Reconquista

For other uses, see Reconquista (disambiguation).

Detail of the Cantiga #63 (13th century), which deals with a late 10th-century battle in San Esteban de Gormaz involving the troops of Count García and Almanzor.

The Reconquista, (Spanish and Portuguese for "reconquest") or the reconquest of al-Andalus, refers to a series of military and cultural campaigns undertaken by European Christian kingdoms against Muslim territories following the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Umayyad Caliphate. This protracted conflict culminated during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.

The traditional starting point of the Reconquista is marked by the Battle of Covadonga, which took place around 718 or 722. In this battle, an Asturian army secured the first Christian victory over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate, signaling the beginning of resistance against Muslim rule. The Reconquista spanned several centuries and involved numerous battles, alliances, and territorial changes as Christian kingdoms sought to reclaim land lost to Muslim conquests. The Reconquista concluded in 1492 with the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the last remaining Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula, to the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. This event not only marked the end of Muslim rule in the region but also had profound implications for the political, cultural, and religious landscape of Spain and Europe as a whole.

In the late 10th century, the Umayyad vizier Almanzor launched a series of military campaigns over a span of 30 years aimed at subjugating the northern Christian kingdoms. However, the Caliphate of Córdoba began to disintegrate in the early 11th century, leading to the emergence of numerous petty successor states known as taifas. The northern Christian kingdoms capitalised on this fragmentation, launching incursions deep into al-Andalus, fostering civil strife, intimidating the weakened taifas, and imposing large tributes (parias) for what they termed "protection".

By the 12th century, the Reconquista evolved into a political endeavor focused on expanding the territories of the kingdoms of Portugal, León-Castile, and Aragon. During this period, the actions of kings took precedence over those of local lords, supported by military orders and initiatives aimed at repopulating reclaimed lands. Following a resurgence of Muslim power under the Almohads in the 12th century, significant Moorish strongholds fell to Christian forces in the 13th century. Key victories included the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, the Siege of Córdoba in 1236, and the Siege of Seville in 1248, which left only the Muslim enclave of Granada remaining as a tributary state in the south. The surrender of Granada in January 1492 marked the conclusion of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula, resulting in complete control by Christian rulers. Subsequently, on July 30, 1492, the Alhambra Decree led to the forcible expulsion of approximately 200,000 Jews from the Jewish communities in Castile and Aragon. This was followed by a series of edicts between 1499 and 1526 that mandated the conversion of Muslims in regions such as Castile, Navarre, and Aragon. Many of these converted Muslims faced expulsion from the Spanish Crown's realms, beginning with decrees issued in 1609. Over the course of nearly two decades, approximately three million Muslims emigrated or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610.

Starting in the 19th century, traditional historiography began to employ the term "Reconquista" to describe what was previously viewed as a restoration of the Visigothic Kingdom over territories that had been conquered. The concept of the Reconquista was solidified in Spanish historiography during the latter half of the 19th century and became closely linked with the emergence of a Spanish national identity. This narrative emphasised nationalist and romantic elements, portraying the Reconquista as a heroic struggle against Muslim rule.

The legacy of the Reconquista is commemorated in cultural events such as the Moros y Cristianos festival, which is particularly popular in regions of Southeastern Spain and can also be found in some former Spanish colonies. This festival celebrates the historical conflict between Muslims (Moros) and Christians, reflecting the themes of the Reconquista. In contemporary discourse, particularly within certain segments of the European far-right, the concept of the Reconquista has taken on a more Islamophobic connotation. It is often invoked as a symbol representing a perceived clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations, resonating with nationalist sentiments and reinforcing a narrative of cultural identity in the 21st century.

Concept and duration

The term "Reconquista," which describes the struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages, was not in use by contemporary writers of that period. Its development as a term in medieval historiography occurred centuries after the events it references, leading to various interpretations and meanings over time. The notion of an actual reconquest has often been influenced by the specific concerns or biases of scholars, who have sometimes used it as a tool in ideological debates.

By the end of the 9th century, a discernible irredentist ideology began to emerge, contributing to the later concept of the "Reconquista" as a Christian effort to reclaim the peninsula. An example of this is found in the anonymous Christian chronicle known as the Chronica Prophetica (883–884), which emphasized a historical connection between the Visigothic Kingdom, conquered by Muslims in 711, and the Kingdom of Asturias, where the document was produced. This chronicle highlighted the cultural and religious divide between Christians and Muslims in Hispania, advocating for the expulsion of Muslims and the restoration of lost territories.

In both Christian and Muslim writings from this era, there was a palpable sense of division based on ethnicity and culture between the inhabitants of the smaller Christian kingdoms in the north and the dominant elite in the Muslim-ruled south. This context helped shape the narrative of the Reconquista, framing it as a struggle not only for territory but also for cultural and religious identity.

One of the arguments challenging the concept of Reconquista is that for the majority of the 781 years of Islamic rule in Iberia, Muslims and Christians coexisted and were not at war with each other.

The linear interpretation of the origins of the Reconquista, prevalent in early 20th-century historiography, is complicated by several factors. Notably, periods of peaceful coexistence—or at least localised skirmishes along the frontiers—were more common throughout the 781 years of Muslim rule in Iberia than sustained military conflicts between the Christian kingdoms and al-Andalus. Both Christian and Muslim rulers frequently engaged in conflicts with other Christians and Muslims, and instances of cooperation and alliances between the two groups were not unusual. For example, alliances such as that between the Arista dynasty and the Banu Qasi emerged as early as the 9th century.

Moreover, the involvement of mercenaries from both sides further blurred the lines of conflict, as these fighters often chose to serve whoever offered the highest pay, regardless of their religious or cultural affiliations. This reality paints a more complex picture of the period, characterised by long episodes of relative religious coexistence and tolerance, which challenges the notion of a continuous and unidirectional Reconquista.

Modern scholars have critically reassessed the idea of an ongoing Reconquista, emphasising the multifaceted nature of interactions between Christians and Muslims. They highlight the importance of understanding the historical context as one of negotiation, coexistence, and shifting alliances rather than a straightforward narrative of conflict and reconquest.

The Crusades, which commenced in the late 11th century, fostered a religious ideology centered around the concept of a Christian reconquest. During this period in al-Andalus, Christian states faced significant challenges from the Almoravids and, to an even greater extent, the Almohads, both of whom promoted a fervent Muslim jihad ideology. Notably, earlier documents from the 10th and 11th centuries do not reference any notion of "reconquest", indicating that such an idea was not part of the contemporary discourse.

As the narrative of Muslim-Christian hostility began to take shape, propaganda accounts emerged to support the concept of a reconquest. A prime example is the Chanson de Roland, an 11th-century French chanson de geste that fictionalises the events of the Battle of Roncevaux Pass, portraying the Iberian Saracens (Moors) as adversaries. This work not only served as a literary piece but also played a role in shaping perceptions of conflict between Christians and Muslims.

Centuries later, the Chanson de Roland was introduced into the French educational system, particularly after the 1870 defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. It was used to instill moral and national values in the population, highlighting the importance of historical narratives in shaping national identity, regardless of their accuracy or the actual historical events they depicted. This reflects how the legacy of the Reconquista and the ideological constructs around it evolved over time, often influenced by contemporary political and cultural contexts.