| Paramardivarman | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Param-bhattaraka, Parameshwara, Param-Maheshwara, Maharajadhiraja, Srīkalanjaradhipati | |||||||||
| King of Chandelas of Jejakabhukti | |||||||||
| Reign | c. 1165-1202 CE | ||||||||
| Predecessor | Yashovarman II | ||||||||
| Successor | Trailokyavarman | ||||||||
| Issue | Sabhajitvarman Bramhadevavarman Trailokyavarman | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| House | Chandravansh | ||||||||
| Dynasty | Chandel | ||||||||
| Father | Yashovarman II | ||||||||
| Religion | Shaivism | ||||||||
Paramardivarman[1] (reigned c. 1165–1203), Nagari: परमार्दिवर्मन, IAST: Paramarddi Varman), also known as Parmardideva, was the last great emperor of the Chandel Empire. He succeeded his father Yashovarman II as the king of the Jejakabhukti country. In 1182, Prithviraj Chauhan III raided and plundered the Madanpura city, which Paramardi varman recaptured after defeating Chahamanas of Shakambhari in few months. Paramardi signed the Treaty of Kalinjar around 1202–03 during the Siege of Kalanjara (1203 CE) by the Ghurid general Qutbuddin Aibak, but died before the treaty was finalised.
Early life[edit | edit source]
Succession[edit | edit source]
Paramardi Varman's Bateshvar inscription suggests that he succeeded his father Yashovarman. However, other Chandela inscriptions (including those of his own) suggest that he succeeded his grandfather Madanavarman. It is possible that Yashovarman ruled for a very short period, or did not rule at all, having died while Madanavarman was still alive.[2]
According to the Parmal Raso, Paramardi ascended the throne at the age of 5 years. An Ajaygarh inscription appears to corroborate this claim: it states that Paramardi was a leader even as a child (bāl-opi netā).[3]
Paramardi Varman was the last of the powerful Chandela rulers, and has been mentioned in several legendary texts such as Paramala Raso (Parmal Raso or Mahoba Khand), Prithviraj Raso and Alha-Khand (Alha Raso or Ballad of Alha). While these texts are based on historical events, much of their content has been fabricated to glorify either Prithviraj Chauhan. Thus, these texts are of doubtful historicity, and therefore, much of Paramardi Varman's reign is shrouded in obscurity.[5][6]
Several Chandela inscriptions also mention Paramardi Varman, but these contain little historical information. For example, the Semra copper-plate inscription vaguely eulogizes him as someonoe who surpassed Makaradhvaja (the god of love) in handsomeness, the ocean in depth, the lord of heaven in majesty, Brihaspati in wisdom, and Yudhishthira in truthfulness. The Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription credits him with military victories and states that other kings bowed to him, but does not name any of these kings.[5] The Ajaygarh inscription of his grandson's wife Kalyanadevi similarly describes him as a universal sovereign, whose enemies were left in a pitiful condition.[5] Such claims of extensive conquests are not corroborated by historical evidence.[7]
Names, status and titles[edit | edit source]
He is mentioned as Paramardivarman, Paramardivarmandeva, Paramardideva, Paramardin, Paramarddi in inscriptions. The medieval bardic legends such as Alha-Khand call him Paramala or Parimala. In modern vernaculars, he is also known as Paramardideva, Parmar, Paramal Deo and Parimal Chandel (because of schwa deletion). A gold coin issued by him, featuring a seated goddess, gives his name as Srimat Paramardi.[8]
The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi Varman's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE), Mahoba (1166-1167 CE), Ichhawar (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and Charkhari (1178 CE).[9] All of these inscriptions use the imperial titles for him: Paramabhattaraka-Maharajadhiraja-Parameshvara Parama-Maheshvara Shri-Kalanjaradhipati Shrimanmat Paramardivarman. This indicates that Paramardi Varman retained the all territories of the Chandela of Jejakabhukti, that he had inherited from his grandfather Madanavarman.[6]
Military career[edit | edit source]
Against Kalachuris[edit | edit source]
In 1182, Paramardivarman defeated and subdued Jayasimha, a ruler of the Kalachuris of Tripuri. Paramardivarman's victory over the Kalachuris is attested by epigraphic records. An 1183 CE Mahoba inscription states that the lord of Tripuri, the Kalachuri capital, fainted upon hearing songs about Paramardivarman's bravery.[7]
Chahamana raid[edit | edit source]
In 1182, the Chahamana ruler Prithviraja III launched a raid into Jejakabhukti during the reign of Paramardi Varman. The Chahamana forces raided Chandela territory as far as Madanapur, but the inscriptions of Prithviraj Chauhan themselves do not mention that Kalanjara, the Chandela capital, was captured, conquered, or occupied, nor do they record the defeat of Paramardi. Paramardi Varman subsequently recovered the territory reached by the Chahamanas and repulsed their advance. The raid did not result in the permanent conquest or annexation of Jejakabhukti by the Chahamanas.
Ghurid invasion and death[edit | edit source]
According to a Kalanjara inscription, while one of Paramardi Varman's predecessors had imprisoned the wives of the earthly rulers, Paramardi Varman's heroics made even the divine rulers anxious about the safety of their wives. As a result, the gods let loose an army of mlechchhas (foreigners) against him, and made him face a defeat.[7]
Prithviraj Chauhan was killed after Second Battle of Tarain against the Ghurids in 1192. After defeating the Chahamanas (Chauhans) and the Gahadavalas, the Ghurid governor of Delhi planned an invasion of Chandela kingdom.[10] A force led by Qutb al-Din Aibak, and accompanied by strong generals such as Iltutmish, besieged the Chandela fort of Kalanjara in 1202.[11]
Taj-ul-Maasir, written by the Delhi chronicler Hasan Nizami, states that Parmar (Paramardivarman) initially offered some resistance, but then fled to the safety of the fort. Subsequently, he surrendered before ruler of Delhi, and agreed to be his vassal.[10] He promised to pay a tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could execute this agreement. His dewan Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) continued to resist the ruler of Delhi after his death. The dewan was finally forced to surrender as the water reservoirs within the fort dried up during a drought. Taj-ul-Masir further states that after the Sultanate's victory, temples were converted into mosques and 50,000 men were taken as slaves. Qutb al-Din Aibak appointed Hazabbar-ud-Din Hasan Arnal as the governor of Kalanjara, and also captured Mahoba.[12]
The 16th century Muslim historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.[12]
Firishta as well as Fakhruddin Mubarakshah state that the fall of Kalanjara happened in the Hijri year 599 (1202–1203 CE). According to Taj-ul-Masir, Kalanjara fell on 20th of Rajab, in the Hijri year 599, on Monday. However, this date corresponds to 12 April 1203, which was a Friday. Based on different interpretations of the historical sources, different scholars date the fall of Kalanjara to either 1202 or 1203.[13]
According to the Chandela inscriptions, Paramardi was succeeded by Trailokyavarman.[11]
Administration[edit | edit source]
According to the Baghari inscription, Paramardivarman placed the burden of government on his prime minister Sallakshana, who was a Brahmin of Vashistha gotra.On Paramardivarman's orders Sallakshana commissioned temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu. After his death, his son Purushottama inherited his post.[13]
The Baghari inscription also mentions one Gadadhara as Paramardivarman's minister of war and peace (sandhna-vigraha-sachiva). According to the Ajaygarh inscription of Bhojavarman, a Kayastha named Gangadhara was the Kancukin (chamberlain) of Paramardi. Gangadhara and his brother Jaunadhara are said to have fought at Kalanjara, possibly in the battle against the Delhi forces.[14]
Ajayapala and Madanapala, the sons of a former senapati (general) Kilhana, were two Brahmin senapatis of Paramardivarman.[15] Ajayapala is also known to have been a senapati of Paramardi's grandfather Madanavarman.[16] Muslim chronicles mention Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) as a dewan who continued to resist the Delhi forces after Paramardivarman's death. The medieval bardic tradition also mentions Alha and Udala (or Udal) as his generals. Other officers mentioned in the historical records include Mahipala and an amatya named Vatsaraja.[15]
Paramardivarman was a learned man, and is attributed as the author of a eulogy to Shiva, inscribed on a stone at Kalanjara.[15] He patronized a number of scholars, including:[17]
- Vatsaraja, the author of Rupa-Kashatakam (a collection of six plays)
- Gadadhara, a poet styled as Kavi-Chakravarti
- Jaganika, the author of Alha-Khanda
- Gunabhadra Munipa Saiddhanti, the Jain author of Dhanya-Kumara-Charita
Although himself a Shaivite, Paramardivarman was tolerant towards Buddhists, Jains and Vaishnavites. A copper-plate inscription shows that when he granted a village to a Brahmin, he respected the rights of a Buddhist shrine located in that village. Several images of the Jain tirthankaras were set up at various places during his reign.[17] The best known of these are at the Aharji Jain Tirth Near Tikamgarh.[citation needed] His minister Sallakshana commissioned a Vishnu temple.[17]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Thapar, Romila (4 November 2013). The Past Before Us: Historical Traditions of Early North India. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72652-9.
- ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 139-140.
- ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 140.
- ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 119, 124.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 141.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 120.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 143.
- ↑ P. C. Roy 1980, pp. 54-55.
- ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 119.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 147.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 126.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 148.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 149.
- ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 149-150.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 150.
- ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 136.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 151.
Bibliography[edit | edit source]
- P. C. Roy (1980). The Coinage of Northern India. Abhinav. ISBN 9788170171225.
- R. K. Dikshit (1976). The Candellas of Jejākabhukti. Abhinav. ISBN 9788170170464.
- Sisirkumar Mitra (1977). The Early Rulers of Khajurāho. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120819979.