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Template:Infobox month Template:IslamicMonths sidebar Al-Muharram (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is one of the four sacred months of the year when warfare is banned. It precedes the month of Safar. The tenth of Muharram is known as Ashura, an important day of commemoration in Islam. For Sunni Muslims, the day commemorates the parting of the Red Sea by Moses and the salvation of the Israelites, observed through voluntary fasting and other permissible expressions of gratitude. By contrast, Ashura is a day of mourning for Shia Muslims, who annually commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam. Husayn was killed, alongside most of his relatives and his small retinue, in the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE against the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (r. 680–683). The Shia rituals span the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with mourning processions in Shia cities. Also in Muharram, the Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem was initially set as the direction of prayer for early Muslims.

Origins

Muharram (lit. 'sacred') is the first month of the Islamic calendar, with (at most) thirty days. Warfare in Muharram is forbidden, and it has been so since before the advent of Islam.^[1] The word Muharram is short for "Muharram Safar" (lit. 'sacred Safar'), which distinguishes in the ancient Arab calendar between Safar I, which was sacred, and Safar II, which was not. Over time, however, the adjective Muharram itself became the name of the first month of the year.^[1]

Ashura

The tenth of Muharram is known as Ashura, an important day of commemoration in Islam. For Sunni Muslims, Ashura marks the parting of the Red Sea by Moses and the salvation of the Israelites.^[2]^[3] Also on this day, Noah disembarked from the Ark,^[3] God forgave Adam, and Joseph was released from prison, among various auspicious events on Ashura in Sunni tradition.^[4] Ashura is celebrated in Sunni Islam through supererogatory fasting, and also other pious acts and acceptable expressions of joy.^[4]^[4] In some Sunni communities, the annual Ashura festivities include carnivals, bonfires, and special dishes,^[5]^[6] even though some Sunni scholars have criticized such practices.^[4]^[7]

By contrast, for Shia Muslims, Ashura is a day of mourning as they commemorate the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam.^[8]^[9] Husayn refused on moral grounds to pledge his allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (r. 680–683) and was subsequently killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, by the Umayyad army in the Battle of Karbala on Ashura 61 AH (680 CE).^[10]^[11] Among the Shia, mourning for Husayn is viewed as an act of protest against oppression, and as such a struggle for God (jihad).^[12]^[13] Mourners also hope to secure the intercession of Husayn in the afterlife.^[14]^[15] Ashura is observed annually through mourning gatherings, processions, and reenactments.^[16]^[17]

Timing

Template:Hijri to gregorian calendar.svg The Islamic calendar is lunar, and months begin when the first crescent (hilal) of a new moon is sighted. Since the lunar year (of twelve lunar months) is eleven or twelve days shorter than the solar year.^[18] Muharram days are different in consecutive solar years.^[19]

Muharram dates between 2024 and 2028
Islamic calendar	First day (CE)	Last day (CE)
1446	07 July 2024	04 August 2024
1447	026 June 2025	025 July 2025
1448	016 June 2026	016 July 2026
1449	06 June 2027	04 July 2027
1450	25 May 2028	23 June 2028

Battle of Karbala

2 Muharram: Arrival of Husayn ibn Ali in Karbala, Iraq, in 680. On their way to the nearby Kufa, Husayn and his small caravan were intercepted by the Umayyad army and eventually forced to camp in the desert lands of Karbala, away from water and fortifications.^[10]
7 Muharram: The Umayyad army cut off Husayn's access to the drinking water of the nearby Euphrates river.^[20] Under the siege, Husayn's camp suffered from thirst and hunger in the coming days.^[21]^[22]^[23]
9 Muharram (Tasu'a): Negotiations between Husayn and the Umayyads failed on this day in 680. The Umayyad commander Umar ibn Sa'd (Template:Died in) was set to attack after the afternoon prayer on Tasu'a but was persuaded to delay the confrontation until the following day.^[24]^[10] Husayn and his men spent the night in prayer.^[25]^[26]
10 Muharram (Ashura): The Battle of Karbala was fought on this day in 680. Husayn and most of his male relatives and his small retinue were slaughtered by the Umayyad army by the end of the day. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the Umayyad capital Damascus in Syria.^[27]

Other Islamic events

1 Muharram: Death of Caliph Umar (r. 634–644) by injuries from the attack of Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz.^[28] Sunnis carry rallies on 1 Muharram to commemorate Umar.^[29]
2–10 Muharram: Most mourning rituals for Karbala take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on the tenth with processions in major Shia cities.^[30]^[31]
5 Muharram: Baba Farid, a Punjabi Sufi saint, died on this day in 1266. His death is celebrated (urs) for six days during Muharram, in Pakpattan, Pakistan.^[32]
8 Muharram: In what became known as the 1782 Muharram Rebellion, on this day Bengali Muslims in Sylhet staged one of the earliest anti-British uprisings in the Indian subcontinent.^[33]^[34]
16 Muharram: On this day, the Islamic prophet Muhammad set the Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem as the qibla, towards which early Muslims prayed.^[1] This was superseded later by the ancient Ka'ba sanctuary in Mecca in connection with verse 2:144 of the Quran, the central religious text in Islam.^[35]
17 Muharram: Arrival of the "people of the elephant" in Mecca, a reference to al-Fil (lit. 'the elephant'), a surah (chapter) in the Quran.^[1]

Footnotes

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 Plessner 2012.
↑ Newman 2024.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 Katz 2007, p. 149.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 ^4.3 Reid 2011.
↑ Wensinck & Marçais 2012.
↑ Katz 2007, p. 113.
↑ Katz 2007, pp. 115–116.
↑ Aghaie 2013.
↑ Beverley 2011, p. 48.
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 Madelung 2004.
↑ Momen 1985, pp. 28–31.
↑ Ayoub 1978, pp. 142–143.
↑ Nakash 1993, p. 165.
↑ Blank 2001, p. 84.
↑ Munson 1988, p. 24.
↑ Calmard 1987.
↑ Calmard 2004.
↑ Seidelmann 1992, p. 577.
↑ Gent n.d.
↑ Qutbuddin 2019, p. 106.
↑ Veccia Vaglieri 2012.
↑ Pinault 2000, p. 71.
↑ Hamdar 2009, pp. 85–86.
↑ Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015.
↑ Munson 1988, pp. 23.
↑ Sindawi 2002, p. 91.
↑ Momen 1985, pp. 30–31.
↑ Litvak 2021, p. 132.
↑ Dawn 2014.
↑ Osman 2014, p. 133.
↑ Momen 1985, p. 240.
↑ Nizami 1955, p. 1.
↑ Riaz 2013.
↑ Islam 2016.
↑ Wensinck & Jomier 2012.

References

Aghaie, K.S. (2013). "'Āshūrā' (Shī'ism)". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855. ISBN 9789004252684.
Ayoub, M.M. (1978). Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism. De Gruyter. ISBN 9789027979438.
Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Negahban, F. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009.
Bakhsh, Khwaja Muhammad Tahir (2008). Jalwa Gah-e-Dost (in Urdu) (2nd ed.). Archived from the original on 7 October 2011.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
Beverley, J.A. (2011). "Ashura". In Gordon Melton, J. (ed.). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 47–49. ISBN 9781598842050.
Blank, J. (2001). Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226056760.
Calmard, J. (1987). "'Azādārī". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. III/2. pp. 174–177.
Calmard, J. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali ii. In Popular Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 498–502.
- "ASWJ rallies in many towns to observe Yaum-i-Umar Farooq". Dawn. 27 October 2014.
Gent, R.H. van (n.d.). "The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia". webspace.science.uu.nl.
Hamdar, A. (2009). "Jihad of words: Gender and contemporary Karbala Narratives". The Yearbook of English Studies. 39 (1–2): 84–100. doi:10.1353/yes.2009.0016. S2CID 158479476.
Katz, M.H. (2007). The Birth of the Prophet Muḥammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9780203962145.
Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498.
Islam, Emad Ullah Shahidul (19 October 2016). আরেক শহীদ দিবস [Another Martyrs' Day]. Bangladesh Pratidin (in Bengali). Retrieved 1 May 2019.
- Litvak, Meir (2021). Know Thy Enemy: Evolving Attitudes Towards "Others" in Modern Shiʿi Thought and Practice. Brill. ISBN 9789004444683.
Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300035315.
Munson, H. (1988). Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300046049.
Nakash, Y. (1993). "An Attempt to Trace the Origin of the Rituals of 'Āshūrā'". Die Welt des Islams: 161–181. JSTOR 1570949.
Newman, A.J. (24 August 2024). "'Āshūrā'". Encyclopedia Britannica.
Osman, R. (2014). Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781315770147.
Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad (1955). The Life and Times of Shaikh Farid-u'd-din Ganj-i-Shakar. Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University.
Pinault, D. (2000). "Zaynab bin 'Ali and the Place of the Women of the Households of the First Imāms in Shī'īte Devotional Literature". In Hambly, G. (ed.). Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety. Macmillan. ISBN 9780333800355.
Plessner, M. (2012). "al-Muḥarram". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426. ISBN 9789004161214.
Qutbuddin, T. (2019). "Orations of Zaynab and Umm Kulthūm in the aftermath of Ḥusayn's Martyrdom at Karbala: Speaking Truth to Power". In Korangy, A.; Rouhi, L. (eds.). The "Other" Martyrs: Women and the Poetics of Sexuality, Sacrifice, and Death in World Literatures (First ed.). Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 103–132. doi:10.2307/j.ctvrnfq6q. ISBN 9783447198790.
Reid, M.H. (2011). "'Āshūrā' (Sunnism)". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23081. ISBN 9789004203532.
Riaz, Ali (23 July 2013). Islam and Identity Politics Among British-Bangladeshis: A Leap of Faith. Manchester University. ISBN 978-0719089558.
Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, ed. (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac.
Sindawi, K. (2002). "The Image of Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī in Maqātil Literature" (PDF). Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 20/21: 79–104. JSTOR 25802958.
Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012). "(al-)Ḥusayn b. 'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0304. ISBN 9789004161214.
Wensinck, A.J.; Jomier, J. (2012). "Ka'ba". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0401. ISBN 9789004161214.
Wensinck, A.J.; Marçais, Ph. (2012). "'Ās̲h̲ūrā'". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0068. ISBN 9789004161214.

External links

"Muharram" . New International Encyclopedia. 1997.

Template:IslamicMonths Template:Public holidays in Indonesia Template:Public holidays in Malaysia

[FOOTNOTEPlessner2012-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 Plessner 2012.

[FOOTNOTENewman2024-2] Newman 2024.

[FOOTNOTEKatz2007149-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Katz 2007, p. 149.

[FOOTNOTEReid2011-4] 4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 ^4.3 Reid 2011.

[FOOTNOTEWensinckMarçais2012-5] Wensinck & Marçais 2012.

[FOOTNOTEKatz2007113-6] Katz 2007, p. 113.

[FOOTNOTEKatz2007115–116-7] Katz 2007, pp. 115–116.

[FOOTNOTEAghaie2013-8] Aghaie 2013.

[FOOTNOTEBeverley201148-9] Beverley 2011, p. 48.

[FOOTNOTEMadelung2004-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 Madelung 2004.

[FOOTNOTEMomen198528–31-11] Momen 1985, pp. 28–31.

[FOOTNOTEAyoub1978142–143-12] Ayoub 1978, pp. 142–143.

[FOOTNOTENakash1993165-13] Nakash 1993, p. 165.

[FOOTNOTEBlank200184-14] Blank 2001, p. 84.

[FOOTNOTEMunson198824-15] Munson 1988, p. 24.

[FOOTNOTECalmard1987-16] Calmard 1987.

[FOOTNOTECalmard2004-17] Calmard 2004.

[FOOTNOTESeidelmann1992577-18] Seidelmann 1992, p. 577.

[FOOTNOTEGentn.d.-19] Gent n.d.

[FOOTNOTEQutbuddin2019106-20] Qutbuddin 2019, p. 106.

[FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2012-21] Veccia Vaglieri 2012.

[FOOTNOTEPinault200071-22] Pinault 2000, p. 71.

[FOOTNOTEHamdar200985–86-23] Hamdar 2009, pp. 85–86.

[FOOTNOTEBahramianBulookbashi2015-24] Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015.

[FOOTNOTEMunson198823-25] Munson 1988, pp. 23.

[FOOTNOTESindawi200291-26] Sindawi 2002, p. 91.

[FOOTNOTEMomen198530–31-27] Momen 1985, pp. 30–31.

[FOOTNOTELitvak2021132-28] Litvak 2021, p. 132.

[FOOTNOTE''Dawn''2014-29] Dawn 2014.

[FOOTNOTEOsman2014133-30] Osman 2014, p. 133.

[FOOTNOTEMomen1985240-31] Momen 1985, p. 240.

[FOOTNOTENizami19551-32] Nizami 1955, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTERiaz2013-33] Riaz 2013.

[FOOTNOTEIslam2016-34] Islam 2016.

[FOOTNOTEWensinckJomier2012-35] Wensinck & Jomier 2012.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|1st month of the Islamic calendar}}
+{{Short description|First month of the Islamic calendar}}
+{{About|the first month of the [[Islamic calendar]]|the annual commemoration of [[Husayn ibn Ali]]|Mourning of Muharram|}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
 {{Infobox month
 | image       = Ashura 2016 mourning in Imam Hossein Square, Tehran 02.jpg
 | alt         =
-| caption     = Ashura commemorating martyrdom of Prophet's grandson, Tehran, 2016
+| caption     = Ashura procession in Iran, 2016
 | native_name = {{Native name|ar|ٱلْمُحَرَّم}}
 | calendar    = [[Islamic calendar]]
 | num         = 1
-| days        = 29-30 (depends on actual observation of the moon's crescent)
+| days        = 29–30 (depends on actual observation of the moon's crescent)
 | season      =
 | gregorian   =
 | holidays    = [[Ashura]]
-| prev_month  = [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]
+| prev_month  = [[Dhu al-Hijja]]
 | next_month  = [[Safar]]
 }}
 {{IslamicMonths sidebar}}
+'''Al-Muharram''' ({{langx|ar|ٱلْمُحَرَّم|translit=al-Muḥarram}}) is the first month of the [[Islamic calendar]]. It is one of the four sacred months of the year when warfare is banned. It precedes the month of [[Safar]]. The tenth of Muharram is known as [[Ashura]], an important day of commemoration in [[Islam]]. For [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], the day commemorates the [[Crossing the Red Sea|parting of the Red Sea]] by [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] and the salvation of the [[Israelites]], observed through voluntary [[fasting]] and other permissible expressions of gratitude. By contrast, Ashura is a day of mourning for [[Shia Islam|Shia]] Muslims, who annually commemorate the death of [[Husayn ibn Ali]], grandson of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] and the third [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Shia imam]]. Husayn was killed, alongside most of his relatives and his small retinue, in the [[Battle of Karbala]] in 680 [[Common Era|CE]] against the army of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad caliph]] [[Yazid I|Yazid ibn Mu'awiya]] ({{Reign|680|683}}). The Shia rituals span the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with mourning processions in Shia cities. Also in Muharram, the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque|Aqsa]] mosque in [[Jerusalem]] was initially set as the direction of prayer for early Muslims.
-'''Muḥarram''' ({{lang-ar|ٱلْمُحَرَّم}}) is the first month of the [[Islamic calendar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/overview-of-the-islamic-calendar-2003736 |title=Overview of the Islamic Calendar |author=Huda |date=25 June 2019 |access-date=7 November 2019 |work=Learn Religions |publisher=[[Dotdash]]}}</ref> It is one of the four sacred months of the year when warfare is forbidden.<ref name="ÎA" /> It is held to be the second holiest month after [[Ramadan]].
+==Origins==
+Muharram ({{Lit|sacred}}) is the first month of the [[Islamic calendar]], with (at most) thirty days. Warfare in Muharram is forbidden, and it has been so since before the advent of [[Islam]].{{sfn|Plessner|2012}} The word {{Transliteration|ar|Muharram}} is short for "Muharram Safar" ({{Lit|sacred Safar}}), which distinguishes in the ancient [[Arabs|Arab]] calendar between Safar I, which was sacred, and Safar II, which was not. Over time, however, the adjective {{Transliteration|ar|Muharram}} itself became the name of the first month of the year.{{sfn|Plessner|2012}}
-The tenth day of Muharram, known as the [[Day of Ashura]], bears special significance for Muslims both of Shia and Sunni [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]] On this solemn occasion, Shia Muslims grieve the tragedy of [[Husayn ibn Ali|Ḥusayn ibn Alī]] and his family. For both Sunni and Shia Muslims, Husayn's suffering and martyrdom became a symbol of sacrifice in the struggle for right against wrong, and for justice and truth against injustice and falsehood.
+== Ashura ==
+{{Main|Ashura}}
+{{See also|Battle of Karbala|Mourning of Muharram|Ashura in Algeria}}
+The tenth of Muharram is known as [[Ashura]], an important day of commemoration in Islam. For [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslims]], Ashura marks the [[parting of the Red Sea]] by [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] and the salvation of the [[Israelites]].{{sfn|Newman|2024}}{{sfn|Katz|2007|p=149}} Also on this day, [[Noah]] disembarked from the [[Noah's Ark|Ark]],{{sfn|Katz|2007|p=149}} God forgave [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], and [[Joseph in Islam|Joseph]] was released from prison, among various auspicious events on Ashura in Sunni tradition.{{sfn|Reid|2011}} Ashura is celebrated in Sunni Islam through supererogatory [[fasting]], and also other pious acts and acceptable expressions of joy.{{sfn|Reid|2011}}{{sfn|Reid|2011}} In some Sunni communities, the annual Ashura festivities include carnivals, bonfires, and special dishes,{{sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}}{{sfn|Katz|2007|p=113}} even though some Sunni scholars have criticized such practices.{{sfn|Reid|2011}}{{sfn|Katz|2007|pp=115{{ndash}}116}}
-Shias mourn the martyrdom of Ḥusayn by abstaining from joyous events. Instead, they hold commemorative events to offer condolences to Imam Husayn and to honor the martyrs by prayer, reading supplications, and holding charity events. Many choose to eat sparingly, but this practice is distinct from fasting. Some (excluding children, elderly or sick) do not eat or drink, avoid entertainment until ''zawal'' (afternoon) as a part of their mourning for Husayn. It is a symbolic gesture of remembrance and solidarity with the sufferings endured by Imam Husayn and his companions.<ref name="ÎA" /> In addition, there is an important [[ziyarat]] book, the ''[[Ziyarat Ashura]]'' about Ḥusayn. In Shiʿism, it is popular to read this ziyarat on this date.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.duas.org/ashura/Ziaratashuraimp.htm |title=Ziyarat Ashoora – Importance, Rewards and Effects |work=almuntazar.com |via=www.duas.org |volume=3 |page=24 |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>
+By contrast, for [[Shia Islam|Shia]] Muslims, Ashura is a day of mourning as they commemorate the martyrdom of [[Husayn ibn Ali]], grandson of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] and the third [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Shia imam]].{{sfn|Aghaie|2013}}{{sfn|Beverley|2011|p=48}} Husayn refused on moral grounds to pledge his allegiance to the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad caliph]] [[Yazid I|Yazid ibn Mu'awiya]] ({{Reign|680|683}}) and was subsequently killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, by the Umayyad army in the [[Battle of Karbala]] on Ashura 61 [[Islamic calendar|AH]] (680 [[Common Era|CE]]).{{sfn|Madelung|2004}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=|pp=28{{ndash}}31}} Among the Shia, mourning for Husayn is viewed as an act of protest against oppression, and as such a struggle for God ({{Transliteration|ar|[[jihad]]}}).{{sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=|pp=142{{ndash}}143}}{{sfn|Nakash|1993|p=165}} Mourners also hope to secure the intercession of Husayn in the afterlife.{{sfn|Blank|2001|p=84}}{{sfn|Munson|1988|p=24}} Ashura is observed annually through mourning gatherings, processions, and reenactments.{{sfn|Calmard|1987}}{{sfn|Calmard|2004}} [[File:Muharram mourning, Hussainia TZ.jpg|thumb|Muharram mourning gathering in [[Tanzania]]]]
+[[File:عزاداری شیعیان در ماه محرم 07.jpg|thumb|Muharram mourning procession in [[Iran]]]]
-==Muharram and Ashura==
+==Timing==
-The word ''Muharram'' means forbidden or prohibited. Before Islam, it is said that this month was called as ''Safer ul Awwal''.<ref name="ÎA">{{cite book |last1=Yaşaroğlu |first1=M.Kâmīl |title=MUHARREM - An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam |date=2006 |publisher=[[İslâm Ansiklopedisi|TDV Encyclopedia of Islam]] |location=Ankara |isbn=978-97-53-89458-6 |pages=4–5 |volume=31 (Muhammediyye - Munazara) |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muharrem--ay|lang=tr}}</ref> The sighting of the [[new moon]] ushers in the [[Islamic New Year]].
+{{main|Islamic calendar#Hilal}}
-The first month, Muharram, is one of the four sacred months mentioned in the [[Quran]] (although not mentioned by name), along with the seventh month of [[Rajab]], and the eleventh and twelfth months of [[Dhu al-Qi'dah]] and [[Dhu al-Hijjah]], respectively, immediately preceding Muharram. During these sacred months, [[Islamic military jurisprudence|warfare]] is forbidden. [[Jahiliyyah|Before the advent of Islam]], the [[Quraish]] and [[Arab]]s also forbade warfare during those months.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-Before Islam, the Arabs also fasted on the tenth day of Muharram.<ref>Sahih al-Bukhari, [https://sunnah.com/bukhari:4504 Book 65, Hadith 31]</ref><ref name=Brit>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashura-Islamic-holy-day |title=ʿĀshūrāʾ: Islamic holy day |encyclopedia=Britannica|date=28 July 2023 }}</ref> This day also had importance in other [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic religions]] like [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]].<ref>Morrow, John Andrew. ''Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on Sacred Symbolism''. McFarland & Co, 2013. pp.{{nbsp}}234–36. {{ISBN|978-0786458486}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dabashi |first1=Hamid |date=September 20, 2018 |title=Yom Kippur and Ashoura: Are Muslims observing a Jewish holiday? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2018/9/20/yom-kippur-and-ashoura-are-muslims-observing-a-jewish-holiday |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Makke|first1=Hussain |date=September 10, 2019 |title=Ashura reminds us that Islam is an integral part of the Abrahamic tradition ǀ View |url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/09/10/ashura-reminds-us-that-islam-is-an-integral-part-of-the-abrahamic-tradition-view |website=Euronews |access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref>{{clarify|what are “Semitic religions”? How did this day register in Jewish and Christian calendars, which have different systems?|date=July 2023}} [[Muhammad]] also fasted many times on this day before his prophethood and after his migration to Medina and also ordered the Muslims to fast on this day and ninth and eleventh day as well. But the fasting was optional after Ramadan fasting was made obiligatory.<ref name="ÎA" /> It is narrated by [[Abu Hurairah]] that the Prophet Muhammad said, "The most virtuous fasting after the month of Ramadan is (in) Allah's month Al-Muharram."<ref>[[Sahih at-Tirmidhi]] : Hadith 740</ref>
-===Muharram and Ashura to the Muslims===
-{{Main|Mourning of Muharram}}
-[[File:Muharram mourning, Hussainia TZ.jpg|thumb|Shia Muslims in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]] in a [[Hussainiya]] as part of the commemoration of Muharram]]
-[[File:Azakhana wazeer un nisa.jpg|thumb|Shia Muslim children in [[Amroha]], [[India]] on camels in front of the Azakhana as part of the procession commemorating events on and after [[Day of Ashura]]]]
-Ashura, which literally means the "Tenth" in Arabic, refers to the tenth day of Muharram.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-10-12|title=How Muharram is being observed in India and around the world|url=https://indianexpress.com/photos/lifestyle-gallery/how-muharram-is-being-observed-in-india-and-around-the-world-3078864/|access-date=2021-08-04|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
-According to Sunni Muslims, fasting on Ashura, the tenth day of the Islamic month of Muharram was a practice established by Muhammad in the early days of Islam that commemorates the [[parting of the Red Sea]] by [[Moses in Islam|Moses]].<ref name=Brit>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashura-Islamic-holy-day |title=ʿĀshūrāʾ: Islamic holy day |encyclopedia=Britannica|date=28 July 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-02 |title=Ashura fasting in Muharram 2022: Date, history, significance of Shia and Sunni Muslims' fast in Muharram |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/festivals/ashura-fasting-in-muharram-2022-date-history-significance-of-shia-and-sunni-muslims-fast-in-muharram-101659413175758.html |access-date=2022-08-21 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
-While in Shia Islam, Muharram is a month of remembrance. Ashura is well known in Shia tradition because of its historical significance and mourning for the ''Shahadat'' (martyrdom) of Ḥusayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad.<ref name="TIO20101208">{{cite web |url=http://www.theismaili.org/cms/1125/Muharram |title=Muharram |access-date=2010-12-08 |date=2010-12-08 |archive-date=30 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230175607/http://www.theismaili.org/cms/1125/Muharram |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Muharram 2020: History, Significance And Know All About The Day Of Ashura|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/muharram-2020-history-significance-and-know-all-about-the-day-of-ashura-2286966|access-date=2021-08-04|website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Shia Muslims begin mourning from the first night of Muharram and continue for ten nights, climaxing on the 10th of Muharram, known as the Day of Ashura. The last few days up until and including the Day of Ashura are the most important because these were the days in which Hussain and his family and followers (including women, children and elderly people) were deprived of water from the 7th onward and on the 10th, Husayn and 72 of his followers were killed by the army of [[Yazid I]] at the [[Battle of Karbala]] on Yazid's orders. The surviving members of Husayn's family and those of his followers were taken captive, marched to Damascus, and imprisoned there.
-==Timing for Muharram==
 {{hijri_to_gregorian_calendar.svg}}
-The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the [[Tropical year|solar year]], Muharram migrates throughout the solar years. The estimated start and end dates for Muharram are as follows (based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of [[Saudi Arabia]]):<ref name="vangent">{{cite web|url=https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm|title=The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia|first=R.H. van|last=Gent|website=webspace.science.uu.nl}}</ref>
+The Islamic calendar is lunar, and months begin when the first crescent (''hilal'') of a new moon is sighted. Since the lunar year (of twelve [[lunar months]]) is eleven or twelve days shorter than the [[Tropical year|solar year]].{{sfn|Seidelmann|1992|page=577}} Muharram days are different in consecutive solar years.{{sfn|Gent|n.d.}}
 {|class=wikitable style="text-align:right"
-|+Muharram dates between 2020&nbsp;and&nbsp;2024
+|+Muharram dates between 2024&nbsp;and&nbsp;2028
 |-
-!scope="col"|[[Anno Hegirae|AH]]
+!scope="col"|Islamic calendar
-!scope="col"|First day ([[Common Era|CE]]/[[Anno Domini|AD]])
+!scope="col"|First day ([[Common Era|CE]])
-!scope="col"|Last day ([[Common Era|CE]]/[[Anno Domini|AD]])
+!scope="col"|Last day (CE)
 |-
-!scope="row"|1442
+!scope="row"|1446
-|20 August 2020
+|{{0}}7 July 2024
-|17&nbsp;September&nbsp;2020
+|{{0}}4 August 2024
 |-
-!scope="row"|1443
+!scope="row"|1447
-|{{0}}9 August 2021
+|{{0}}26 June 2025
-|{{0}}7&nbsp;September&nbsp;2021
+|{{0}}25 July 2025
 |-
-!scope="row"|1444
+!scope="row"|1448
-|30 July 2022
+|{{0}}16 June 2026
-|27 August 2022
+|{{0}}16 July 2026
 |-
-!scope="row"|1445
+!scope="row"|1449
-|19 July 2023
+|{{0}}6 June 2027
-|16 August 2023
+|{{0}}4 July 2027
 |-
-!scope="row"|1446
+!scope="row"|1450
-|{{0}}7 July 2024
+|25 May 2028
-|{{0}}4 August 2024
+|23 June 2028
 |}
-==Events Related to Imam Husayn and Karbala Tragedy==
+== Battle of Karbala ==
-{{Main|Battle of Karbala}}{{See also|Mourning of Muharram}}
-[[File: Scenes in the procession at the Mohurrum festival.jpg|thumb|Scenes in the Taziya procession at the Muharram]]
-* 2 Muharram: Arrival in Karbala: Imam Husayn, along with his family and followers, embarked on a journey from Mecca to Kufa. However, they were forced to stop at [[Battle of Karbala|Karbala]] because of the forces of [[Yazid I|Yazid]] who considered an illegitimate ruler and a tyrant by many Muslims. 61 AH (680 AD).<ref>{{Cite book | last = Hyder | first = Syed Akbar | date = 2006 | title = ''Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory'' | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=E80OGPmP3GoC | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-537302-8 | access-date = July 31, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Halm |first=Heinz |date=1997 |title=Shi'a Islam: From Religion to Revolution |translator=Allison Brown |publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers |location=Princeton |isbn=1-55876-134-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/shiaislamfromrel0000halm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayoub |first=Mahmoud |date=1978 |title=Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=Mouton Publishers |location=Hague |isbn=90-279-7943-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpaPWv5Iyd8C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | last = Vaglieri | first = L. Veccia | date = 1971 | title = "(Al)-Ḥusayn b. 'Alï b. Abï Ṭālib" | url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/search?s.q=%28Al%29-%E1%B8%A4usayn+b.+%27Al%C3%AF+b.+Ab%C3%AF+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&search-go=Search | website = Encyclopaedia of Islam | publisher = E. J. Brill | volume = Volume III: H–Iram (2nd ed.) | pages = 607–615 | oclc = 495469525 | access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref>
-* 7 Muharram: Blockade and Isolation: The forces of the Umayyad caliph, Yazid I, led by [[Umar ibn Sa'd|Umar ibn Sa'ad]], surrounded Imam Husayn and his followers, cutting off their access to water and supplies. This blockade continued for several days. 61 AH (680 AD).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daftary |first=Farhad |date=1990 |title=The Ismāʿı̄lı̄s: Their History and Doctrines |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-37019-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQGlyZAy134C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayoub |first=Mahmoud |date=1978 |title=Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=Mouton Publishers |location=Hague |isbn=90-279-7943-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpaPWv5Iyd8C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=I. K. A. |date=1990 |title=The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XIX: The Caliphate of Yazīd ibn Muʿāwiyah, A.D. 680–683/A.H. 60–64 |series=SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, New York |isbn=978-0-7914-0040-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KM3zPwi0gmYC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | last = Vaglieri | first = L. Veccia | date = 1971 | title = "(Al)-Ḥusayn b. 'Alï b. Abï Ṭālib" | url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/search?s.q=%28Al%29-%E1%B8%A4usayn+b.+%27Al%C3%AF+b.+Ab%C3%AF+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&search-go=Search | website = Encyclopaedia of Islam | publisher = E. J. Brill | volume = Volume III: H–Iram (2nd ed.) | pages = 607–615 | oclc = 495469525 | access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref>
-* 10 Muharram: Referred to as the [[Ashura#Shia Islam|Day of Ashurah]] (lit. "the Tenth"), the day on which [[Husayn ibn Ali]] and his small group of followers including family members and loyal companions, faced an overwhelming Umayyad army estimated to be in the thousands. Imam Husayn refused to pledge allegiance to the tyrannical rule of Yazid. In the one-sided battle that ensued, his [[List of casualties in Husayn's army at the Battle of Karbala|companions fought and were martyred]] one by one. Eventually, Imam Husayn, struck by multiple arrows and attacked by the enemy's forces and also attained martyrdom in the [[Battle of Karbala]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halm |first=Heinz |date=1997 |title=Shi'a Islam: From Religion to Revolution |translator=Allison Brown |publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers |location=Princeton |isbn=1-55876-134-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/shiaislamfromrel0000halm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayoub |first=Mahmoud |date=1978 |title=Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=Mouton Publishers |location=Hague |isbn=90-279-7943-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpaPWv5Iyd8C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=I. K. A. |date=1990 |title=The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XIX: The Caliphate of Yazīd ibn Muʿāwiyah, A.D. 680–683/A.H. 60–64 |series=SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, New York |isbn=978-0-7914-0040-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KM3zPwi0gmYC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Ashura and how do Shia and Sunni Muslims observe it? |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/what-is-ashura-how-do-shia-sunni-muslims-observe |access-date=2022-09-13 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | last = Vaglieri | first = L. Veccia | date = 1971 | title = "(Al)-Ḥusayn b. 'Alï b. Abï Ṭālib" | url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/search?s.q=%28Al%29-%E1%B8%A4usayn+b.+%27Al%C3%AF+b.+Ab%C3%AF+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&search-go=Search | website = Encyclopaedia of Islam | publisher = E. J. Brill | volume = Volume III: H–Iram (2nd ed.) | pages = 607–615 | oclc = 495469525 | access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref>
-* Captivity of the Surviving Women and Children: Following the battle, the women and children of Imam Husayn's camp were taken as captives and subjected to humiliation and hardship. The surviving members of Imam Husayn's family, including his sister [[Zaynab bint Ali|Zaynab bint Ali]] and young son [[Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin|Imam Zain al-Abidin]], were taken to the court of Yazid in [[Damascus]], where they [[Sermon of Zaynab bint Ali in the court of Yazid|spoke out against the injustice and tyranny]] they had endured.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamdar|first=Abir |year=2009|title=Jihad of Words: Gender and Contemporary Karbala Narratives|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/814313/summary|journal=The Yearbook of English Studies|volume=39 |issue=1–2 |pages=84–100 |doi=10.1353/yes.2009.0016 |s2cid=158479476 |access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Qutbuddin |first=Tahera |date=2019 |chapter=Orations of Zaynab and Umm Kulthūm in the Aftermath of Ḥusayn's Martyrdom at Karbala: Speaking Truth to Power |editor-last=Korangy |editor-first=Alireza |editor2-last=Rouhi |editor2-first=Leyla |title=The 'Other' Martyrs: Women and the Poetics of Sexuality, Sacrifice, and Death in World Literatures |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=9783447112147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Osman |first=Rawand |date=2014 |title=Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317671510}}</ref>
-==Other Historical Occurrences during Muharram==
-* 25 Muharram: [[Zayn al-‘Ābidīn]], fourth [[Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)|Shia Imam]] was martyred by Marvanian in 95 AH (714 AD).<ref>{{cite book | title=[[Bihar al-Anwar]] | author=Allama Majlisi | author-link=Allama Majlisi | pages=152–54 | volume=46}}</ref>
-* 1 Muharram: [[Grand Mosque seizure|Seizure of the Grand Mosque]] in 1400 AH (1979 AD).
+* 2 Muharram: Arrival of Husayn ibn Ali in [[Karbala]], [[Lower Mesopotamia|Iraq]], in 680. On their way to the nearby [[Kufa]], Husayn and his small caravan were intercepted by the Umayyad army and eventually forced to camp in the desert lands of Karbala, away from water and fortifications.{{sfn|Madelung|2004}}
+* 7 Muharram: The Umayyad army cut off Husayn's access to the drinking water of the nearby [[Euphrates]] river.{{sfn|Qutbuddin|2019|p=106}} Under the siege, Husayn's camp suffered from thirst and hunger in the coming days.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012}}{{sfn|Pinault|2000|p=71}}{{sfn|Hamdar|2009|pp=85{{ndash}}86}}
+* 9 Muharram ([[Tasu'a]]): Negotiations between Husayn and the Umayyads failed on this day in 680. The Umayyad commander [[Umar ibn Sa'd]] ({{Died in|686}}) was set to attack after the afternoon prayer on Tasu'a but was persuaded to delay the confrontation until the following day.{{sfn|Bahramian|Bulookbashi|2015}}{{sfn|Madelung|2004}} Husayn and his men spent the night in prayer.{{sfn|Munson|1988|pp=23}}{{sfn|Sindawi|2002|p=91}}
+* 10 Muharram (Ashura): The Battle of Karbala was fought on this day in 680. Husayn and most of his male relatives and his small retinue were slaughtered by the Umayyad army by the end of the day. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the Umayyad capital [[Damascus]] in [[Syria]].{{sfn|Momen|1985|pp=30{{ndash}}31}}
-* 5 Muharram: Death anniversary ([[urs]]) of [[Baba Farid]], a [[Punjab]]i Sufi saint, in 665 AH (1266 AD). His urs is celebrated for six days during Muharram, in Pakpattan, Pakistan.
+==Other Islamic events==
+* 1 Muharram: Death of Caliph [[Umar]] ({{Reign|634|644}}) by injuries from the attack of Persian slave [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]].{{Sfn|Litvak|2021|p=132}} Sunnis carry rallies on 1 Muharram to commemorate Umar.{{Sfn|''Dawn''|2014}}
-* 8 Muharram: Referred to as the [[Muharram Rebellion]], the day on which [[Bengali Muslims]] in [[Sylhet]] lead one of the earliest anti-British uprisings in [[the subcontinent]]. 1197 AH (1782 AD).
+* 2{{Ndash}}10 Muharram: Most mourning rituals for Karbala take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on the tenth with processions in major Shia cities.{{sfn|Osman|2014|p=133}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=240}}
+* 5 Muharram: [[Baba Farid]], a [[Punjab]]i [[Sufism|Sufi]] saint, died on this day in 1266. His death is celebrated (''[[urs]]'') for six days during Muharram, in [[Pakpattan]], [[Pakistan]].{{sfn|Nizami|1955|page=1}}
-* 15 Muharram: Birth of [[Muhammad Sirajuddin Naqshbandi]] in 1297 AH (1879 AD).
+* 8 Muharram: In what became known as the 1782 [[Muharram Rebellion]], on this day [[Bengali Muslims]] in [[Sylhet]] staged one of the earliest anti-British uprisings in the [[the subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Riaz|2013}}{{sfn|Islam|2016}}
+*16 Muharram: On this day, the Islamic prophet Muhammad set the [[al-Aqsa Mosque|Aqsa]] mosque in [[Jerusalem]] as the {{Transliteration|ar|[[qibla]]}}, towards which early Muslims prayed.{{sfn|Plessner|2012}} This was superseded later by the ancient [[Kaaba|Ka'ba]] sanctuary in [[Mecca]] in connection with verse 2:144 of the [[Quran]], the central religious text in Islam.{{sfn|Wensinck|Jomier|2012}}
-* 28 Muharram: Death anniversary ([[urs]]) of [[Ashraf Jahangir Semnani]], an [[India]]n Sufi saint, in 808 AH (1405 AD).
+* 17 Muharram: Arrival of the "people of the elephant" in Mecca, a reference to al-Fil ({{Lit|the elephant}}), a {{Transliteration|ar|[[surah]]}} (chapter) in the Quran.{{sfn|Plessner|2012}}
 == See also ==
-* [[Islamic Calendar]]
+{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
-* [[Day of Ashura]]
+* {{Annotated link |Solar Hijri Calendar}}
-* [[Mourning of Muharram]]
+* {{Annotated link |Day of Tasu'a|Tasu'a}}
-* [[Day of Tasu'a]]
+* {{Annotated link |Mourning of Muharram}}
-* [[Hosay]]
+* {{Annotated link |Farvardin}}
-* [[Rawda Khwani]]
+}}
-==References==
-{{Reflist}}
-==Further reading==
+==Footnotes==
+{{Reflist|20em}}
-* Chelkowski, Peter J. ed. (1979). ''Ta’ziyeh: Ritual and Drama in Iran''. New York: New York University Press.
+== References ==
-* Cole, Juan (1988). ''Roots of North Indian Shiism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Avadh, 1722–1859''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
+{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
-* [[Margaret J. Kartomi|Kartomi, Margaret]] (1986). "Tabut – a Shia Ritual Transplanted from India to Sumatra",  in ''Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Indonesia: Essays in Honour of Professor J.D. Legge'', edited by David P. Chandler and M.C. Ricklefs, Australia: Monash University, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 141–62.
+<!-- A, B, C -->
-* Mason, P.H. (2016) "Fight-dancing and the Festival: Tabuik in Pariaman, Indonesia, and Iemanjá" in Salvador da Bahia, Brazil. ''Martial Arts Studies Journal'', 2, 71–90. {{doi|10.18573/j.2016.10065}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2013 |title='Āshūrā' (Shī'ism) |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855 |editor1-last=Fleet |editor1-first=K. |edition=Third |isbn=9789004252684 |author-last=Aghaie |author-first=K.S. |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855 |editor2-first=G. |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=D. |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=J. |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=D.J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url-access=subscription}}
-* Pinault, David (1992). ''The Shiites: Ritual and Popular Piety in a Muslim Community''. London: I.B. Tauris.
+*{{cite book |title=Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism |author-first=M.M. |author-last=Ayoub |author-link=Mahmoud M. Ayoub |year=1978 |isbn=9789027979438 |publisher=De Gruyter}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Bahramian |author1-first=A. |author2-first=A.A. |author2-last=Bulookbashi |translator-first=F. |translator-last=Negahban |title=Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor1-first=W. |editor1-last=Madelung |editor2-first=F. |editor2-last=Daftary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009 |year=2015 |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009 |url-access=subscription}}
+* {{cite book |url=http://urdu.islahulmuslimeen.org/urdu/books/jalwagah/h37.htm |title=Jalwa Gah-e-Dost |language=Urdu |edition= 2nd |date=2008 |first= Khwaja Muhammad Tahir |last=Bakhsh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007041815/http://urdu.islahulmuslimeen.org/urdu/books/jalwagah/h37.htm |archive-date=7 October 2011 }}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Gordon Melton |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781598842050 |year=2011 |title=Ashura |author-first=J.A. |author-last=Beverley |pages=47{{ndash}}49 |url=https://archive.org/details/ReligiousCelebrations/mode/2up?q=ashura |url-access=registration}}
+*{{cite book |title=Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras |author-first=J. |author-last=Blank |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780226056760}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |first=J. |last=Calmard |year=1987 |volume=III/2 |pages=174{{ndash}}177 |title='Azādārī |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/azadari}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=XII/5 |pages=498{{ndash}}502 |author-last=Calmard |author-first=J. |year=2004 |title=Ḥosayn b. 'Ali ii. In Popular Shi'ism |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-ii}}
+<!-- F, G, H, I -->
+** {{Cite news |date=27 October 2014 |title=ASWJ rallies in many towns to observe Yaum-i-Umar Farooq |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1140570/aswj-rallies-in-many-towns-to-observe-yaum-i-umar-farooq |work=Dawn |ref={{SfnRef|''Dawn''|2014}}}}
+* {{cite web |last=Gent |first=R.H. van |title=The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia |date=n.d. |url=https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm |website=webspace.science.uu.nl}}
+*{{cite journal |author-last=Hamdar |author-first=A. |title=Jihad of words: Gender and contemporary Karbala Narratives |journal=The Yearbook of English Studies |volume=39 |year=2009 |issue=1–2 |pages=84–100 |doi=10.1353/yes.2009.0016 |s2cid=158479476 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/814313/summary|url-access=subscription }}
+*{{cite book |author-last=Katz |author-first=M.H. |url=https://archive.org/details/TheBirthOfTheProphetMuhammadByMarionHolmesKatz/mode/2up |title=The Birth of the Prophet Muḥammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=9780203962145 |url-access=registration}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |volume=XII/5 |pages=493–498 |author-first=W. |author-last=Madelung}}
+* {{cite news|url=https://www.bd-pratidin.com/editorial/2016/10/20/178131 |script-title=bn:আরেক শহীদ দিবস |trans-title=Another Martyrs' Day |first=Emad Ullah Shahidul |last=Islam |newspaper=[[Bangladesh Pratidin]] |date=19 October 2016 |language=bn |access-date=1 May 2019}}
+** {{Cite book |last=Litvak |first=Meir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLMlEAAAQBAJ |title=Know Thy Enemy: Evolving Attitudes Towards "Others" in Modern Shiʿi Thought and Practice |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=9789004444683}}
+<!--J, K, L, M-->
+*{{cite book |author-last=Momen |author-first=M. |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1985 |isbn=9780300035315 |author-link=Moojan Momen}}
+*{{cite book |title=Islam and Revolution in the Middle East |url=https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up |url-access=registration |author-first=H. |author-last=Munson |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1988 |isbn=0300046049}}
+<!--N, O, P, Q -->
+*{{cite journal |author-last=Nakash |author-first=Y. |title=An Attempt to Trace the Origin of the Rituals of 'Āshūrā' |journal=Die Welt des Islams |year=1993 |pages=161{{ndash}}181 |jstor=1570949 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1570949}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |title='Āshūrā' |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashura-Islamic-holy-day |author-link=Andrew J. Newman |author-last=Newman |author-first=A.J.|date=24 August 2024 }}
+*{{cite book|title=Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam|author-first=R.|author-last= Osman|publisher=Routledge|year= 2014|isbn= 9781315770147}}
+* {{cite book| first=Khaliq Ahmad |last=Nizami |author-link=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=The Life and Times of Shaikh Farid-u'd-din Ganj-i-Shakar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuAbAQAAMAAJ|year=1955|publisher=Department of History, [[Aligarh Muslim University]]}}
+*{{cite book |title=Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety |editor-first=G. |editor-last=Hambly |publisher=Macmillan |year=2000 |isbn=9780333800355 |chapter=Zaynab bin 'Ali and the Place of the Women of the Households of the First Imāms in Shī'īte Devotional Literature |author-first=D. |author-last=Pinault}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=al-Muḥarram |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. |edition=Second |isbn=9789004161214 |author-last=Plessner |author-first=M. |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426 |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |url-access=subscription}}
+*{{cite book |editor1-last=Korangy |editor1-first=A. |editor2-first=L. |editor2-last=Rouhi |title=The "Other" Martyrs: Women and the Poetics of Sexuality, Sacrifice, and Death in World Literatures |edition=First |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvrnfq6q |isbn=9783447198790 |chapter=Orations of Zaynab and Umm Kulthūm in the aftermath of Ḥusayn's Martyrdom at Karbala: Speaking Truth to Power |author-first=T. |author-last=Qutbuddin |author-link=Tahera Qutbuddin |url-access=subscription |pages=103{{ndash}}132|doi=10.2307/j.ctvrnfq6q }}
+<!--R, S, T -->
+*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title='Āshūrā' (Sunnism) |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23081 |editor1-last=Fleet |editor1-first=K. |edition=Third |isbn=9789004203532 |author-last=Reid |author-first=M.H. |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23081 |editor2-first=G. |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=D. |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=J. |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=D.J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url-access=subscription}}
+* {{cite book|first=Ali |last=Riaz|title=Islam and Identity Politics Among British-Bangladeshis: A Leap of Faith|isbn=978-0719089558|date=23 July 2013|publisher=[[Manchester University]]}}
+* {{cite book | title=Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac |year=1992 | editor-first=P. Kenneth |editor-last=Seidelmann }}
+*{{cite journal |author-last=Sindawi |author-first=K. |title=The Image of Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī in '' Maqātil'' Literature |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |year=2002 |pages=79–104 |volume=20/21|jstor=25802958 }}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Veccia Vaglieri |author1-first=L. |title=(al-)Ḥusayn b. 'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0304 |year=2012 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0304 |isbn=9789004161214 |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |url-access=subscription}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=Ka'ba|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0401|editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. |edition=Second |isbn=9789004161214 |author1-last=Wensinck |author1-first=A.J.|author2-first = J.|author2-last=Jomier |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0401 |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |url-access=subscription}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title='Ās̲h̲ūrā' |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0068 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. |edition=Second |isbn=9789004161214 |author2-last=Marçais |author2-first=Ph. |author1-last=Wensinck |author1-first=A.J. |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0068 |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |url-access=subscription}}
+<!-- U, V, W, X, Y, Z -->
+{{refend}}
 ==External links==
-* [http://www.seratonline.com/12620/are-lamentations-for-imam-husain-a-s-part-of-islam/ Commemoration of Muharram is permissible]
+{{Commons}}
-* [http://www.zikr.co.uk/content/view/120/193/ Optional prayers for Muharram, especially Qalbi Zikr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909113628/http://www.zikr.co.uk/content/view/120/193/ |date=9 September 2019 }}
-* [http://www.smsblaze.com/category/muharram-sms/ Muharram Quotes and Wishes]
-* [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Mourning%20Husayn%20%28Matam%20for%20Husayn%29.html Matam (beating the chest) in Muharram]
 * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Muharram|year=1997 |short=x}}
-* [http://culturematters.wordpress.com/2013/11/14/a-day-of-mourning-for-shiites-ashura-during-muharram/ A day of mourning for Shiites]
-* [http://www.insideindonesia.org/weekly-articles/islamic-new-year-in-west-sumatra Muharram in West Sumatra]
-* [https://moralsandethics.wordpress.com/2008/01/11/what-is-muharram/ What is Muharram ?]
 {{IslamicMonths}}
@@ Line 136: / Line 144: @@
 [[Category:Public holidays in Malaysia]]
 [[Category:Shia Islam]]
-[[Category:Hussainiya]]
+[[Category:Husayniyyas]]
+[[Category:Crossing the Red Sea]]