List of largest empires

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Last edited March 24, 2026


A map of the British and Mongol empires at their respective greatest extents
The British Empire (red) and Mongol Empire (blue) were the largest and second-largest empires in history, respectively.[1][2] The precise extent of either empire at its greatest territorial expansion is a matter of debate among scholars.

Several empires in human history have been contenders for the largest of all time, depending on definition and mode of measurement. Possible ways of measuring size include area, population, economy, and power. Of these, area is the most commonly used because it has a relatively precise definition and can be feasibly measured with some degree of accuracy;[3] nevertheless, even area is limited in this regard because of the difficulty in defining the boundaries of empires due to things like the indirect nature of imperial control and sparsely inhabited or even uninhabited areas that may nominally have been controlled by an empire but not meaningfully ruled by it.[4]

Estonian political scientist Rein Taagepera, who published a series of academic articles about the territorial extents of historical empires between 1978 and 1997,[5][6][7][8] and a book in 2024,[9] defined an empire in this context as "any relatively large sovereign political entity whose components are not sovereign" and its size as the area over which the empire has some undisputed military and taxation prerogatives.[10] The list is not exhaustive as there is a lack of available data for several empires; for this reason and because of the inherent uncertainty in the estimates, no rankings are given.

Largest empires by land area[edit | edit source]

For context, the land area of the Earth, excluding the continent of Antarctica, is 134,740,000 km2 (52,023,000 sq mi).[11]

Empires at their greatest extent[edit | edit source]

The home and colonial areas of the world's empires in 1908, as given by The Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer

Empire size in this list is defined as the dry land area it controlled at the time, which may differ considerably from the area it claimed. For example: in the year 1800, European powers collectively claimed approximately 20% of the Earth's land surface that they did not effectively control.[12] Where estimates vary, entries are sorted by the lowest estimate. Where more than one entry has the same area, they are listed alphabetically. Page Template:Sticky header/styles.css has no content.

Empire Maximum land area
Million km2 Million sq mi % of world Year
British Empire 35.5[13] 13.71 26.35% 1920[13]
Mongol Empire[lower-alpha 1] 24.0[13][14] 9.27 17.81% 1270[14] or 1309[13]
Russian Empire[lower-alpha 2] 22.8[13][14] 8.80 16.92% 1895[13][14]
Qing dynasty[lower-alpha 3] 14.7[13][14] 5.68 10.91% 1790[13][14]
Spanish Empire 13.7[13] 5.29 10.17% 1810[13]
Second French colonial empire 11.5[13] 4.44 8.53% 1920[13]
Abbasid Caliphate 11.1[13] 4.29 8.24% 750[13]
Umayyad Caliphate 11.1[13] 4.29 8.24% 720[13]
Yuan dynasty 11.0[13] 4.25 8.16% 1310[13]
United States[lower-alpha 4] 9.5[15] 3.67 7.05% 1900[15]
Xiongnu Empire 9.0[14][17] 3.47 6.68% 176 BC[14][17]
Empire of Brazil[lower-alpha 5] 8.337[18] 3.22 6.19% 1889[18]
Empire of Japan 7.4[19]–8.51 2.86–3.285[20] 5.49%–6.32% 1942[19][20]
Eastern Han dynasty 6.5[17] 2.51 4.82% 100[17]
Ming dynasty 6.5[13][14] 2.51 4.82% 1450[13][14]
Rashidun Caliphate 6.4[13] 2.47 4.75% 655[13]
First Turkic Khaganate 6.0[14][17] 2.32 4.45% 557[14][17]
Golden Horde Khanate 6.0[13][14] 2.32 4.45% 1310[13][14]
Western Han dynasty 6.0[14][17] 2.32 4.45% 50 BC[14][17]
Achaemenid Empire 5.5[14][17] 2.12 4.08% 500 BC[14][17]
Second Portuguese Empire[lower-alpha 5] 5.5[13] 2.12 4.08% 1820[13]
Tang dynasty 5.4[13][14] 2.08 4.01% 715[13][14]
Macedonian Empire 5.2[14][17] 2.01 3.86% 323 BC[14][17]
Ottoman Empire 5.2[13][14] 2.01 3.86% 1683[13][14]
Northern Yuan dynasty 5.0[13] 1.93 3.71% 1368[13]
Roman Empire 5.0[14][17] 1.93 3.71% 117[14][17]
Xin dynasty 4.7[17] 1.81 3.49% 10[17]
Tibetan Empire 4.6[13][14] 1.78 3.41% 800[13][14]
Xianbei state 4.5[21] 1.74 3.34% 200[21]
First Mexican Empire 4.429[22] 1.71 3.29% 1821[22]
Timurid Empire 4.4[13][14] 1.70 3.27% 1405[13][14]
Fatimid Caliphate 4.1[13][14] 1.58 3.04% 969[13][14]
Eastern Turkic Khaganate 4.0[17] 1.54 2.97% 624[17]
Hunnic Empire 4.0[14][17] 1.54 2.97% 441[14][17]
Mughal Empire 4.0[13][14] 1.54 2.97% 1690[13][14]
Great Seljuq Empire 3.9[13][14] 1.51 2.89% 1080[13][14]
Seleucid Empire 3.9[14][17] 1.51 2.89% 301 BC[14][17]
Italian Empire 3.798[23] 1.47 2.82% 1938[23]
Ilkhanate 3.75[13][14] 1.45 2.78% 1310[13][14]
Dzungar Khanate 3.6[21] 1.39 2.67% 1650[21]
Chagatai Khanate 3.5[13][14] 1.35 2.60% 1310[13] or 1350[13][14]
Sasanian Empire 3.5[14][17] 1.35 2.60% 550[14][17]
Western Turkic Khaganate 3.5[17] 1.35 2.60% 630[17]
Western Xiongnu 3.5[17] 1.35 2.60% 20[17]
First French colonial empire 3.4[13] 1.31 2.52% 1670[13]
Ghaznavid Empire 3.4[13][14] 1.31 2.52% 1029[13][14]
Maurya Empire 3.4[17]–5.0[14] 1.31–1.93 2.52%–3.71% 261 BC[17] or 250 BC[14]
Delhi Sultanate 3.2[13][14] 1.24 2.37% 1312[13][14]
German colonial empire 3.147 1.215[24] 2.34% 1911[24]
Northern Song dynasty 3.1[13][14] 1.20 2.30% 980[13][14]
Uyghur Khaganate 3.1[13][14] 1.20 2.30% 800[13][14]
Western Jin dynasty 3.1[17] 1.20 2.30% 280[17]
Danish Empire 3.0[25] 1.16 2.23% 1700[25]
Sui dynasty 3.0[17] 1.16 2.23% 589[17]
Safavid empire 2.9[21] 1.12 2.15% 1630[21]
Samanid Empire 2.85[13][14] 1.10 2.12% 928[13][14]
Eastern Jin dynasty 2.8[17] 1.08 2.08% 347[17]
Median Empire[lower-alpha 6] 2.8[14][17] 1.08 2.08% 585 BC[14][17]
Parthian Empire 2.8[14][17] 1.08 2.08% 1[14][17]
Rouran Khaganate 2.8[14][17] 1.08 2.08% 405[14][17]
Byzantine Empire 2.7[14]–2.8[17] 1.04–1.08 2.00%–2.08% 555[14] or 450[17]
Indo-Scythian Kingdom 2.6[17] 1.00 1.93% 20[17]
Liao dynasty 2.6[13][14] 1.00 1.93% 947[13][14]
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 2.5[17] 0.97 1.86% 184 BC[17]
Later Zhao 2.5[17] 0.97 1.86% 329[17]
Maratha Empire 2.5[14] 0.97 1.86% 1760[14]
Belgian colonial empire 2.47 0.95[27] 1.83% 1939[27]
Jin dynasty (1115–1234) 2.3[13][14] 0.89 1.71% 1126[13][14]
Khwarazmian Empire 2.3[14]–3.6[13] 0.89–1.39 1.71%–2.67% 1210[14] or 1218[13]
Qin dynasty 2.3[17] 0.89 1.71% 220 BC[17]
Dutch Empire 2.1[21] 0.81 1.56% 1938[21]
First French Empire 2.1[13] 0.81 1.56% 1813[13]
Kievan Rus' 2.1[13][14] 0.81 1.56% 1000[13][14]
Mamluk Sultanate 2.1[13][14] 0.81 1.56% 1300[13] or 1400[14]
Southern Song dynasty 2.1[13] 0.81 1.56% 1127[13]
Third Portuguese Empire 2.1[13] 0.81 1.56% 1900[13]
Almohad Caliphate 2.0[14]–2.3[13] 0.77–0.89 1.48%–1.71% 1200[14] or 1150[13]
Cao Wei 2.0[17] 0.77 1.48% 263[17]
Former Qin 2.0[17] 0.77 1.48% 376[17]
Former Zhao 2.0[17] 0.77 1.48% 316[17]
Ghurid dynasty 2.0[21] 0.77 1.48% 1200[21]
Inca Empire 2.0[13][14] 0.77 1.48% 1527[13][14]
Kushan Empire 2.0[14]–2.5[17] 0.77–0.97 1.48%–1.86% 200[14][17]
Liu Song dynasty 2.0[17] 0.77 1.48% 450[17]
Northern Wei 2.0[17] 0.77 1.48% 450[17]
Western Roman Empire 2.0[17] 0.77 1.48% 395[17]
Ayyubid dynasty 1.7[13]–2.0[14] 0.66–0.77 1.26%–1.48% 1200[13] or 1190[14]
Gupta Empire 1.7[17]–3.5[14] 0.66–1.35 1.26%–2.60% 440[17] or 400[14]
Hephthalite Empire 1.7[28]–4.0[17] 0.66–1.54 1.26%–2.97% 500[28] or 470[17]
Buyid dynasty 1.6[13][14] 0.62 1.19% 980[13][14]
Eastern Wu 1.5[17] 0.58 1.11% 221[17]
Northern Qi 1.5[17] 0.58 1.11% 557[17]
Northern Xiongnu 1.5[17] 0.58 1.11% 60[17]
Northern Zhou 1.5[17] 0.58 1.11% 577[17]
Neo-Assyrian Empire 1.4[14][29] 0.54 1.04% 670 BC[14][29]
Eastern Maurya Kingdom 1.3[17] 0.50 0.96% 210 BC[17]
Liang dynasty 1.3[14][17] 0.50 0.96% 502,[17] 549,[17] or 579[14]
Qajar Empire 1.29 0.50[30] 0.96% 1873[30]
Kingdom of Aksum 1.25[14] 0.48 0.93% 350[14]
Shang dynasty 1.25[14][29] 0.48 0.93% 1122 BC[14][29]
Francia 1.2[13][14] 0.46 0.89% 814[13][14]
Srivijaya 1.2[14] 0.46 0.89% 1200[14]
Indo-Greek Kingdom 1.1[17] 0.42 0.82% 150 BC[17]
Mali Empire 1.1[13][14] 0.42 0.82% 1380[13][14]
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1.1[13][14] 0.42 0.82% 1480[14] or 1650[13]
Almoravid dynasty 1.0[14] 0.39 0.74% 1120[14]
Pushyabhuti dynasty 1.0[13][14] 0.39 0.74% 625[13] or 648[13][14]
Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty 1.0[13] 0.39 0.74% 860[13]
Holy Roman Empire 1.0[13] 0.39 0.74% 1050[13]
Khazar Khanate 1.0[13]–3.0[14] 0.39–1.16 0.74%–2.23% 900[13] or 850[14]
Khmer Empire 1.0[13][14] 0.39 0.74% 1290[13][14]
New Kingdom of Egypt 1.0[14][29] 0.39 0.74% 1450 BC[29] or 1300 BC[14]
Ptolemaic Kingdom 1.0[17] 0.39 0.74% 301 BC[17]
Qara Khitai 1.0[13]–1.5[14] 0.39–0.58 0.74%–1.11% 1130[13] or 1210[14]
Scythia 1.0[28] 0.39 0.74% 400 BC[28]
Shu Han 1.0[17] 0.39 0.74% 221[17]
Tahirid dynasty 1.0[13] 0.39 0.74% 800[13]
Western Xia 1.0[14] 0.39 0.74% 1100[14]
Swedish Empire 0.99[31] 0.38 0.73% 1700[31]
Kingdom of Armenia 0.9[32] 0.35 0.67% 70 BC[32]
Akkadian Empire 0.8[29] 0.31 0.59% 2250 BC[29]
Avar Khaganate 0.8[17] 0.31 0.59% 600[17]
Chu 0.8[17] 0.31 0.59% 300 BC[17]
Huns 0.8[17] 0.31 0.59% 287[17]
Songhai Empire 0.8[13] 0.31 0.59% 1550[13]
Hyksos 0.65[29] 0.25 0.48% 1650 BC[29]
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 0.65[29] 0.25 0.48% 550 BC[29]
Rozvi Empire 0.624[33] 0.24 0.46% 1700[33]
Austro-Hungarian Empire 0.62 0.24[34] 0.46% 1905[34]
Caliphate of Córdoba 0.6[13] 0.23 0.45% 1000[13]
First Portuguese Empire 0.6[13] 0.23 0.45% 1580[13]
Visigothic Kingdom 0.6[17] 0.23 0.45% 580[17]
Zhou dynasty 0.55[35] 0.21 0.41% 1100 BC[35]
Sikh Empire 0.52 0.20[36] 0.39% 1839[36]
Emirate of Córdoba 0.5[13] 0.19 0.37% 756[13]
Kosala 0.5[17] 0.19 0.37% 543 BC[17]
Lydia 0.5[29] 0.19 0.37% 585 BC[29]
Magadha 0.5[17] 0.19 0.37% 510 BC[17]
Middle Kingdom of Egypt 0.5[29] 0.19 0.37% 1850 BC[29]
Neo-Babylonian Empire 0.5[29] 0.19 0.37% 562 BC[29]
Satavahana dynasty 0.5[17] 0.19 0.37% 150[17]
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt 0.5[29] 0.19 0.37% 715 BC[29]
Western Satraps 0.5[17] 0.19 0.37% 100[17]
New Hittite Kingdom 0.45[29] 0.17 0.33% 1250 BC – 1220 BC[29]
Xia dynasty 0.45[29] 0.17 0.33% 1800 BC[29]
Bulgarian Empire 0.4[37][need quotation to verify] 0.15 0.30% 850[37][need quotation to verify]
Kingdom of France (Middle Ages) 0.4[13] 0.15 0.30% 1250[13]
Middle Assyrian Empire 0.4[29] 0.15 0.30% 1080 BC[29]
Old Kingdom of Egypt 0.4[29] 0.15 0.30% 2400 BC[29]
Sokoto Caliphate 0.4[38] 0.15 0.30% 1804[38]
Latin Empire 0.35[17] 0.14 0.26% 1204[17]
Ancient Carthage 0.3[17] 0.12 0.22% 220 BC[17]
Indus Valley Civilisation[lower-alpha 7] 0.3[35] 0.12 0.22% 1800 BC[35]
Mitanni 0.3[29] 0.12 0.22% 1450 BC – 1375 BC[29]
Ashanti Empire 0.25[39] 0.10 0.19% 1820[39]
First Babylonian Empire 0.25[29] 0.10 0.19% 1690 BC[29]
Aztec Empire 0.22[13] 0.08 0.16% 1520[13]
Zulu Empire 0.21 0.08[40] 0.16% 1822[40]
Elamite Empire 0.2[29] 0.08 0.15% 1160 BC[29]
Phrygia 0.2[29] 0.08 0.15% 750 BC[29]
Second Dynasty of Isin 0.2[29] 0.08 0.15% 1130 BC[29]
Urartu 0.2[29] 0.08 0.15% 800 BC[29]
Eastern Zhou 0.15[29] 0.06 0.11% 770 BC[29]
Middle Hittite Kingdom 0.15[29] 0.06 0.11% 1450 BC[29]
Old Assyrian Empire 0.15[29] 0.06 0.11% 1730 BC[29]
Old Hittite Empire 0.15[29] 0.06 0.11% 1530 BC[29]
Oyo Empire 0.15[41] 0.06 0.11% 1680[41]
Bornu Empire 0.13 0.05[42] 0.10% 1892[42]
Larsa 0.1[29] 0.04 0.07% 1750 BC – 1700 BC[29]
Neo-Sumerian Empire 0.1[29] 0.04 0.07% 2000 BC[29]
Tarascan empire 0.075[43] 0.03 0.06% 1450[43]
Lagash 0.05[35] 0.02 0.04% 2400 BC[35]
Sumer 0.05[29] 0.02 0.04% 2400 BC[29]
  1. ↑ The Mongol Empire eventually fractured into four separate khanates: the Yuan dynasty, Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, and Golden Horde. These are listed separately.
  2. ↑ Its successor state the USSR and its successor in turn, the Russian Federation, reached maximum extents of 22.3 million km2 (8.6 million sq mi) in 1945 and 17.1 million km2 (6.6 million sq mi) in 1991, respectively.[13]
  3. ↑ Its successor state the Republic of China (1912–1949) and its successor in turn, the People's Republic of China (since 1949), reached maximum extents of 7.7 million km2 (3.0 million sq mi) in 1912 and 9.7 million km2 (3.7 million sq mi) in 1950, respectively.[13]
  4. ↑ Described explicitly as an empire by Taagepera & Nemčok on p.76[15] and Harmsworth on p.27[16]
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 The reason the Empire of Brazil is listed as having a larger area in 1889 than the Portuguese Empire had in 1820, despite Brazil having been a Portuguese colony, is that the Portuguese settlers only had effective control over approximately half of Brazil at the time of Brazilian independence in 1822.[13]
  6. ↑ More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state.[26]
  7. ↑ The extent to which this constituted a cohesive political entity is uncertain.[35]

Timeline of largest empires to date[edit | edit source]

The earliest empire which can with certainty be stated to have been larger than all previous empires was that of Upper and Lower Egypt, which covered ten times the area of the previous largest civilisation around the year 3000 BC.[44] Page Template:Sticky header/styles.css has no content.

Empire Land area Year
Million km2 Million sq mi
Upper and Lower Egypt 0.1[29] 0.04 3000 BC[29]
Old Kingdom of Egypt 0.25[29] 0.10 2850 BC[29]
0.4[29] 0.15 2400 BC[29]
Akkadian Empire 0.65[29] 0.25 2300 BC[29]
0.8[29] 0.31 2250 BC[29]
New Kingdom of Egypt 1.0[29] 0.39 1450 BC[29]
Shang dynasty 1.25[29] 0.48 1122 BC[29]
Neo-Assyrian Empire 1.4[29] 0.54 670 BC[29]
Median Empire[lower-alpha 1] 2.8[17] 1.08 585 BC[17]
Achaemenid Empire 3.6[17] 1.39 539 BC[17]
5.5[17] 2.12 500 BC[17]
Xiongnu Empire 9.0[17] 3.47 176 BC[17]
Umayyad Caliphate 11.1[13] 4.29 720[13]
Mongol Empire 13.5[13] 5.21 1227[13]
24.0[13] 9.27 1309[13]
British Empire 24.5[13] 9.46 1880[13]
35.5[13] 13.71 1920[13]
  1. ↑ More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state.[26] If the Median Empire never surpassed the size of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the latter remained the largest empire the world had seen until the Achaemenid Empire surpassed it.[29][17]

Timeline of largest empires at the time[edit | edit source]

Empire Land area during time
as largest empire 		Approximate period[35]
Million km2[35] Million sq mi
Upper Egypt 0.1 0.04 3000 BC
Old Kingdom of Egypt 0.25–0.4 0.10–0.15 2800 BC – 2400 BC
Akkadian Empire 0.2–0.6 0.08–0.23 2300 BC – 2200 BC
Indus Valley Civilisation[lower-alpha 1] 0.15 0.06 2100 BC
Middle Kingdom of Egypt 0.2–0.5 0.08–0.19 2000 BC – 1800 BC
Xia dynasty 0.4 0.15 1700 BC
Hyksos 0.65 0.25 1600 BC
New Kingdom of Egypt 0.65–1.0 0.25–0.39 1500 BC – 1300 BC
Shang dynasty 0.9–1.1 0.35–0.42 1250 BC – 1150 BC
New Kingdom of Egypt 0.5–0.6 0.19–0.23 1100 BC – 1050 BC
Zhou dynasty 0.35–0.45 0.14–0.17 1000 BC – 900 BC
Neo-Assyrian Empire 0.4–1.4 0.15–0.54 850 BC – 650 BC
Median Empire[lower-alpha 2] 3.0 1.16 600 BC
Achaemenid Empire 2.5–5.5 0.97–2.12 550 BC – 350 BC
Macedonian Empire 5.2 2.01 323 BC
Seleucid Empire 4.0 1.54 300 BC
Maurya Empire 3.5 1.35 250 BC
Han dynasty 2.5 0.97 200 BC
Xiongnu Empire 5.7 2.20 150 BC
Han dynasty 4.2–6.5 1.62–2.51 100 BC – 200 AD
Roman Empire 4.4 1.70 250–350
Sasanian Empire 3.5 1.35 400
Hunnic Empire 4.0 1.54 450
Sasanian Empire 3.5 1.35 500
Göktürk Khaganate 3.0–5.2 1.16–2.01 550–600
Rashidun Caliphate 5.2 2.01 650
Umayyad Caliphate 9.0–11.0 3.47–4.25 700–750
Abbasid Caliphate 8.3–11.0 3.20–4.25 750–800
Tibet 2.5–4.7 0.97–1.81 850–950
Song dynasty 3.0 1.16 1000
Seljuk Empire 3.0–4.0 1.16–1.54 1050–1100
Tibet 2.5 0.97 1150
Jin dynasty (1115–1234) 2.3 0.89 1200
Mongol Empire 18.0–24.0 6.95–9.27 1250–1300
Yuan dynasty 11.0 4.25 1350
Timurid Empire 4.0 1.54 1400
Ming dynasty 4.7–6.5 1.81–2.51 1450–1500
Ottoman Empire 4.3 1.66 1550
Tsardom of Russia 6.0–12.0 2.32–4.63 1600–1700
Russian Empire 14.0–17.0 5.41–6.56 1750–1800
British Empire 23.0–34.0 8.88–13.13 1850–1925
Soviet Union 22.5 8.69 1950–1975
  1. ↑ The extent to which this constituted a cohesive political entity is uncertain. If the largest empire in the year 2100 BC was not the Indus Valley Civilisation, it was the First Intermediate Period of Egypt with an area of 0.1 million km2 (0.04 million sq mi).
  2. ↑ More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state.[26] If the largest empire in the year 600 BC was not the Median Empire, it was Late Egypt with an area of 0.55 million km2 (0.21 million sq mi).

Largest empires by share of world population[edit | edit source]

The home and colonial populations of the world's empires in 1908, as given by The Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer

Because of the trend of increasing world population over time, absolute population figures are for some purposes less relevant for comparison between different empires than their respective shares of the world population at the time.[45] For the majority of the time since roughly 400 BC, the two most populous empires' combined share of the world population has been 30–40%. Most of the time, the most populous empire has been located in China.[46]

Empire Empire population
as percentage of
world population[47] 		Year[47]
Qing dynasty 37 1800
Northern Song dynasty 33 1100
Western Han dynasty 32 1
Mongol Empire 31 1290
Roman Empire 30 150
Jin dynasty (266–420) 28 280
Ming dynasty 28 1600
Qin dynasty 24 220 BC
Mughal Empire 24 1700
Tang dynasty 23 900
Delhi Sultanate 23 1350
British Empire 23 1938
Empire of Japan 20 1943
Maurya Empire 19 250 BC
Former Qin 19 376
Northern Zhou 16 580
Macedonian Empire 15 323 BC
Empire of Harsha 15 647
Gupta Empire 13 450
Northern Wei 13 500
Umayyad Caliphate 13 750
Achaemenid Empire 12 450 BC
Former Yan 12 366
Jin dynasty (1115–1234) 12 1200
Nazi Germany 12 1943

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1978). "Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size" (PDF). Social Science Research. 7 (2): 111. doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8. ISSN 0049-089X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  2. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 482. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2025. Russia never surpassed the Mongol empire in size, while Britain did
  3. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1978). "Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size" (PDF). Social Science Research. 7 (2): 111. doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8. ISSN 0049-089X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  4. ↑ Scheidel, Walter (2020). "The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.
  5. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1978). "Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size" (PDF). Social Science Research. 7 (2): 108–127. doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8. ISSN 0049-089X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  6. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1978). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 3000 to 600 B.C." (PDF). Social Science Research. 7 (2): 180–196. doi:10.1016/0049-089x(78)90010-8. ISSN 0049-089X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  7. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 115–138. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
  8. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 475–504. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  9. ↑ Taagepera, Rein; Nemčok, Miroslav (2024). More People, Fewer States. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009427814. ISBN 978-1-009-42783-8.
  10. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 117. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
  11. ↑ "World", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 18 July 2022, archived from the original on 20 June 2022, retrieved 24 July 2022, land: 148.94 million sq km [...] Antarctica 14,200,000 sq km
  12. ↑ Magdoff, Harry (1979). Imperialism: From the Colonial Age to the Present. NYU Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-85345-498-4. Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020. [I]n 1800 Europe and its possessions, including former colonies, claimed title to about 55 percent of the earth's land surface: Europe, North and South America, most of India, and small sections along the coast of Africa. But much of this was merely claimed; effective control existed over a little less than 35 percent, most of which consisted of Europe itself. By 1878—that is, before the next major wave of European acquisitions began—an additional 6,500,000 square miles (16,800,000 square kilometers) were claimed; during this period, control was consolidated over the new claims and over all the territory claimed in 1800. Hence, from 1800 until 1878, actual European rule (including former colonies in North and South America), increased from 35 to 67 percent of the earth's land surface.
  13. ↑ 13.000 13.001 13.002 13.003 13.004 13.005 13.006 13.007 13.008 13.009 13.010 13.011 13.012 13.013 13.014 13.015 13.016 13.017 13.018 13.019 13.020 13.021 13.022 13.023 13.024 13.025 13.026 13.027 13.028 13.029 13.030 13.031 13.032 13.033 13.034 13.035 13.036 13.037 13.038 13.039 13.040 13.041 13.042 13.043 13.044 13.045 13.046 13.047 13.048 13.049 13.050 13.051 13.052 13.053 13.054 13.055 13.056 13.057 13.058 13.059 13.060 13.061 13.062 13.063 13.064 13.065 13.066 13.067 13.068 13.069 13.070 13.071 13.072 13.073 13.074 13.075 13.076 13.077 13.078 13.079 13.080 13.081 13.082 13.083 13.084 13.085 13.086 13.087 13.088 13.089 13.090 13.091 13.092 13.093 13.094 13.095 13.096 13.097 13.098 13.099 13.100 13.101 13.102 13.103 13.104 13.105 13.106 13.107 13.108 13.109 13.110 13.111 13.112 13.113 13.114 13.115 13.116 13.117 13.118 13.119 13.120 13.121 13.122 13.123 13.124 13.125 13.126 13.127 13.128 Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 492–502. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  14. ↑ 14.000 14.001 14.002 14.003 14.004 14.005 14.006 14.007 14.008 14.009 14.010 14.011 14.012 14.013 14.014 14.015 14.016 14.017 14.018 14.019 14.020 14.021 14.022 14.023 14.024 14.025 14.026 14.027 14.028 14.029 14.030 14.031 14.032 14.033 14.034 14.035 14.036 14.037 14.038 14.039 14.040 14.041 14.042 14.043 14.044 14.045 14.046 14.047 14.048 14.049 14.050 14.051 14.052 14.053 14.054 14.055 14.056 14.057 14.058 14.059 14.060 14.061 14.062 14.063 14.064 14.065 14.066 14.067 14.068 14.069 14.070 14.071 14.072 14.073 14.074 14.075 14.076 14.077 14.078 14.079 14.080 14.081 14.082 14.083 14.084 14.085 14.086 14.087 14.088 14.089 14.090 14.091 14.092 14.093 14.094 14.095 14.096 14.097 14.098 14.099 14.100 14.101 14.102 14.103 14.104 14.105 14.106 14.107 14.108 14.109 14.110 14.111 14.112 14.113 14.114 14.115 14.116 14.117 14.118 14.119 Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222–223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Taagepera, Rein; Nemčok, Miroslav (2024). "Engineer Empires (From 1800 Onward)". More People, Fewer States: The Past and Future of World Population and Empire Sizes. Cambridge University Press. p. 216. doi:10.1017/9781009427814.014. ISBN 978-1-009-42780-7.
  16. ↑ Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer. Carmelite House, London: The Amalgamated Press Ltd. 1908. p. 27. Retrieved 29 October 2025.
  17. ↑ 17.000 17.001 17.002 17.003 17.004 17.005 17.006 17.007 17.008 17.009 17.010 17.011 17.012 17.013 17.014 17.015 17.016 17.017 17.018 17.019 17.020 17.021 17.022 17.023 17.024 17.025 17.026 17.027 17.028 17.029 17.030 17.031 17.032 17.033 17.034 17.035 17.036 17.037 17.038 17.039 17.040 17.041 17.042 17.043 17.044 17.045 17.046 17.047 17.048 17.049 17.050 17.051 17.052 17.053 17.054 17.055 17.056 17.057 17.058 17.059 17.060 17.061 17.062 17.063 17.064 17.065 17.066 17.067 17.068 17.069 17.070 17.071 17.072 17.073 17.074 17.075 17.076 17.077 17.078 17.079 17.080 17.081 17.082 17.083 17.084 17.085 17.086 17.087 17.088 17.089 17.090 17.091 17.092 17.093 17.094 17.095 17.096 17.097 17.098 17.099 17.100 17.101 17.102 17.103 17.104 17.105 17.106 17.107 17.108 17.109 17.110 17.111 17.112 17.113 17.114 17.115 17.116 17.117 Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121–122, 124–129, 132–133. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Área Territorial Brasileira". www.ibge.gov.br (in português). Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2016. A primeira estimativa oficial para a extensão superficial do território brasileiro data de 1889. O valor de 8.337.218 km2 foi obtido a partir de medições e cálculos efetuados sobre as folhas básicas da Carta do Império do Brasil, publicada em 1883. [The first official estimate of the surface area of the Brazilian territory dates from 1889. A value of 8,337,218 km2 was obtained from measurements and calculations made on drafts of the Map of the Empire of Brazil, published in 1883.]
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Conrad, Sebastian (2014). "The Dialectics of Remembrance: Memories of Empire in Cold War Japan" (PDF). Comparative Studies in Society and History. 56 (1): 8. doi:10.1017/S0010417513000601. ISSN 0010-4175. JSTOR 43908281. S2CID 146284542. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020. In 1942, at the moment of its greatest extension, the empire encompassed territories spanning over 7,400,000 square kilometers.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 James, David H. (1 November 2010). The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire. Routledge. ISBN 9781136925467. Archived from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2018. by 1942, this 'Empire' covered about 3,285,000 square miles
  21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 Scheidel, Walter (2020). "The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–94. ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Rodríguez, Jaime; Vincent, Kathryn (1997). "The Colonization and Loss of Texas: A Mexican Perspective". Myths, Misdeeds and Misunderstandings: The Roots of Conflict in US-Mexican Relations (First ed.). Wilmington, DE, USA: Scholarly Resources Inc. p. 47. ISBN 0-8420-2662-2. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2020. When it was founded in 1821, the Mexican Empire extended over 4,429,000 km2 (not including the 445,683 km2 temporarily added by the short-lived union of the Central American provinces).
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Harrison, Mark (2000). "The Economics of World War II: An Overview". In Harrison, Mark (ed.). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-78503-7.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Ashworth, Philip Arthur; and, others (1911). "Germany" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 804–828. Area English Sq. m. [...] German Empire: 208,780 Area (estimated) sq. m. [...] Total dependencies: 1,006,412
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Korchmina, Elena; Sharp, Paul (June 2020). "Denmark and Russia: What can we learn from the historical comparison of two great Arctic agricultural empires?" (PDF). European Historical Economics Society. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020. Around 1700, the Danish Empire covered around 3 million square kilometers
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Waters, Matthew (2005). Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.; Roaf, Michael; Rollinger, Robert (eds.). "Media and Its Discontents". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 125 (4): 517–533. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 20064424.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Townsend, Mary Evelyn; Peake, Cyrus Henderson (1941). European Colonial Expansion Since 1871. J.B. Lippincott. p. 19. Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Turchin, Peter (2009). "A theory for formation of large empires" (PDF). Journal of Global History. 4 (2): 202. doi:10.1017/S174002280900312X. ISSN 1740-0228. S2CID 73597670. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
  29. ↑ 29.00 29.01 29.02 29.03 29.04 29.05 29.06 29.07 29.08 29.09 29.10 29.11 29.12 29.13 29.14 29.15 29.16 29.17 29.18 29.19 29.20 29.21 29.22 29.23 29.24 29.25 29.26 29.27 29.28 29.29 29.30 29.31 29.32 29.33 29.34 29.35 29.36 29.37 29.38 29.39 29.40 29.41 29.42 29.43 29.44 29.45 29.46 29.47 29.48 29.49 29.50 29.51 29.52 29.53 29.54 29.55 29.56 29.57 29.58 29.59 29.60 29.61 29.62 29.63 29.64 29.65 29.66 29.67 29.68 29.69 29.70 Taagepera, Rein (1978). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 3000 to 600 B.C." (PDF). Social Science Research. 7 (2): 182–189. doi:10.1016/0049-089x(78)90010-8. ISSN 0049-089X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Hughes, William (1873). A Class-book of Modern Geography: With Examination Questions. G. Philip & Son. p. 175. Archived from the original on 26 August 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2020. In size it is about 500,000 square miles
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Sundberg, Ulf (2018). Swedish defensive fortress warfare in the Great Northern War 1702–1710 (PDF). Åbo: Åbo Akademis förlag. p. 26. ISBN 978-951-765-897-3. OCLC 1113941754. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2020. In 1700, the Swedish Empire covered a land area of 990,000 square kilometers and had 2,500,000 inhabitants.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Manaseryan, Ruben L. [in հայերեն] (2022). "Տիգրան Մեծի անձի և գործունեության գնահատականի շուրջ" (PDF). Vem: 39. doi:10.57192/18291864-2022.3-33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2024. Հայոց արքայի իշխելը 10 միլիոն բնակչություն ունեցող 900.000 կմ² տարածքի վրա
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Cornell, James (1978). Lost Lands and Forgotten People. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8069-3926-1. Zimbabwe continued to grow, reaching the height of its power in 1700, under the rule of the Rozwi people. When the first Europeans arrived on the African coast, they heard tales of a great stone city, the capital of a vast empire. The tales were true, for the Rozwi controlled 240,000 square miles (624,000 sq km)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Briliant, Oscar; and, others (1911). "Austria-Hungary" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 03 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–39. It occupies about the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905) of 239,977 sq. m.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7 35.8 Taagepera, Rein (1978). "Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size" (PDF). Social Science Research. 7 (2): 116–117. doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8. ISSN 0049-089X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Singh, Amarpal (15 August 2010). The First Anglo-Sikh War. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-2038-1. By 1839, the year of his death, the Sikh kingdom extended from Tibet and Kashmir to Sind and from the Khyber Pass to the Himalayas in the east. It spanned 600 miles from east to west and 350 miles from north to south, comprising an area of just over 200,000 square miles.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Rashev, Rasho (2008). Българската езическа култура VII -IX в./Bulgarian Pagan Culture VII – IX cтр. 38 (in български). Класика и стил. ISBN 9789543270392.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Wesseling, H. L. (23 October 2015). The European Colonial Empires: 1815-1919. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-317-89507-7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2020. Islam spread quickly in Hausaland, which, after the jihad of 1804, was incorporated into the Sokoto Caliphate, a vast empire of 400,000 square kilometres.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Iliffe, John (25 August 1995). Africans: The History of a Continent. Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-521-48422-0. At its peak around 1820 the empire embraced over 250,000 square kilometres [...]
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Gluckman, Max (1960). "The Rise of a Zulu Empire". Scientific American. 202 (4): 162. Bibcode:1960SciAm.202d.157G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0460-157. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24940454. Retrieved 7 July 2020. By 1822 he had made himself master over 80,000 square miles
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Thornton, John (28 April 1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-62724-5. By 1680, the Oyo Empire (in Nigeria) may have exceeded 150,000 square kilometers, though not by much.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Hughes, William; Williams, J. Francon (1892). A Class-book of Modern Geography: With Examination Questions, Notes, & Index. G. Philip & son. p. 281. Archived from the original on 30 May 2021. It has an area of perhaps 50,000 square miles.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Blanford, Adam Jared (2014). Rethinking Tarascan Political and Spatial Organization (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Colorado Boulder. p. 6. S2CID 147339315. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2023. By A.D. 1450, the Tarascan Uacúsecha were leaders of an empire that spanned 75,000 square kilometers of west Mexico
  44. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 480. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. ISSN 0020-8833. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  45. ↑ Scheidel, Walter (2020). "The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.
  46. ↑ Myrdal, Janken (2013). "Empire: The comparative study of imperialism". In Hornborg, Alf; Clark, Brett; Hermele, Kenneth (eds.). Ecology and Power: Struggles over Land and Material Resources in the Past, Present and Future. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-136-33529-7.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Scheidel, Walter (2020). "The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.

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