Reverting my edit, if I found any more detailed map... Then I will update. Tags: Manual revert Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
Added information on warfare and military organisation in ancient Tamilakam, including conflicts among the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, military campaigns, naval warfare, and martial communities, based on N. Subrahmanian's Sangam Polity (pp. 123–176). Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
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In [[Old Tamil|Old Tamil language]], the term [[Tamizhagam|Tamilakam]] (''Tamiḻakam'', ''[[Purananuru]]'' 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sep 20|first=M. T. Saju / MT Saju /|last2=2019|title=Carbon dating confirms Keeladi 3 centuries older {{!}} Chennai News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/carbon-dating-confirms-keeladi-3-centuries-older/articleshow/71209468.cms|access-date=2021-02-08|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> corresponding roughly to the area known as [[South India|southern India]] today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]], parts of [[Karnataka]] and northern [[Sri Lanka]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=A.Jeyaratnam|title=Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in 19th and 20th Centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3aAB9IFVdkC&q=tamilakam+northern+sri+lanka&pg=PA14|website="They had earlier felt secure in the concept of the Tamilakam, a vast area of "Tamilness" from the south of Dekhan in India to the north of Sri Lanka..."|access-date=2012-04-28|isbn=9780774807593|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author1=Pierre-Yves Manguin |author2=A Mani |author3=Geoff Wade|title=Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross Cultural exchange|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ni9AlOLTFZYC&q=tamilakam+northern+sri+lanka&pg=PA138|website=originally imported from Kerala to Tamilakam(Southern India) to Illam(Sri Lanka)|isbn=9789814345101|year=2011}}</ref> also known as [[Eelam]].<ref name="shinu">{{cite journal | last =Abraham | first =Shinu | title =Chera, Chola, Pandya: using archaeological evidence to identify the Tamil kingdoms of early historic South India | journal =Asian Perspectives | volume =42 | issue =2 | pages =207–223 |year=2003 | url =https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=GfpTLJYcL1XJGP4Vv1mSvT1hvmCvCxGMhrrDBZ23l2vmKVN1JkYG!-2096127210?docId=5002047766| doi =10.1353/asi.2003.0031 | hdl =10125/17189 | s2cid =153420843 | hdl-access =free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1naAAAAMAAJ&q=nagadipa+naga+nadu | title=Women, Transition, and Change: A Study of the Impact of Conflict and Displacement on Women in Traditional Tamil Society| year=1995}}</ref> | In [[Old Tamil|Old Tamil language]], the term [[Tamizhagam|Tamilakam]] (''Tamiḻakam'', ''[[Purananuru]]'' 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sep 20|first=M. T. Saju / MT Saju /|last2=2019|title=Carbon dating confirms Keeladi 3 centuries older {{!}} Chennai News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/carbon-dating-confirms-keeladi-3-centuries-older/articleshow/71209468.cms|access-date=2021-02-08|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> corresponding roughly to the area known as [[South India|southern India]] today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]], parts of [[Karnataka]] and northern [[Sri Lanka]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=A.Jeyaratnam|title=Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in 19th and 20th Centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3aAB9IFVdkC&q=tamilakam+northern+sri+lanka&pg=PA14|website="They had earlier felt secure in the concept of the Tamilakam, a vast area of "Tamilness" from the south of Dekhan in India to the north of Sri Lanka..."|access-date=2012-04-28|isbn=9780774807593|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author1=Pierre-Yves Manguin |author2=A Mani |author3=Geoff Wade|title=Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross Cultural exchange|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ni9AlOLTFZYC&q=tamilakam+northern+sri+lanka&pg=PA138|website=originally imported from Kerala to Tamilakam(Southern India) to Illam(Sri Lanka)|isbn=9789814345101|year=2011}}</ref> also known as [[Eelam]].<ref name="shinu">{{cite journal | last =Abraham | first =Shinu | title =Chera, Chola, Pandya: using archaeological evidence to identify the Tamil kingdoms of early historic South India | journal =Asian Perspectives | volume =42 | issue =2 | pages =207–223 |year=2003 | url =https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=GfpTLJYcL1XJGP4Vv1mSvT1hvmCvCxGMhrrDBZ23l2vmKVN1JkYG!-2096127210?docId=5002047766| doi =10.1353/asi.2003.0031 | hdl =10125/17189 | s2cid =153420843 | hdl-access =free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1naAAAAMAAJ&q=nagadipa+naga+nadu | title=Women, Transition, and Change: A Study of the Impact of Conflict and Displacement on Women in Traditional Tamil Society| year=1995}}</ref> | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
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The period between 600 BCE to 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of [[Pandya]], [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Chera dynasty|Chera]], and a few independent chieftains, the [[Velirs|Velir]]. | The period between 600 BCE to 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of [[Pandya]], [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Chera dynasty|Chera]], and a few independent chieftains, the [[Velirs|Velir]]. | ||
==Warfare and Military Organisation== | |||
There was considerable discord and hostility among the three crowned monarchs of Tamilakam. There is ample evidence that they rarely missed an opportunity to wage war against one another. Each king sought to enhance his political standing and rise above the others. The poet Ilango states that the Pandya king Nedunchezhiyan engraved his fish emblem on the rocks of the Himalayas, with the bow and tiger emblems inscribed on either side. According to the poem, these two emblems represented the Cheras and the Cholas, respectively, and the kings represented by them served the Pandya king. A poem by the poet Kovur Kilar refers to the royal umbrellas of the Chera and Pandya kings being held lower than that of the Chola king. The author interprets this as an indication of their subordination to the Chola ruler. The prospect of all three crowned monarchs assembling at the same royal court was difficult for people to imagine. Nevertheless, some poets looked forward to an auspicious day when the three crowned kings would gather at the same court. Poets generally employed exaggerated language when praising the kings they patronised. They also tended to disparage other rulers while praising a particular king. The notion that the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas would wage war against one another was regarded as natural. The poet Kovur Kilar attempted to reconcile the differences between the Chola rulers Nalankilli and Nedunkilli, who belonged to the same royal family. On that occasion, he reportedly stated that he could understand Cholas fighting the Cheras or the Pandyas, but could not understand one Chola fighting another. | |||
Jealousy appears to have been common among the kings. They could not tolerate the prominence of neighbouring rulers and considered it inconsistent with their royal dignity to remain content with their existing position while others prospered. A king's ideal was to bring the entire world under the protection of his royal umbrella. Whether he had actually conquered the whole world was less important; poets praised him as the sole ruler of the universe. A king who valued his honour and prestige was unwilling to accept the position of being merely one among many rulers in the world. He regarded the continued pursuit of universal sovereignty as a legitimate royal ambition. This political and psychological background contributed to the circumstances that led to warfare. | |||
The martial spirit was another important cause of war. It encompassed both a traditional glorification of warfare and an individual inclination towards combat. Such aggressiveness refers to a disposition towards quarrelling and confrontation. Nevertheless, throughout history, it was often regarded as an admirable quality associated with masculine assertiveness and courage. When challenged to single combat or a duel, refusing to accept the challenge was considered inconsistent with one's dignity and sense of honour. Once kings became consumed by the desire for war, they concentrated on devising plans to destroy their enemies. The author states that they contemplated the destruction of their adversaries throughout the night and did not rest even during their usual sleeping hours. They appeared delighted by the prospect of war and victory. | |||
Tamil kings defeated invading armies from the Deccan and regions farther north on numerous occasions. Likewise, they conducted military expeditions into the Deccan and northern India, where they defeated their adversaries. According to the author, Karikala, Nedunchezhiyan, Senguttuvan, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman, Rajaraja Chola I, and Rajendra Chola I achieved notable victories with their Tamil armies. Some of these rulers gained considerable fame through victories in significant naval battles. They also established their political and military influence in territories ranging from nearby regions such as Sri Lanka to distant places such as Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. | |||
The author states that the first ruler from outside Tamilakam to conquer the region was associated with the southern campaigns of the Mauryan Empire. In his view, neither Bindusara nor Ashoka nor Samudragupta can be said to have conquered Tamilakam in its entirety. He also considers it unlikely that the defeat of Vishnugopa during Samudragupta's campaign took place within the geographical boundaries of Tamilakam. | |||
The author also cites a traditional account concerning the origins of the warrior classes of Tamilakam. According to this tradition, the warrior classes emerged after a great deluge, when only the mountains had reappeared and the plains had not yet been formed. They were described as having been born with swords in their hands and as belonging to the most ancient communities of Tamilakam. This account represents a traditional belief emphasising the antiquity of warrior communities. | |||
The Purananuru and other Sangam anthologies containing war poetry provide abundant information about these warrior communities. Among the examples mentioned is a poem describing the bravery displayed on the battlefield by the young son of an elderly woman. The poem employs a simile involving the woman's young warrior son, whose mother is described as having untidy, grey hair, in a comparison that begins to depict his encounter with a large army. The complete meaning of this passage cannot be established from the truncated text provided.<ref>{{cite book |last=Subrahmanian |first=N. |year=1956 |title=Sangam Polity |publisher=Asia Publishing House |pages=123–176 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111129/page/n146/mode/1up}}</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
Latest revision as of 01:10, 12 October 2026
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 Tamilakam, located in the tip of South India during the Sangam Period, ruled by Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty | |
| Alternative names | Sangam Age, Third Sangam period, Last Sangam period |
|---|---|
| Geographical range | Indian subcontinent |
| Period | Iron Age India |
| Dates | c. 600 BCE – c. 300 CE |
| Major sites | Keezhadi excavation site, Kodumanal, Arikamedu, Murugan Temple, Saluvankuppam, Adhichanallur |
The Sangam period or age (Tamil: சங்ககாலம், caṅkakālam ?, Malayalam: സംഘകാലം, saṅkakālam ?), particularly referring to the third Sangam period, is the period of history of ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka (then known as Tamilakam) spanning from c. 6th century BCE to c. 3rd century CE.[1] It was named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai.
In Old Tamil language, the term Tamilakam (Tamiḻakam, Purananuru 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area,[2] corresponding roughly to the area known as southern India today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka and northern Sri Lanka[3][4] also known as Eelam.[5][6]
History[edit | edit source]
According to Tamil legends, there were three Sangam periods, namely Head Sangam, Middle Sangam and Last Sangam period. Historians use the term Sangam period to refer the last of these, with the first two being legendary. So it is also called Last Sangam period (Tamil: கடைச்சங்க பருவம், Kadaiccanga paruvam ?),[7] or Third Sangam period (Tamil: மூன்றாம் சங்க பருவம், Mūnṟām sanka paruvam ?). The Sangam literature is thought to have been produced in three Sangam academies of each period. The evidence on the early history of the Tamil kingdoms consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data.
The period between 600 BCE to 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of Pandya, Chola and Chera, and a few independent chieftains, the Velir.
Warfare and Military Organisation[edit | edit source]
There was considerable discord and hostility among the three crowned monarchs of Tamilakam. There is ample evidence that they rarely missed an opportunity to wage war against one another. Each king sought to enhance his political standing and rise above the others. The poet Ilango states that the Pandya king Nedunchezhiyan engraved his fish emblem on the rocks of the Himalayas, with the bow and tiger emblems inscribed on either side. According to the poem, these two emblems represented the Cheras and the Cholas, respectively, and the kings represented by them served the Pandya king. A poem by the poet Kovur Kilar refers to the royal umbrellas of the Chera and Pandya kings being held lower than that of the Chola king. The author interprets this as an indication of their subordination to the Chola ruler. The prospect of all three crowned monarchs assembling at the same royal court was difficult for people to imagine. Nevertheless, some poets looked forward to an auspicious day when the three crowned kings would gather at the same court. Poets generally employed exaggerated language when praising the kings they patronised. They also tended to disparage other rulers while praising a particular king. The notion that the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas would wage war against one another was regarded as natural. The poet Kovur Kilar attempted to reconcile the differences between the Chola rulers Nalankilli and Nedunkilli, who belonged to the same royal family. On that occasion, he reportedly stated that he could understand Cholas fighting the Cheras or the Pandyas, but could not understand one Chola fighting another.
Jealousy appears to have been common among the kings. They could not tolerate the prominence of neighbouring rulers and considered it inconsistent with their royal dignity to remain content with their existing position while others prospered. A king's ideal was to bring the entire world under the protection of his royal umbrella. Whether he had actually conquered the whole world was less important; poets praised him as the sole ruler of the universe. A king who valued his honour and prestige was unwilling to accept the position of being merely one among many rulers in the world. He regarded the continued pursuit of universal sovereignty as a legitimate royal ambition. This political and psychological background contributed to the circumstances that led to warfare.
The martial spirit was another important cause of war. It encompassed both a traditional glorification of warfare and an individual inclination towards combat. Such aggressiveness refers to a disposition towards quarrelling and confrontation. Nevertheless, throughout history, it was often regarded as an admirable quality associated with masculine assertiveness and courage. When challenged to single combat or a duel, refusing to accept the challenge was considered inconsistent with one's dignity and sense of honour. Once kings became consumed by the desire for war, they concentrated on devising plans to destroy their enemies. The author states that they contemplated the destruction of their adversaries throughout the night and did not rest even during their usual sleeping hours. They appeared delighted by the prospect of war and victory.
Tamil kings defeated invading armies from the Deccan and regions farther north on numerous occasions. Likewise, they conducted military expeditions into the Deccan and northern India, where they defeated their adversaries. According to the author, Karikala, Nedunchezhiyan, Senguttuvan, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman, Rajaraja Chola I, and Rajendra Chola I achieved notable victories with their Tamil armies. Some of these rulers gained considerable fame through victories in significant naval battles. They also established their political and military influence in territories ranging from nearby regions such as Sri Lanka to distant places such as Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.
The author states that the first ruler from outside Tamilakam to conquer the region was associated with the southern campaigns of the Mauryan Empire. In his view, neither Bindusara nor Ashoka nor Samudragupta can be said to have conquered Tamilakam in its entirety. He also considers it unlikely that the defeat of Vishnugopa during Samudragupta's campaign took place within the geographical boundaries of Tamilakam.
The author also cites a traditional account concerning the origins of the warrior classes of Tamilakam. According to this tradition, the warrior classes emerged after a great deluge, when only the mountains had reappeared and the plains had not yet been formed. They were described as having been born with swords in their hands and as belonging to the most ancient communities of Tamilakam. This account represents a traditional belief emphasising the antiquity of warrior communities.
The Purananuru and other Sangam anthologies containing war poetry provide abundant information about these warrior communities. Among the examples mentioned is a poem describing the bravery displayed on the battlefield by the young son of an elderly woman. The poem employs a simile involving the woman's young warrior son, whose mother is described as having untidy, grey hair, in a comparison that begins to depict his encounter with a large army. The complete meaning of this passage cannot be established from the truncated text provided.[8]
| Sangam | Time span | No. of Poets | Kingdom[9] | Books[9] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | 4440 years[9] | 549[9] | Pandiya | No books survived |
| Second | 3700 years[9] | 1700[9] | Pandiya | Tolkāppiyam (author - Tolkāppiyar) |
| Third | 1850 years[9] | Pandiya | covers entire corpus of Sangam Literature |
Literary sources[edit | edit source]
There is a wealth of sources detailing the history, socio-political environment and cultural practices of ancient Tamilakam, including volumes of literature and epigraphy.[5]
Culture[edit | edit source]
The four fold vedic system of caste hierarchy did not exist during sangam period. The society was organised by occupational groups living apart from each other.[11]
See also[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Jesudasan, Dennis S. (20 September 2019). "Keezhadi excavations: Sangam era older than previously thought, finds study". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
- ↑ Sep 20, M. T. Saju / MT Saju /; 2019. "Carbon dating confirms Keeladi 3 centuries older | Chennai News - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
{{cite web}}:|last2=has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ Wilson, A.Jeyaratnam (2000). Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in 19th and 20th Centuries. ISBN 9780774807593. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ↑ Pierre-Yves Manguin; A Mani; Geoff Wade (2011). Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross Cultural exchange. ISBN 9789814345101.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Abraham, Shinu (2003). "Chera, Chola, Pandya: using archaeological evidence to identify the Tamil kingdoms of early historic South India". Asian Perspectives. 42 (2): 207–223. doi:10.1353/asi.2003.0031. hdl:10125/17189. S2CID 153420843.
- ↑ "Women, Transition, and Change: A Study of the Impact of Conflict and Displacement on Women in Traditional Tamil Society". 1995.
- ↑ Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. BRILL. p. 46.
- ↑ Subrahmanian, N. (1956). Sangam Polity. Asia Publishing House. pp. 123–176.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Daniélou, Alain (11 February 2003). A Brief History of India. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781594777943.
- ↑ Rosen, Elizabeth S. (1975). "Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review". Artibus Asiae. 37 (1/2): 148–150. doi:10.2307/3250226. JSTOR 3250226.
- ↑ Nath sen, Sailendra (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. Routledge. p. 202.
Bibliography[edit | edit source]
- A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, Picador (1995) ISBN 0-330-43909-X
- P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, History of the Tamils from the earliest times to 600 AD, Madras, 1929; Chennai, Asian Educational Svcs. (2001) ISBN 81-206-0145-9.
- "History of Mallars"