Mahishya

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Mahishya, also spelled Mahisya, is a Bengali Hindu traditionally agrarian caste,[1][2] and formed the largest caste in undivided Bengal.[3] Mahisyas were, and are, probably the most diverse Bengali caste counting among themselves all possible classes in terms of material conditions and ranks. [4]

Mahisyas traditionally lived in Bengal and Orissa region.[5] As per the census report of 1931, Mahishyas were geographically scattered through all of undivided Bengal forming around a quarter of province's Hindu population, and they most predominantly lived in south-western Bengal, especially in the districts of undivided Midnapore, 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly, Nadia and Murshidabad.[6][7] As of late twelfth century the Mahisyas were considered as the single most important 'middle-caste' group in south-western Bengal[8] and the dominant caste in lower Midnapore district and southern 24 Parganas.[9][10][11]

Mythology[edit]

According to ancient texts like Manusmriti, the term Mahishya refers to one born to a Kshatriya father and a Vaishya mother, supposed to be engaged in the profession of astronomy or agriculture.[12][13]

History[edit]

The group now known as Mahishyas were originally known as Kaibartas or Kaivartas. From eighth to thirteenth century, there are numerous examples of Kaibartas holding posts of administrators and legal officers.[14] During Pala regime, many Kaivartas, alternately with many Brahmins, acted as ministers in royal courts.[15] In eleventh century, in a rebellious hostility, Divya, originally a feudal chief (Samanta), killed Mahipala II , seized Varendri and established a regime there. For a short time Varendri bowed to the supremacy of three Kaibarta kings - Divya, Rudok and Bhima.[16][17][18] According to historian Romila Thapar, this is perhaps the first peasant rebellion in Indian history.[19][20][21][22] In his rule Bhima dispossessed the brahmanical and other beneficiaries and levied taxes from them, and prioritized the interests of the peasants.[23] During eleventh and twelfth centuries some of the Kaibartas were versed in Sanskrit and composed poetry.[16]

At the end of 19th century scholars appeared to differ on the rank of the Mahisyas in Bengal society. Sankritist and antiquarian Rajendralal Mitra appeared to believe that Mahisyas were a caste of small farmers and could not afford forces of modernity such as school education. But Jogendranath Bhattacharya, who published a major book on castes and sects in Bengal in 1896, wrote that in the district of Midnapore they may be reckoned among the local aristocracy and in other districts their position was next only to the  Kayasthas.[24] They were counting among them quasi-royal families in Midnapore and a large number of professionals including lawyers and university graduates. These advanced individuals, who were then known as Chashi Kaibartas, assumed the caste name Mahisya sometime during the late 1890s.[25][26]

Mahishya was an incredibly diverse caste. In 24 Parganas they constituted the bulk of 'lathdar' landholders of sundarbans. In Nadia district, they formed the lower middle class and some had become rich by working as 'sarkars' to the European indigo planters. In Calcutta there was a large mahishya contingent working as traders.[27] There were the legendary rajas of Midnapore or major landed families in Calcutta. On the other hand, Mahisyas had a substantial number of lawyers and industrialists too, and numerous modest entrepreneurs in the iron foundry sector in Howrah in the mid-20th century.[28][29] Although among mahishyas there were numerous peasants with large landholdings, large number of them were small peasants and sharecroppers. Landless among them worked as agricultural labourers and daily-wage earners.[30][31]

Although many are still involved in traditional work in rural areas, within a generation Mahishyas gave up agriculture in large numbers in favour of engineering and skilled labour in the urbanised areas of Howrah and Kolkata. In Howrah, the Mahishyas are the most numerous and successful businesspeople. At the turn of the 20th century, much of the land and factories were owned by Kayasthas; but by 1967, the Mahisya community owned 67 percent of the engineering businesses in the district.[32][33][34]

Role in Independence Movement[edit]

Mahishyas played a prominent role in the nationalist movement.[35] Deshapran Birendranath Sasmal[36] led the Mahishyas against Union board taxes in 1919 which later merged with non-cooperation movement in Midnapore.[37] He had been a rival of Subhas Chandra Bose for the position of the Mayor of Calcutta during the 1920s.[28] During Civil disobedience movement(1930–34) the mahishyas paved the way for future course of actions leading to virtual breakdown of British Administration in the areas of Tamluk and Contai.[38]

By the 1940s, Mahisyas were the backbone of the Congress-led militant nationalist movement in Midnapore and South Bengal as a whole. As a matter of fact, a majority of leaders and foot soldiers of the Quit India movement in Midnapore were Mahisyas. They had set up a parallel government Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar[39] in Tamluk which ran for nearly two years(1942–44). It had its own army, judiciary and finance department. Biplabi, the mouthpiece of the parallel national government in Midnapore, was later published in English. Copies of the original are still available at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library in Delhi. At the same time, some of the most devoted Gandhians in Bengal were Mahisyas, such as late Satish Chandra Samanta.[28][40]

Varna status[edit]

In 19th century Bengal, Chasi Kaibartas were identified as one of the Sat Shudras (clean Shudras), though the Jalia Kaibartas and the priests of the Kaibartas were considered as unclean.[41] The Mahishyas have generally been considered as 'middle-ranking shudras' in the caste structure of Bengal.[42][43] Like South India, the social groups of eastern India have traditionally been divided in two groups - Brahmins and Shudras.[44] In 1901, Mahishyas claimed to be Vaishyas, which status was also claimed by their priests Gaudadya Brahmins for Mahishyas. In 1931 census, they claimed to be recorded as Kshatriyas or Mahishya Kshatriyas. Historian Jyotirmoyee Sarma has opined that the Varna status of Mahishyas is disputed.[45]

Socio-economic condition[edit]

Although the financial, social, and political success of Mahishyas is notable, they have often been stigmatised due to their agrarian roots and Kaibarta caste name. Mahishyas have not been averse to manual labour, which has often been considered demeaning by elite among "higher castes".[32] For instance, when the battle took place between Subhas Chandra Bose and Birendranath Sasmal for the post of the chief executive officer of Calcutta Municipal Corporation, which then dominated political life of Bengal, Bose deftly emerged victorious.[46] Although Chittaranjan Das originally proposed to reward the services of Sasmal by offering him the job, he soon backed out when he found out that the choice would offend the Kayastha clique of the city. Sasmal left the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee in utter humiliation and anger, and went into his legal practice and his control of local politics in Contai and Midnapore.[47]

In 1921 census Mahishyas were included in the list of "depressed classes" as Chasi-Kaibarta, but affluent individuals refused to accept the depressed class status since they believed that it would seriously jeopardize their claims to "high caste Hindu" status.[28][29][48] In 1946, however, a caste association of Mahishyas had pointed out that they were among the "intermediate and depressed" castes of Bengal being systematically deprived of their legitimate claims and shares in service.They urged the British government to help them by granting electorate separate from that of "caste Hindus" and scheduled castes and by granting special facilities in the matters of education, appointment to all departments etc.[49]

Mandal Commission included both Chasi-Kaibarta and Mahishya in the list of 177 "backward classes" for the state of West Bengal. Since 1989, after the commission's proposals coming into force, a section among the lower middle and lower class Mahisyas mounted a low intensity campaign for OBC status. It was, however, opposed by some individuals of well-off sections, who had even gone to court against this initiative. In late 1990s Sen commission came to conclusion that Chasi-Kaibarta constituted a backward class and Mahishya as such was not a backward class in the state. By early 2000s, the OBC status was granted to Chasi-Kaibartas. Since early 2010s, better-off among Mahisyas have also been campaigning for OBC status for the caste as whole, but the group named Mahishya still belongs to General category and continues to form the largest caste of West Bengal.[50][51][28][29][52]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Society, Indian Anthropological (2005). Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society. The Society. pp. 187–191.
  2. ↑ Man and Life. Institute of Social Research and Applied Anthropology. 1992.
  3. ↑ Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
  4. ↑ Pfeffer, Georg; Behera, Deepak Kumar (1997). Contemporary Society: Developmental issues, transition, and change. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-642-0.
  5. ↑ Ghosh, G.K. (2000). Legends of origin of the Castes and Tribes of Eastern India. Firma KLM. p. 45.
  6. ↑ Guha, Ayan (2022-09-26). The Curious Trajectory of Caste in West Bengal Politics: Chronicling Continuity and Change. BRILL. pp. 121–134. ISBN 978-90-04-51456-0.
  7. ↑ Chandra, Uday; Heierstad, Geir; Nielsen, Kenneth Bo (2015-09-25). The Politics of Caste in West Bengal. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-317-41477-3.
  8. ↑ Chatterjee, Partha (1997). The Present History of West Bengal: Essays in Political Criticism. Oxford University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-19-563945-2.
  9. ↑ Tropical Man. E.J. Brill. 1972.
  10. ↑ Beech, Robert Paul; Beech, Mary Jane (1969). South Asia Series Occasional Paper. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. p. 107.
  11. ↑ Chatterjee, Gouripada (1986). Midnapore, the Forerunner of India's Freedom Struggle. Mittal Publications. p. 158.
  12. ↑ Agarwalla, Shyam. S. (1998). Religion and Caste Politics. Rawat Publications. p. 133. ISBN 9788170334682.
  13. ↑ Kumar, Sangeet (2005). Changing Role of the Caste System: A Critique. Jaipur, India: Rawat Publications. p. 48. ISBN 8170338816.
  14. ↑ Ray, Niharranjan (1994). History of the Bengali People: Ancient Period. Orient Longman. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-86311-378-9.
  15. ↑ Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Ray, Niharranjan (1994). History of the Bengali People: Ancient Period. Orient Longman. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-86311-378-9.
  17. ↑ Sur, Atul Krishna; Sur, Atul Kumar (1963). History and Culture of Bengal. Chuckervertti, Chatterjee.
  18. ↑ MAJUMDAR, R. C. (1971). HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL. G. BHARADWAJ , CALCUTTA.
  19. ↑ Thapar, Romila (2013-10-14). The Past Before Us. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2.
  20. ↑ Thapar, Romila (February 2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
  21. ↑ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4.
  22. ↑ Sharma, R. S.; Sharma, Ram Sharan (2003). Early Medieval Indian Society (pb). Orient Blackswan. pp. 221–226. ISBN 978-81-250-2523-8.
  23. ↑ Sharma, R. S.; Sharma, Ram Sharan (2003). Early Medieval Indian Society (pb). Orient Blackswan. p. 224. ISBN 978-81-250-2523-8.
  24. ↑ Sengupta, Saswati (2020-11-30). Mutating Goddesses: Bengal's Laukika Hinduism and Gender Rights. Oxford University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-19-099325-2.
  25. ↑ Ray, Rajat Kanta; Ray, Professor and Head of the Department of History Rajat Kanta (1984). Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927. Oxford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-19-561654-5.
  26. ↑ Ahir, Rajiv (2018). A Brief History of Modern India. Spectrum Books (P) Limited. p. 839. ISBN 978-81-7930-688-8.
  27. ↑ Chakrabarty, Bidyut (1997). Local Politics and Indian Nationalism, Midnapur, 1919-1944. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-158-7.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 "Mahisyas and the new caste question in West Bengal politics". India Today. Retrieved 2021-11-13.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "In Bengal, the battle for Mahishya vote and the politics of turning OBC". Hindustan Times. 2021-04-05. Retrieved 2021-11-13.
  30. ↑ Chatterjee, Partha (1997). The Present History of West Bengal: Essays in Political Criticism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563945-2.
  31. ↑ Singh, K. S.; India, Anthropological Survey of (1998). India's Communities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563354-2.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Lessinger, Johanna M. (1982). "The New Vaishyas". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 30 (4): 920–924. doi:10.1086/452603.
  33. ↑ Timberg, Thomas A. (1978). The Marwaris, from Traders to Industrialists. Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-0528-1.
  34. ↑ Others (1991). Reader In Urban Sociology. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-0-86311-152-5.
  35. ↑ Chakrabarty, Bidyut (1997). Local Politics and Indian Nationalism, Midnapur, 1919-1944. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-158-7.
  36. ↑ ".:: Legacy of Midnapore(Medinipur,Midnapur,Purba Medinipur, Paschim Medinipur,East Midnapore,West Midnapore)::". www.midnapore.in. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
  37. ↑ Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Blackswan. pp. 307–308. ISBN 978-81-250-2596-2.
  38. ↑ Dasgupta, Tapati; Chattopadhyay, R. N. (1999). Rural Development in India: A Socio-historic Approach. National Book Organisation. ISBN 978-81-85135-98-4.
  39. ↑ Sarkar, Sumit (1989-01-24). Modern India 1885–1947. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-19712-5.
  40. ↑ Sarbadhinayak: life story of Sri Satis Chandra Samanta, first Sarbadhinayak of Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar. Tamralipta Swadhinata Sangram Itihas Committee. 1982. tamralipta jatiya sarkar.
  41. ↑ MAJUMDAR, R. C. (1971). HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL. G. BHARADWAJ , CALCUTTA. p. 422.
  42. ↑ Nicholas, Ralph W (2003). Fruits of Worship: Practical Religion in Bengal. Orient Longman Ltd. p. 53. ISBN 978-8180280061.
  43. ↑ Shah, Ghanshyam (2004). Caste and Democratic Politics in India. Orient Blackswan. p. 114. ISBN 978-8-178-24095-4.
  44. ↑ SIRCAR, D. C. (1959). STUDIES IN THE SOCIETY AND ADMINISTRATION OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA VOL. 1. FIRMA K. L. MUKHOPADHYAY, CALCUTTA. p. 115.
  45. ↑ Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. pp. 118–120. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
  46. ↑ Maity, Sachindra (1975). Freedom Movement in Midnapore. Calcutta: Firma, K.L.
  47. ↑ Ray, Rajat Kanta (1984). Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927. Oxford University Press. pp. 330–331. ISBN 978-0-19-561654-5.
  48. ↑ Chandra, Uday; Heierstad, Geir; Nielsen, Kenneth Bo (2015-09-25). The Politics of Caste in West Bengal. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-317-41477-3.
  49. ↑ Bhaumik, Sudarshana (2022-08-26). The Changing World of Caste and Hierarchy in Bengal: Depiction from the Mangalkavyas c. 1700–1931. Taylor & Francis. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-000-64143-1.
  50. ↑ "Seventh Report" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  51. ↑ "National Commission for Backward Classes". www.ncbc.nic.in. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
  52. ↑ "Bengal govt wary of implementing Mandal report,says OBC group". The Indian Express. 2010-01-10. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
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