll revealed |work=BBC News |date=11 May 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4536199.stm }} {{cite news |title=BJP cites govt statistics to defend Modi |agency=Press Trust of India |publisher=ExpressIndia |date=12 May 2005 |url=http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=46626 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226131020/http://news.indiainfo.com/2005/05/11/1105godhra-rs.html |archive-date=26 February 2009}} {{cite news |title=254 Hindus, 790 Muslims killed in post-Godhra riots |agency=Press Trust of India |publisher=Indiainfo.com |date=11 May 2005 |url=http://news.indiainfo.com/2005/05/11/1105godhra-rs.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226131020/http://news.indiainfo.com/2005/05/11/1105godhra-rs.html |archive-date=26 February 2009 }}</ref>]]
 
In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by the [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a dark age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".<ref name="guardian">Ramesh, Randeep. [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jun/26/india.schoolsworldwide Another rewrite for India's history books], ''[[The Guardian]]''.</ref> In one textbook, it was purported that the [[Taj Mahal]], the [[Qutb Minar]] and the [[Red Fort]] – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jun/26/india.schoolsworldwide|title=Another rewrite for India's history books|last=Ramesh|first=Randeep|date=2004-06-25|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
 
'''West Bengal (2010)'''
 
In the [[2010 Deganga riots]], rioting began on 6 September 2010, when an [[Islamist]] mob resorted to arson and violence on the [[Hindu]] neighborhoods of [[Deganga (community development block)|Deganga]], Kartikpur and Beliaghata under the [[Deganga (community development block)|Deganga]] police station area. The violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. The [[West Bengal Police|district police]], [[Rapid Action Force]], [[Central Reserve Police Force]] and [[Border Security Force]] all failed to stop the [[Riot|mob violence]] and the [[Indian Army|Army]] was finally deployed.<ref name="toi1">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-09-08/india/28230267_1_communal-clash-indo-bangla-deganga |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103093628/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-09-08/india/28230267_1_communal-clash-indo-bangla-deganga |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 November 2012 |title=Communal clash near Bangla border, Army deployed  |date=8 September 2010 |access-date=11 September 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]] |location=Kolkata}}</ref><ref name="toi2">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-09-08/kolkata/28268373_1_deganga-army-personnel-senior-army-official |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103132107/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-09-08/kolkata/28268373_1_deganga-army-personnel-senior-army-official |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 November 2012 |title=Army out after Deganga rioting  |date=8 September 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=11 September 2010 }}</ref><ref name="express1">{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/Curfew-in-Bengal-district--Army-called-in/678774 |title=Curfew in Bengal district, Army called in |work=The Indian Express |date=8 September 2010 |access-date=11 September 2010 |location=Kolkata}}</ref><ref name="hindu1">{{cite news |first=Raktima |last=Bose |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/09/08/stories/2010090859680100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100910005112/http://hindu.com/2010/09/08/stories/2010090859680100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 September 2010 |title=Youth killed in group clash |date=8 September 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=11 September 2010 }}</ref> The Army staged a flag march on the Taki Road, while [[Islamism|Islamist]] violence continued unabated in the interior villages off the Taki Road, till Wednesday in spite of the Army's presence and promulgation of prohibitory orders under section 144 of the [[Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973|CrPC]].
 
'''Assam (2012)'''
 
At least 77 people died<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.news18.com/videos/india/subho-fake-8am-v-732858.html|title=Ground report: Death toll in Bodo attack mounts to 70|website=News18|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref> and 400,000 people were displaced in the [[2012 Assam violence]] between indigenous [[Bodo people|Bodos]] and East Bengal rooted Muslims.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/29/world/asia/after-tensions-in-indias-east-turn-deadly-claims-officials-turned-a-blind-eye.html|title=As Tensions in India Turn Deadly, Some Say Officials Ignored Warning Signs|last=Harris|first=Gardiner|date=2012-07-28|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 
'''Delhi (2020)'''
 
The [[2020 Delhi riots]], which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,<ref>{{cite news |title=Delhi riots: Violence that killed 53 in Indian capital 'was anti-Muslim pogrom', says top expert |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/independentpremium/world/delhi-riots-pogrom-violence-deaths-modi-bjp-india-police-a9384891.html |work=The Independent |date=7 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=For Jews, the New Delhi riots have a painfully familiar ring |url=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/for-jews-the-new-delhi-riots-have-a-painfully-familiar-ring/ |work=The Times of Israel |date=11 March 2020}}</ref> were triggered by protests against a [[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019|citizenship law]] seen by many critics as [[Islamophobia|anti-Muslim]] and part of Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]]'s [[Hindu nationalist]] agenda.<ref>{{cite news |title=Anti-Muslim violence in Delhi serves Modi well |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/feb/26/violence-delhi-modi-project-bjp-citizenship-law |work=The Guardian |date=26 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Modi slammed as death toll in New Delhi violence rises |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/02/modi-slammed-death-toll-delhi-violence-rises-200226192504695.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=26 February 2020}}</ref>
 
====Muslim–Sikh conflict====
{{Main|Islam and Sikhism}}
{{See also|Chhōtā Ghallūghārā}}
[[Sikhism]] emerged in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] during the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period. Conflict between early Sikhs and the Muslim power center at Delhi reached an early high point in 1606 when [[Guru Arjan]], the fifth guru of the Sikhs, was tortured and killed by Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. After the death of the fifth beloved Guru his son took his spot as [[Guru Hargobind]], who basically made the Sikhs a warrior religion. Guru ji was the first to defeat the Mughal empire in a battle which had taken place in present [[Sri Hargobindpur]] in [[Gurdaspur]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Shackle|first=Christopher|author2=Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh|year=2005|title=Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures|publisher=Routledge|location=United Kingdom|isbn=0-415-26604-1|pages=xv–xvi}}</ref> After this point the Sikhs were forced to organise themselves militarily for their protection. Later in the 16th century, [[Guru Tegh Bahadur|Tegh Bahadur]] became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Teg Bahadur was executed by the Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] for helping to protect Hindus, after a delegation of [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rama|first=Swami|year=1986|title=Celestial Song/Gobind Geet: The Dramatic Dialogue Between Guru Gobind Singh and Banda Singh Bahadur|publisher=Himalayan Institute Press|isbn = 0-89389-103-7|pages=7–8}}</ref> At this point [[Aurangzeb]] had instituted forceful conversions on the basis of charging citizens with crimes then sparing them from punishments (up to death) if they converted. This led to a high increase of violence between the Sikhs and Hindus as well as rebellions in [[Aurangzeb]]'s empire. This is an early example which illustrates how the Hindu-Muslim conflict and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts are connected. After this Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs helped the next successor of the throne of India to rise, who was Bahadur Shah Zafar. For a certain period of time good relations were maintained somewhat like they were in [[Akbar]]'s time until disputes arose again. The Mughal period saw various invaders coming into India through Punjab with which they would loot and severely plunder. Better relations have been seen by [[Dulla Bhatti]], [[Mian Mir]], Pir Budhu Shah, Pir Bhikham Shah, [[Bulleh Shah]].
 
In 1699, the [[Khalsa]] was founded by [[Guru Gobind Singh]], the last guru. A former ascetic was charged by Gobind Singh with the duty of punishing those who had persecuted the Sikhs. After the guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the leader of the Sikh army and was responsible for several attacks on the Mughal empire. He was executed by the emperor [[Jahandar Shah]] after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|author-link=Khushwant Singh|year=2006|title=The Illustrated History of the Sikhs|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=India|isbn = 0-19-567747-1|pages=47–53}}</ref> The decline of Mughal power during the 17th and 18th centuries, along with the growing strength of the [[Sikh Empire]], resulted in a balance of power which protected the Sikhs from more violence. The Sikh empire was absorbed into the British Indian empire after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] of 1849.
 
Massive population exchanges took place during the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, where the western parts were assigned to Pakistan, while the eastern parts went to India. 5.3&nbsp;million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, as 3.4&nbsp;million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat3.htm#India|title=War Stats Redirect |access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>
 
Tens of thousands of Muslims are living with a disguised identity as Sikhs since the confessional cleansing during the [[Partition of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sabrang.com/cc/archive/2001/march01/history.htm|title=CC current issue|last=Irfan|website=sabrang.com|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>
 
====Muslim–Christian conflict====
[[Image:JamalabadFortPassage.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Jamalabad|Jamalabad fort]] route. Mangalorean Catholics had travelled through this route on their way to [[Srirangapatna]].]]
 
In spite of the fact that there have been relatively fewer conflicts between Muslims and Christians in India in comparison to those between Muslims and Hindus, or Muslims and Sikhs, the relationship between Muslims and Christians has also been occasionally turbulent. With the advent of European colonialism in India with the demise of the Mughal empire beginning in the 18th century, Christians were persecuted in some Muslim-ruled princely states in India.
 
;Anti-Christian persecution by [[Tipu Sultan]] in the 17th century
Perhaps the most infamous acts of anti-Christian persecution by Muslims were committed by [[Tipu Sultan]], the ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], against the [[Mangalorean Catholics]]. Tipu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. The [[Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam|captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Srirangapatna]], which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.<ref name="dajser">{{cite web
|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=28
|title=Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)
|access-date=29 February 2008
|publisher=[[Daiji World|Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore]]
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129233351/http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/achievers_view.asp?a_id=28
|archive-date=29 January 2008
}}</ref>
 
====Muslim–Buddhist conflict====
In 1989 there was a social boycott by the Buddhists of the Muslims of [[Leh district]]. The boycott remained in force till 1992. Relations between the Buddhists and Muslims in Leh improved after the lifting of the boycott, although suspicions remained.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.countercurrents.org/comm-sikand130206.htm|title=Muslim-Buddhist Clashes in Ladakh: The Politics Behind The 'Religious' Conflict By Yoginder Sikand|website=countercurrents.org|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>
 
===Caste system among Indian Muslims===
{{Main|Caste system among South Asian Muslims}}
Although [[Islam]] does not recognize any [[caste]]s, the caste system among South Asian Muslims refers to units of social stratification that have developed among Muslims in South Asia.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/deep-focus/Being-Muslim-in-India-means-Syeds-spit-on-Julahas-in-an-egalitarian-community/articleshow/5935797.cms|title=Being Muslim in India means Syeds spit on Julahas in an 'egalitarian community'}}</ref>
 
====Stratification====
{{See also|Persecution of minority Muslim groups}}
In some parts of South Asia, the Muslims are divided as Ashrafs and Ajlafs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/the-muslim-obcs-and-affirmative-action/233259|title=The Muslim OBCs And Affirmative Action |author= Sachar Committee Report}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm
|title=On reservation for Muslims
|author=Asghar Ali Engineer
|work=The Milli Gazette
|publisher=Pharos Media & Publishing Pvt Ltd
|access-date=1 September 2004
}}</ref> Ashrafs claim to be derived from their foreign ancestry.<ref name="pratap_caste"/><ref name="zarina_social_strat" /> They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/inclusive-lessons/article20663394.ece|title=Inclusive lessons}}</ref><ref name="zarina_social_strat" />
 
Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Sayyid] be given a higher social status than the others.<ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 124–143</ref> His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam.<ref name="Das"/> His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over [[Sharia]] law whenever they were in conflict.<ref name="Das"/> Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]".<ref name="Das"/> He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.<ref name="Sikand"/> Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste.<ref name="Das"/>
 
In addition to the ashraf/ajlaf divide, there is also the ''arzal'' caste among Muslims,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?}}</ref> who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb [[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]] as the equivalent of untouchables.<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last = Ambedkar |first = Bhimrao |author-link = B.R. Ambedkar |title = Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher=Thackers Publishers  }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India'']</ref> The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.idsn.org/Documents/asia/pdf/Bangladesh_full_report.pdf
|title=Consultative Meeting on the situation of Dalits in Bangladesh
|author=Gitte Dyrhagen and Mazharul Islam
|publisher=International Dalit Solidarity Network
|date=18 October 2006
|access-date=12 June 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070803023637/http://www.idsn.org/Documents/asia/pdf/Bangladesh_full_report.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 3 August 2007}}</ref> They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/12109.html Dereserve these myths] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516075059/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/12109.html |date=16 May 2008 }} by Tanweer Fazal,''Indian express''</ref>
 
Some South Asian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according to ''qaums''.<ref name="barth_leach_aspects">{{cite book
| last = Barth
| first = Fredrik
| editor = E. R. Leach
| title = Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan
| access-date =12 June 2007
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| chapter = The System of Social Stratification in Swat, North Pakistan
| chapter-url =https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517
| page = 113
| year =  1962
}}</ref> Studies of [[Bengali Muslims]] in India indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status.<ref name="zarina_social_strat" /> [[Muslim Rajputs|Muslim Rajput]] is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.
 
Some of the upper and middle caste Muslim communities include [[Sayyid|Syed]], [[Shaikhs in South Asia|Shaikh]], [[Shaikhzada]], [[Khanzada Rajputs|Khanzada]], [[Rohilla|Pathan]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughal]], and [[Malik clan (Bihar)|Malik]].<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web
|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm
|title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial
|author=Anand Mohan Sahay
|work=[[Rediff.com]]
|access-date=6 March 2003
}}</ref> Genetic data has also supported this stratification.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/human_biology/v077/77.3aarzoo.pdf Gene Diversity in Some Muslim Populations of North India] ''Human Biology – Volume 77, Number 3, June 2005, pp. 343–353'' – [http://muse.jhu.edu/about/publishers/waynestate Wayne State University Press]</ref> In three genetic studies representing the whole of South Asian Muslims, it was found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated with minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the Arabian Peninsula.<ref name="genestudy"/>
 
The [[Sachar Committee]]'s report commissioned by the government of India and released in 2006, documents the continued stratification in Muslim society.
 
====Interaction and mobility====
Data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.<ref name="Muslim Communities">{{cite book
| last = Madan
| first = T.N.
| title = Muslim communities of South Asia: culture and society
| year = 1976
| publisher=Vkas Publishing House
| isbn = 978-0-7069-0462-8
| page = 114
}}</ref> They have good interactions with the other communities. They participate in marriages and funerals and other religious and social events in other communities. Some of them also had inter-caste marriages since centuries but mostly they preferred to marry in the same caste.
 
In [[Bihar]] state of India, cases had been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial"/>
 
====Criticism====
Some Muslim scholars have tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism.<ref name="Sikand" />
 
While some scholars theorize that Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus,<ref name="Sikand"/><ref name="Muslim Communities" /> Dr. Babasaheb [[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]] argued otherwise, arguing the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/> He was critical of Ashraf antipathy towards the Ajlaf and Arzal and attempts to palliate sectarian divisions. He condemned the Indian Muslim community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries such as [[Turkey]] did during the early decades of the twentieth century.<ref name="Ambedkar" /><ref name="Ambedkaronline" />
 
==Prominent Muslims in India==
<!-- Please do not add sub-sections -->
India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world.
Out of the 12 [[President of India|Presidents of the Republic of India]], three were Muslims – [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]], [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] and [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]. Additionally, 4 Muslims: [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]], [[Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi]], [[Mirza Hameedullah Beg]] and [[Altamas Kabir]] held the office of the [[Chief Justice of India]]. [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]] also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the [[President of India]], the [[Vice-President of India]] and the [[Chief Justice of India]].<ref name="M. Hidayatullah">{{cite web|url=http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/judges/bio/mhidayatullah.htm|title=M. Hidayatullah|publisher=[[Supreme Court of India]]|access-date=8 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106034450/http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/judges/bio/mhidayatullah.htm|archive-date=6 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="EBC article on J. Hidayatullah">{{cite web|url=http://www.ebc-india.com/lawyer/articles/92v4a2.htm |title= EBC article on J. Hidayatullah |publisher=EBC (India) |access-date=8 June 2008 }}</ref>
 
The former [[Vice-President of India]], [[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]], former Foreign Minister [[Salman Khurshid]] are Muslims. Dr. [[S. Y. Quraishi]] and [[Syed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi]] both served as the [[Chief Election Commissioner of India]] .<ref name="yahind.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.yahind.com/news/directory.php?id=408|title=S.Y. Quraishi appointed as election commissioner of India from YaHind.Com|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref> Prominent Indian Muslim bureaucrats and diplomats include [[Abid Hussain]], [[Ali Yavar Jung]] and [[Asaf Ali]]. [[Zafar Saifullah]] was [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretary]] of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.<ref name="ReferenceA">Pg 252, Independent India: the first fifty years, Hiranmay Karlekar, Indian Council for Cultural Relations, Oxford University Press, 1998</ref> Salman Haidar was [[Foreign Secretary (India)|Indian Foreign Secretary]] from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.<ref name="apcd.anu.edu.au">{{cite web |url=http://apcd.anu.edu.au/transforum/2004/participants.html |title=2004 Transnational Policy Forum Participants |website=Asia-Pacific College of Diplomacy |publisher=Australian National University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060505102848/http://apcd.anu.edu.au/transforum/2004/participants.html |archive-date=5 May 2006}}</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/nol/shared/spl/hi/programmes/analysis/transcripts/15_03_07.txt|title=Anchor Aweigh?|work=BBC News }}</ref> Numerous Muslims have achieved high rank in the [[Indian Police Service]], with several attaining the rank of [[Director general of police]] and serving as commanders of both state and [[Central Armed Police Forces]]. In 2013, IPS officer [[Syed Asif Ibrahim]] became the first Muslim Director of the Intelligence Bureau, the seniormost appointment in the service. There have been seven Muslim Chief Ministers of [[List of state and union territory capitals in India|Indian states]] (other than [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]):
# [[Barkatullah Khan]] ([[Rajasthan]]: 1971–73)
# [[Abdul Ghafoor (politician)|Abdul Ghafoor]] ([[Bihar]]: 1973–75)
# [[C. H. Mohammed Koya]] ([[Kerala]]: 1979)
# [[Anwara Taimur]] ([[Assam]]: 1980–81)
# [[A. R. Antulay]] ([[Maharashtra]]: 1980–82)
# [[Mohammed Alimuddin]] ([[Manipur]]: 1973–74)
# [[M. O. H. Farook]] was a three-time CM of the Union Territory of [[Pondicherry]].
 
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Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include [[Dilip Kumar|Yusuf Khan]] (stage name Dilip Kumar),<ref>Tanuja Chandra (3 March 2004) [http://sify.com/entertainment/movies/bollywood/celebcolumns/fullstory.php?id=13418077 Dilip Kumar: Silent Revolutionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040428030606/http://sify.com/entertainment/movies/bollywood/celebcolumns/fullstory.php?id=13418077 |date=28 April 2004 }} Sify Movies. Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Shah Rukh Khan]],<ref>Zubair Ahmed (23 September 2005) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4274774.stm Who's the real Shah Rukh Khan?] BBC News Retrieved on 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Aamir Khan]],<ref>[http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/interview/6383.html Aamir speaks out on alienation as a Muslim] IndiaGlitz (5 August 2005). Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Saif Ali Khan]],<ref name=sak>Deepa Gahlot (July 1998) [http://www.sabrang.com/cc/comold/august98/saif.htm ‘Religion played a major role in my upbringing’] [[Sabrang Communications]]. Retrieved 3 April 2009.</ref><ref>Subhash K Jha (21 August 2008) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130509215025/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-21/news-interviews/27923991_1_saif-muslim-societies ''‘I went to a Muslim builder,' says Saif''] ''The Times of India''. Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Madhubala]],<ref>[http://www.topnews.in/interesting-facts-and-figures-madhubala-2140744 Madhubala] Top News. Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]],<ref>PTI (24 April 2017) [http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/04/24/watch-nawazuddin-siddiqui-explains-that-he-isnt-just-a-muslim_a_22052880/ Watch: Nawazuddin Siddiqui Explains That He Isn't Just A Muslim, But A Bit Of All Religions] ''HuffPost''. Retrieved 24 April 2017.</ref> [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Johnny Walker (actor)|Johnny Walker]], [[Shabana Azmi]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130509215016/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-17/india/27919758_1_indian-democracy-shabana-azmi-muslims Indian democracy unfair to Muslims: Shabana Azmi] ''The Times of India''. 17 August 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2009.</ref> [[Waheeda Rehman]],<ref>[http://www.bollywood501.com/classic_f/waheeda_rehman/ Waheeda Rehman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905115303/http://www.bollywood501.com/classic_f/waheeda_rehman/ |date=5 September 2010 }} Bollywood501. Retrieved 4 March 2009.</ref> [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]], [[Parveen Babi]], [[Feroz Khan (actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Meena Kumari]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Mammootty]], [[Nargis]], [[Irrfan Khan]], [[Farida Jalal]], [[Arshad Warsi]], [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]], [[Zeenat Aman]], [[Farooq Sheikh]] and [[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]].
 
Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include [[Mehboob Khan]], [[Khwaja Ahmad Abbas]], [[Kamal Amrohi]], [[K. Asif]] and the [[Abbas–Mustan]] duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. [[M. F. Husain]] is one of India's best known contemporary artists. [[Academy Awards]] winners [[Resul Pookutty]] and [[A. R. Rahman]], [[Naushad]], [[Salim–Sulaiman]] and Nadeem Akhtar of the [[Nadeem–Shravan]] duo are some of India's celebrated musicians. [[Abrar Alvi]] penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include [[Shakeel Badayuni]], [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] and [[Majrooh Sultanpuri]]. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith include [[Mohammed Rafi]], [[Anu Malik]], [[Lucky Ali]], [[Talat Mahmood]] and [[Shamshad Begum]]. Another famous personality is the [[tabla]] maestro [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Zakir Hussian]].
 
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[[Sania Mirza]], from [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player. Prominent Muslim names in Indian [[cricket]] (the most popular sport of India) include [[Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi]], [[Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi]] and [[Mohammad Azharuddin]], who captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Other famous Muslim cricketers in India are [[Mushtaq Ali]], [[Syed Kirmani]], [[Arshad Ayub]], [[Mohammad Kaif]], [[Munaf Patel]], [[Zaheer Khan]], [[Irfan Pathan]], [[Yusuf Pathan]] and [[Wasim Jaffer]].
 
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[[File:Azimpremji.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Azim Premji]], CEO of India's 3rd largest IT company [[Wipro Technologies]] and the 5th richest man in India with an estimated fortune of US$17.1&nbsp;billion<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/2007/11/14/billionaires-walton-buffett-biz-cz_ah_1114frugalbillies.html|title=The Frugal Billionaires|author=Asher Hawkins|date=14 November 2007|work=Forbes|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>]]
India is home to several influential Muslim businessmen. Some of India's most prominent firms, such as [[Wipro]], [[Wockhardt]], Himalaya Health Care, [[Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories|Hamdard Laboratories]], [[Cipla]] and Mirza Tanners were founded by Muslims. The only two South Asian Muslim billionaires named by ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine, [[Yusuf Hamied]] and [[Azim Premji]], are from India.
 
<!-- Military -->
Though Muslims are under-represented in the [[Indian Armed Forces]], as compared to [[Hindu]]s and [[Sikh]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/arvind-kala-hiding-what-s-well-known-106030401044_1.html|title=Arvind Kala: Hiding what's well-known|last=Kala|first=Arvind|date=2006-03-04|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief Marshal [[I. H. Latif]] was Deputy [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)]] during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] and later served as [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)|Chief of the Air staff]] of the [[Indian Air Force]] from 1973 to 1976.<ref>[http://rajbhavan.maharashtra.gov.in/previous/latifbiodata.htm Air Chief Marshal Idris Hasan Latif, PVSM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518201546/http://rajbhavan.maharashtra.gov.in/previous/latifbiodata.htm |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>Civil-military relations: regional perspectives, Morris Janowitz, Inter-university Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, Sage Publications, 1981. p. 118</ref> Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer (1923–2008) commanded IAF Agra and was decorated for his service during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, eventually rising to the rank of [[air marshal]] and ending his career as Director-General of Civil Aviation from 1979 to 1980.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/air-marshal-jaffar-zaheer-principled-indian-air-force-officer-806294.html Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer]</ref> [[Indian Army]]'s [[Abdul Hamid (soldier)|Abdul Hamid]] was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, the [[Param Vir Chakra]], for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during the [[Battle of Asal Uttar]] in 1965.<ref>[Maj Gen Cardozo, Ian (2003). Param Vir. New Delhi: Lotus Collection. {{ISBN|81-7436-262-2}}]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/PVC/photo_6.htm|title=The Param Vir Chakra Winners' home page for Company Quarter Master Havildar Abdul Hamid|access-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215807/http://indianarmy.nic.in/PVC/photo_6.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awarded [[Maha Vir Chakra]] for their actions during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/HEROISM/MVC.html|title=Maha Vir Chakra|access-date=6 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610015036/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/HEROISM/MVC.html|archive-date=10 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include:
*Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command: 1992–93),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muslimmirror.com/eng/lieutenant-general-p-m-hariz-took-over-as-commander-in-chief-of-the-southern-command/ |title=Lieutenant General P. M. Hariz took over as Commander-In-Chief of the Southern Command |work=Muslim Mirror |location=India |date=29 September 2016 |access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref>
*Lieutenant General Sami Khan (Commandant of the National Defence Academy: 1985–86, GoC-in-C, Central Command: 1988–89)
*Lieutenant General Pattiarimmal Mohamed Hariz (GOC-in-C, Southern Command: 2016–17),<ref>{{cite web|author=Anil Bhat|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/87825/ |title=Brave Indians, also Muslim |work=The Indian Express |location=India |date=14 February 2006 |access-date=14 September 2010}}</ref>
*Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein [[Naqvi]] (Deputy Chief of Air Staff: 1997–99, Senior Air Staff Officer, Training Command 1999–2001)<ref name="Bharat_Rakshak_Service_Record">{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/7193|title=Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein Naqvi|publisher=Bharat Rakshak|access-date=17 February 2019}}</ref>
*Lieutenant General [[Syed Ata Hasnain]] (GOC XV Corps: 2010–2012, Military Secretary: 2012–13)
*Major General [[Afsir Karim]]
*Major General SM Hasnain
*Major General Mohammed Amin Naik.<ref>{{cite web |author=CJ: Rajesh Bhat |url=http://www.merinews.com/article/a-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army/132377.shtml |title=A high-profile 'Naik' of Indian Army |publisher=Merinews.com |access-date=14 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028182723/http://www.merinews.com/article/a-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army/132377.shtml |archive-date=28 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
<!-- Science and technology -->
[[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam|Abdul Kalam]], one of India's most respected scientists and the father of the [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme]] (IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11th [[President of India]].<ref>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/Abdulkalam/Abdulkalam.htm Abdul Kalam] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309080244/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/Abdulkalam/Abdulkalam.htm |date= 9 March 2007 }}</ref> His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as the ''Missile Man of India''<ref>R. K. Pruthi.[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee3PR5HFBCAC&pg=PA61&dq=%22Abdul+Kalam%22+%22missile+man%22&ei=uqziSKuQMIScswOT2KHeDg&sig=ACfU3U2i12OOsXcnaYcA4pzz7lf9jA3umA#PPA61,M1 ''President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.''] Anmol Publications, 2002. {{ISBN|978-81-261-1344-6}}; Ch. 4. Missile Man of Idia. pp. 61–76</ref> and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known as ''People's President''. [[Syed Zahoor Qasim]], former Director of the [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography]], led India's first scientific expedition to [[Antarctica]] and played a crucial role in the establishment of [[Dakshin Gangotri]]. He was also the former Vice Chancellor of [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archives.nic.in/techfocus/doc3/int.htm |title=Interview: Dr SZ Qasim |access-date=15 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916052340/http://archives.nic.in/techfocus/doc3/int.htm |archive-date=16 September 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director of [[Deccan College of Medical Sciences]] and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090228/dplus.htm#3|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India – Dehradun Plus|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref> In the field of [[Yunani medicine]], one can name [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]], Hakim Abdul Hameed and [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]]. [[Salim Ali]], was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India".
 
In the list of most influential Muslims list by [[Georgetown University]], there were 21 Indians (in 2017) like [[Mahmood Madani|Maulana Mahmood Madani]], [[Akhtar Raza Khan]], [[Zakir Abdul Karim Naik]], [[Wahiduddin Khan]], Abul Qasim Nomani Syed Muhammad [[Ameen Mian Qaudri]], Amir Khan and Aboobacker Ahmad Musliyar. [[Mahmood Madani]], leader of Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and MP was ranked at 36 for initiating a movement against terrorism in South Asia.<ref>{{cite news|author=Bhaskar Roy, TNN|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-12/india/28109876_1_islamic-terror-muslims-maulana-mahmood-madani |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512000003/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-12/india/28109876_1_islamic-terror-muslims-maulana-mahmood-madani |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 May 2013 |title=Kalam, Shah Rukh in most influential Muslims list |date=12 December 2009 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=14 September 2010}}</ref> Syed Ameen Mian has been ranked 44th in the list.
 
In January 2018, Jamitha reportedly became the first woman to lead a [[Jumu'ah]] prayer service in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/woman-imam-leads-friday-prayer-service-in-kerala-claims-to-be-first-in-india/story-teJA1BKyUyqaNOIV6kNB5O.html |quote=Breaking gender stereotypes, a 34-year-old woman has led Jumu’ah, a Friday prayer service of Muslims, in Malappuram in Kerala, claimed to be the first in the history of the country. Jamitha, the general secretary of Quran Sunnat Society, took the role of the 'imam' of the prayers held at the office of the Society in the Muslim-dominated district on Friday. |title=Woman Imam leads Friday prayer service in Kerala, claims to be first in India |agency=Press Trust of India |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=27 January 2018}}</ref>
 
==See also==
{{Portal|India|Islam}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Islamic art]]
* [[Indo-Islamic architecture]]
* [[List of scientists in medieval Islamic world]]
* [[List of Muslim Nobel laureates]]
* [[List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world]]
* [[List of Islamic educational institutions]]
* [[Islam in South Asia]]
* [[Bihari Muslims]]
* [[Gujarati Muslims]]
* [[Hyderabadi Muslims]]
* [[Tamil Muslim]]
* [[Mappila]]
* [[Hindu–Islamic relations]]
* [[Muslim nationalism in South Asia]]
* [[Destruction of Kashmiri Shias]]
* [[NCERT textbook controversies]]
* [[History of Islam]]
{{div col end}}
 
== Note ==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
 
==References==
{{Reflist}}
 
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|}}
* [[Asghar Ali Engineer]], ''Islam in India: The Impact of Civilizations''. Shipra Publications, 2002. {{ISBN|81-7541-115-5|}}.
* Mohamed Taher. ''Muslims in India: Recent Contributions to Literature on Religion, Philosophy, History, & Social Aspects''. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 1993. {{ISBN|81-7041-620-5|}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KRVd8384LyMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Muslims+in+India&lr=&as_brr=0 Excerpts]
* Mohammad Mujeeb. ''Islam in South Asia: A Short History''. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008.
* [[Murray Thurston Titus]], ''Indian Islam: A Religious History of Islam in India''. Milford, Oxford university press, 1930. {{ISBN|81-7069-096-X|}}
* Yogindar Sikand. ''Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-faith Relations''. Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-415-31486-0|}}.
* Elliot and Dowson: [[The History of India as told by its own Historians]], New Delhi reprint, 1990.
* Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. [[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] – This online Copy has been posted by: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List])
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Majumdar|editor1-first=Ramesh Chandra|editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar|editor2-last=Pusalker|editor2-first=A. D.|editor3-last=Majumdar|editor3-first=A. K.|date=1960|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VI: The Delhi Sultanate|location=Bombay|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|title-link=The History and Culture of the Indian People}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Majumdar|editor1-first=Ramesh Chandra|editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar|editor2-last=Pusalker|editor2-first=A. D.|editor3-last=Majumdar|editor3-first=A. K.|date=1973|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VII: The Mughal Empire|location=Bombay|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|title-link=The History and Culture of the Indian People}}
* {{cite journal|last=Mistry|first=Malika B.|date=December 2005|title=Muslims in India: A demographic and socio-economic profile|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=25|issue=3|pages=399–422|doi=10.1080/13602000500408468|s2cid=143931874}}
* M K A Siddiqui (ed.), ''Marginal Muslim Communities in India'', Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi (2004) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110408200244/http://www.iosworld.org/life_on_the_margins.htm review])
* {{cite journal|last=Nizami|first=Khaliq Ahmad|title=Some Aspects of Khānqah Life in Medieval India|journal=[[Studia Islamica]]|volume=8|issue=8|pages=51–69|year=1957|doi=10.2307/1595247|jstor=1595247|publisher=Maisonneuve &#38}}
*{{cite book|title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries|first=André|last=Wink|volume=Volume 3 of Al-Hind Series|year=2004|publisher=BRILL|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C|isbn=9004135618|access-date=24 April 2014}}
{{Refend}}
 
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* Online Copy: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] – This online Copy has been posted by: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List]
* {{loc}}
 
{{Asia in topic|Islam in}}
{{Indian Muslim}}
{{Religion in India topics}}
 
[[Category:Islam in India| ]]
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