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'''Paramardivarman'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA570&dq=Paramardivarman&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiNjPPo98eBAxWoaPUHHcH_AxQQ6AF6BAgMEAM#v=onepage&q=Paramardivarman&f=false |title=The Past Before Us |date=2013-10-14 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 |language=en}}</ref> ({{lang-sa|परमर्दिवर्मन चन्देल|lit=Killer of Enemies}}, reign. c. 1165-1203 CE), popularly known as '''Paramardideva''', was the last [[Chakravartin|Chakravarti]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition)|last=Mitra|first=Sisir Kumar|date=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1997-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=History of Medieval India: 800-1700|last=Chandra|first=Satish|date=2007|publisher=Orient BlackSwan|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|language=en}}</ref> of India from the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandel dynasty]], with his capital at [[Mahoba]] in region [[Jejakabhukti]] (in present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]]). In 1165 CE, after the death of his father [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty) |Yashovarman II]], he was crowned by his grandfather [[Madanavarman]] at the age of 5 year. He defeated Chauhan King [[Prithviraj III]] in Battle of Mahoba (1182 CE) and in the Battle of Kirttisagara (1187 CE). He defeated Mohammad Ghori in 1198 AD in the Battle of Obra. In 1203 CE, he fought with great bravery and courage against the Ghurids under [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]] and put up stiff resistance but was killed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=DZiCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24&dq=Chandelas+fought+bravely&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPr7ecg8OBAxUFa94KHe9LCv4Q6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=Chandelas%20fought%20bravely&f=false|title=Socio-Cultural life in Medieval History|last=Jahan|first=Dr Ishrat|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-0-359-22280-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Srivastava |first=Ashok Kumar |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=DBshAAAAMAAJ&q=Paramardi+stiff+resistance&dq=Paramardi+stiff+resistance&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjLoezi1ueCAxU-TGcHHUlAC3wQ6AF6BAgOEAM |title=The Life and Times of Kutb-ud-din Aibak |date=1972 |publisher=Govind Satish Prakashan |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=Sisir Kumar |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA126&dq=Paramardi+stiff+resistance&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjLoezi1ueCAxU-TGcHHUlAC3wQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=Paramardi%20stiff%20resistance&f=false |title=The Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition) |date=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1997-9 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Short description|King of Jejakabhukti from 1165 to 1203}}
{{Short description|Last Chakravartin emperor of India (reigned c. 1165–1203)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
{{Infobox royalty
| title        = '''[[Chakravartin]]'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition)|last=Mitra|first=Sisir Kumar|date=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1997-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=History of Medieval India: 800-1700|last=Chandra|first=Satish|date=2007|publisher=Orient BlackSwan|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|language=en}}</ref><br>'''Bālopinetā-Paramabhattaraka-Maharajadhiraja-Parameshvara-Dharmarājikā-Prajāpitā-Māhishmatiadhipati-Dasharnādhināth-'''<br>'''Shri-Kalanjaradhipati'''{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=140}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allahabad |first=University of |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VlMOAAAAIAAJ&q=%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6+%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5&dq=%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6+%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiN5tPF_8-BAxVFVt4KHSWPD_AQ6AF6BAgMEAM#%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%20%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5 |title=University of Allahabad Studies |date=1971 |language=hi}}</ref>
| name        = Paramardivarman
| name        = Paramardivarman
| succession  = 18th [[Chandela| Chandel Emperor]]
| title        = Param-bhattaraka, Parameshwara, Param-Maheshwara, Maharajadhiraja, Srīkalanjaradhipati
|image=File:Art of Chandel emperor Paramardivarman Deva.jpg
| succession  = [[Chandela| King of Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]]
| caption  = Portrait of Paramardivarman.
| reign        = c. 1165-1202 CE
|image_map              = Map of Candellas around 1200 CE.jpg
|image_map_caption =
| reign        = c. 1165-1203 CE
| predecessor  = [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]]
| predecessor  = [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]]
| successor    = [[Trailokyavarman]]
| successor    = [[Trailokyavarman]]
| birth_date  = 19 January, 1160 CE
| issue        = Sabhajitvarman<br>Bramhadevavarman<br>Trailokyavarman
| birth_place = [[Mahoba]], (present-day in [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)
| regnal name = Paramardin
| death_date  = Monday, 14 April, 1203 CE (Aged 43)
| full name    = Srīmat Paramardi Varman Deva<br>[[Sanskrit]]: श्रीमत-परमर्दी-वर्म-देव
| death_place  =  [[Kalanjara]], (present-day in [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)
| dynasty      = [[Chandela|Chandel]]
| spouse       = Maharani Malhana-Devi Chandel
| house = [[Lunar dynasty|Chandravansh]]
([[Pratihar|Parihara]] [[Princess]])
| father      = Yashovarman II
| issue        =[[Trailokyavarman]]
| mother       =
| issue_type = Son
| religion      = [[Shaivism]]
| full name          = '''Chakravartin Srimanmat Paramardivarman Deva Chandel'''<br>[[Sanskrit]]: चक्रवर्तिन् श्रीमन्मत परमर्दिवर्मन देव चन्देल {{sfn|P. C. Roy|1980|pp=54-55}}
| image              =
| regnal name        =  
| image_size        =  
| house              = [[Heheya Kingdom|Yaduvamshi Haihaya]], [[Lunar dynasty|Chandravamsh]]
| alt                =  
| dynasty            = [[Chandela|Chandel]]
| caption            =  
| father             = [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty) |Maharaj Yashovarman II Chandel]]
}}
| religion          = [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnav]], [[Hinduism]]{{Infobox military person
'''Paramardivarman'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScYJAQAAQBAJ&dq=paramardivarman&pg=PT671 |title=The Past Before Us: Historical Traditions of Early North India |date=2013-11-04 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72652-9 |language=en}}</ref> (reigned {{circa}} 1165–1203), [[IAST]]: Paramardi), known as Parmardideva, and famous in folklores as Parmala, while Parimal in Hindu scriptures, was the last greatest king of the [[Chandela|Chandel]] dynasty of Jejakabhukti. He succeeded his father [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]] as the king of the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Jejakabhukti Kingdom]]. In 1182, [[Prithviraja III|Prithviraj Chauhan III]] raided and plundered the Madanpura city, which Paramardivarman recaptured after defeating [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]] in few months. Paramardi signed the Treaty of Kalinjar around 1202–03 during the siege by the Ghurid general Qutbuddin Aibak, but died before the treaty was finalised.
| embed = yes
| branch = [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandel Army]]  
| branch_label = Service
| serviceyears = 1165-1203 CE
| serviceyears_label =
| rank =
[[Chakravartin]]}}}}


== Early life ==
== Early life ==
The [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshvar]] inscription of Paramardi's suggests that he succeeded his father [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]]. However, other Chandel inscriptions (including those of his own) suggest that he succeeded his grandfather [[Madanavarman]]. It is possible that his father Yashovarman II ruled for a very short period, or did not rule at all, having died while his grandfather Madanavarman was still alive.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=139-140}}


An inscription near Mahoba mentions [[Alha]] as ''Sri Maharajputra Alhanadeva'' like other Chandela king's sons, and the king of Mahoba at that time was Paramardivarman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dikshit |first=R. K. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA225&dq=Alhanadeva+Alha&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjQyYPWy-eCAxW5fGwGHSfUAVYQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=Alhanadeva%20&f=false |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |date=1976 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-046-4 |language=en}}</ref> He was probably the younger brother of Paramardi whom he raised as his own son coz in [[Hinduism]] elder brother is like a father after father's.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=mBs0AAAAMAAJ&q=A+critical+survey+of+Hindi+literature+Alha&dq=A+critical+survey+of+Hindi+literature+Alha&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZ3ZPs2of_AhVxTWwGHeZUC8sQ6AF6BAgIEAM#A%20critical%20survey%20of%20Hindi%20literature%20Alha|title=A Critical Survey of Hindi Literature|last=Dwivedi|first=Ram Awadh|date=1966|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-8426-1245-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ejAbAAAAMAAJ&q=Hindi+literature+Ram+Avdh+dwivedi+Alha&dq=Hindi+literature+Ram+Avdh+dwivedi+Alha&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#Paramardi|title=Hindi Literature|last=Dwivedi|first=Ram Awadh|date=1953|publisher=Hindi Pracharak Pustakalaya|language=en}}</ref>
Paramardi Varman's [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshvar]] inscription suggests that he succeeded his father [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman]]. However, other Chandela inscriptions (including those of his own) suggest that he succeeded his grandfather [[Madanavarman]]. It is possible that Yashovarman ruled for a very short period, or did not rule at all, having died while Madanavarman was still alive.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=139-140}}
 
According to '''Parmal Raso''', Paramardivarman ascended the throne at the age of 5 years. An [[Ajaygarh]] inscription appears to corroborate this claim: it states that Paramardi was a leader even as a child (''bāl-opi netā''). This clearly means he ascended the throne at the age of 5.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=140}}
According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Paramardi ascended the throne at the age of 5 years. An [[Ajaygarh]] inscription appears to corroborate this claim: it states that Paramardi was a leader even as a child (''bāl-opi netā'').{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=140}}
 
The Semra copper-plate inscription vaguely eulogizes him as someonoesomeone who surpassed [[Kamadeva|Makaradhvaja]] (the god of love) in handsomeness, the ocean in depth, the lord of heaven in majesty, [[Brihaspati]] in wisdom, and surpassed [[Yudhishthira]] in truthfulness. Paramardi was so munificence and  he promotes the learning. To his reign belong the largest number of the copper-plate charters issued by the Chandel kings, and they furnish the best proof of his liberality.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=152}} The Supra inscription mentions that he was very well versed in archery and had an bow (probably ancestral) which was similar to the [[Sharanga|Sharanga Dhanusha (Bow named Sharanga)]] (one of the three best bows in the Puranas).{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=153}}
He is mentioned as Paramardi-[[deva (Hinduism)|deva]] in inscriptions. The medieval bardic legends such as [[Alha-Khand]] call him Paramala or Parimala. In modern [[vernacular]]s, he is also known as Paramardideva, Parmar, Paramal Deo and Parimal Chandel (because of [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa deletion]]). A gold coin issued by him, featuring a seated goddess, gives his name as ''Srimat Paramardi''.{{sfn|P. C. Roy|1980|pp=54-55}}
[[File:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti. Paramardi Varman. Circa 1165-1203 CE.jpg|thumb|Coin issued by Paramardivarman]]
He was a [[Vaishnava]]. A gold coin issued by him, featuring a seated goddess Sri ([[Laxmi]]), gives his other side name as ''Srimat Paramardi Varman''.{{sfn|P. C. Roy|1980|pp=54-55}} He was also devoted to his Kuldev [[Shiva]] ([[Shiva|Nilkantha Mahadeva]]). He was a learned man, and is attributed as the author of a eulogy to [[Shiva]], inscribed on a stone at [[Kalanjara]]. A inscriptions mentions that Paramardi brought about the union of both Sri (Laxmi) and Sarasvati in his own person.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}}  


== Reign ==
== Reign ==
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Paramardi Varman was the last of the powerful Chandela rulers, and has been mentioned in several legendary texts such as ''Paramala Raso'' (''Parmal Raso'' or ''Mahoba Khand''), ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' and ''Alha-Khand'' (''Alha Raso'' or Ballad of Alha). While these texts are based on historical events, much of their content has been fabricated to glorify either [[Prithviraj Chauhan]]. Thus, these texts are of doubtful historicity, and therefore, much of Paramardi Varman's reign is shrouded in obscurity.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}}


The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE), [[Mahoba]] (1166-1167 CE), [[Ichhawar]] (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and [[Charkhari]] (1178 CE).{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=119}} All of these inscriptions use the imperial titles for him: ''Paramabhattaraka-[[Maharajadhiraja]]-Parameshvara- Shri-Kalanjaradhipati Shrimanmat Paramardideva''. This indicates that in the early part of his reign, Paramardi retained the territories that he had inherited from his grandfather Madanavarman.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}} Several Chandelas inscriptions also mention Paramardi, but these contain little historical information.
Several Chandela inscriptions also mention Paramardi Varman, but these contain little historical information. For example, the Semra copper-plate inscription vaguely eulogizes him as someonoe who surpassed [[Kamadeva|Makaradhvaja]] (the god of love) in handsomeness, the ocean in depth, the lord of heaven in majesty, [[Brihaspati]] in wisdom, and [[Yudhishthira]] in truthfulness. The Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription credits him with military victories and states that other kings bowed to him, but does not name any of these kings.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}} The Ajaygarh inscription of his grandson's wife Kalyanadevi similarly describes him as a universal sovereign, whose enemies were left in a pitiful condition.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}} Such claims of extensive conquests are not corroborated by historical evidence.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}


=== Military career ===
=== Early career ===
[[File:Map of Candellas around 1200 CE.jpg|250px|thumb|Map of Chandelas of Jejakabhukti around 1202 AD or Empire of Paramardivarman Deva Chandel]]
An 1183 CE [[Mahoba]] inscription states that the lord of Tripuri fainted whenever he heard the songs about Paramardi's bravery. This suggests that Paramardi defeated a [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri king of Tripuri]], possibly [[Jayasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Jayasimha]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}} This inscription also alludes to Paramardin's digvijaya campaigns in [[Anga]], [[Vanga]] and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}}


The Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription credits him with military victories and states that other kings bowed to him, but does not name any of these kings.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}} This inscription states that the Paramardivarman's kingdom extended up to the sea during Digvijaya. {{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}} Some historean says that this advance upto sea is very probably it is mere rhetoric and not a sober fact.
The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi Varman's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE), [[Mahoba]] (1166-1167 CE), [[Ichhawar]] (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and [[Charkhari]] (1178 CE).{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=119}} All of these inscriptions use the imperial titles for him: ''Paramabhattaraka-[[Maharajadhiraja]]-Parameshvara Parama-Maheshvara Shri-Kalanjaradhipati Shrimanmat Paramardideva''. This indicates that in the early part of his reign, Paramardi retained the territories that he had inherited from his grandfather Madanavarman.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}}


The Bateshwar inscription of 1195 AD mentions that the foot-stool of Emperor Paramardivarman was light red due to the shine of the crest-jewels of the kings or feudal lords, who were bowing before him. The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of [[Dasharna]] country. Most probably he directly took the control over Dasharna from his one of feudal.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
An 1183 CE [[Mahoba]] inscription states that the lord of Tripuri fainted whenever he heard the songs about Paramardi Varman's bravery. This suggests that Paramardi Varman defeated a [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri king of Tripuri]], possibly [[Jayasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Jayasimha]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}


Along with two contemporary Chandel records, the Ajaygarh inscription of his grandson's wife Kalyanadevi (belong to dadhichivansh of Bhargava Brahmins) similarly describes him as a universal sovereign ([[Chakravartin|Chakravarti Emperor]]), whose enemies were left in a pitiful condition.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=141}}
=== Chahamana invasion ===
During 1182-1183 CE, the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] ruler [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] invaded the Chandela kingdom of Jejakabhukti. The Chandela records do not mention this invasion, presumably to avoid describing the humiliating defeat of their king.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}}


=== Chahamana invasion ===
According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to [[Delhi]] after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces ([[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]]). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital [[Mahoba]]. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general [[Udal of Mahoba|Udal]] against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}}
During 1182 CE, the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] ruler [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] invaded the Chandel kingdom of Jejakabhukti.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=120}} According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to [[Delhi]] after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces ([[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]]). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandel capital [[Mahoba]]. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandel royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general [[Udal of Mahoba|Udal]] against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}} Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother [[Alha]] left the Chandel court. They took shelter with [[Jaichand]], the [[Gahadavala]] ruler of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}} Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandel territory via [[Gwalior]] and [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshwar]]. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}} Prithviraj then started a march towards Mahoba. Facing an imminent defeat, Paramardi and his nobles sought a truce on the advice of his chief queen Malhan Devi. Prithviraj agreed to the truce, but remained encamped on the banks of the [[Betwa River]] in the Chandel territory. The Chandelas, meanwhile, requested Alha and Udal to come back from Kannauj.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}} The two brothers were initially hesitant, but agreed to return after their mother appealed them to honour their allegiance to the Chandelas. Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons, to support the Chandelas. Paramardi himself became nervous, and retreated to the [[Kalanjara]] fort with some of his soldiers. His son Brahmajit, along with Alha and Udal, led the Chandel army against Prithviraj Chauhan. In the ensuing battle, the Chandelas were defeated. Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of Jaichand were killed in the conflict. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked the Chandel capital of Mahoba.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}} Next, Prithviraj dispatched his general Chavand Rai to Kalanjara. The Chauhan army captured the fort, took Paramardi as prisoner, and marched back towards Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Alha's son Indal Kumar launched a surprise attack on the returning Chauhan army, and freed Paramardi. Out of shame, Paramardi later committed suicide at the Gajraj temple.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} ''Parmal Raso'' states that his 50 wives committed [[sati (practice)|sati]] (self-immolation) after his death. Whereas Chandel record also mentioned that Paramardidrv married only one parihar princess named Malhna devi.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}} According to [[Chand Bardai]], he retired to [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] and died there.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} The ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' states that Prithviraj appointed Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son Samarjit recaptured Mahoba with help of Narasimha, an officer of Jaichand. Samarjit then ruled the territory between Kalanjara and Gaya. However, no such prince is mentioned in the Chandelas records.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}


The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable, but it is known that Prithviraj Chauhan may sacked Mahoba, but this unhistorical claim is also corroborated by prithviraj stone inscriptions at [[Madanpur, Lalitpur, India|Madanpur]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}}  
Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother [[Alha]] left the Chandela court. They took shelter with [[Jaichand]], the [[Gahadavala]] ruler of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}} Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela territory via [[Gwalior]] and [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshwar]]. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}}


However, the prolonged occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}} Moreover, it is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the claimed year of Chauhan victory, in fact, he continued ruling as a sovereign nearly a decade after Prithviraj's death. While cinthia talbot suggested that the invasion on Mahoba wasn't battle but probably mere a small raid and prithviraj was unable to capture Jejakabukti.
Prithviraj then started a march towards Mahoba. Facing an imminent defeat, Paramardi and his nobles sought a truce on the advice of his chief queen Malhan Devi. Prithviraj agreed to the truce, but remained encamped on the banks of the [[Betwa River]] in the Chandela territory. The Chandelas, meanwhile, requested Alha and Udal to come back from Kannauj.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}} The two brothers were initially hesitant, but agreed to return after their mother appealed them to honour their allegiance to the Chandelas. Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons, to support the Chandelas. Paramardi himself became nervous, and retreated to the [[Kalanjara]] fort with some of his soldiers. His son Brahmajit, along with Alha and Udal, led the Chandela army against Prithviraj Chauhan. In the ensuing battle, the Chandelas were defeated. Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of Jaichand were killed in the conflict. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked the Chandela capital of Mahoba.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}}


Moreover, the repulsion of Prithviraj's invasion was so easy for Paramardivarman hense Chandelas didn't mentioned that. The Chandel record of 1187 A.D. mentioned that Paramardivarman again defeated Prithviraja Chauhan in the Battle of Kirtisagara.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Randhawa |first=Mohinder Singh |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lWHqAAAAMAAJ&q=Indian+Sculpture:+The+Scene,+Themes,+and+Legends&dq=Indian+Sculpture:+The+Scene,+Themes,+and+Legends&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#Prithviraj%20Chauhan |title=Indian Sculpture: The Scene, Themes, and Legends |last2=Randhawa |first2=Doris Schreier |date=1985 |publisher=Vakils, Feffer & Simons |language=en}}</ref>
Next, Prithviraj dispatched his general Chavand Rai to Kalanjara. The Chauhan army captured the fort, took Paramardi as prisoner, and marched back towards Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} According to the ''Parmal Raso'', Alha's son Indal Kumar launched a surprise attack on the returning Chauhan army, and freed Paramardi. Out of shame, Paramardi later committed suicide at the Gajraj temple.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} ''Parmal Raso'' states that his 50 wives committed [[sati (practice)|sati]] (self-immolation) after his death.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}} According to [[Chand Bardai]], he retired to [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] and died there.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} The ''[[Prithviraj Raso]]'' states that Prithviraj appointed Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son Samarjit recaptured Mahoba with help of Narasimha, an officer of Jaichand. Samarjit then ruled the territory between Kalanjara and Gaya. However, no such prince is mentioned in the Chandela records.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}


He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardivarman, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardivarman ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandel Empire. {{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}
The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable, but it is known that Prithviraj Chauhan indeed sacked Mahoba. This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at [[Madanpur, Lalitpur, India|Madanpur]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}} However, the prolonged occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}} Moreover, it is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the Chauhan victory. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}


The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of [[Dasharna]] country. Paramardivarman defeated Mohammad Ghori in 1198 AD in the Battle of Obra.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of [[Dasharna]] country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi Varman managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}


==Death and succession==
=== Ghurid invasion and death ===
{{See also|Siege of Kalinjar}}
{{See also|Siege of Kalinjar}}
According to a [[Kalanjara]] inscription, while one of Paramardi's predecessors had imprisoned the wives of the earthly rulers, Paramardi's heroics made even the divine rulers anxious about the safety of their wives. As a result, the gods let loose an army of [[mlechchhas]] (foreigners) against him, and made him face a  defeat.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}


Prithviraj III Chauhan was fled from the [[Second Battle of Tarain]] against the [[Ghurids]] and killed in 1192 CE. After defeating the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chauhans]] and the [[Gahadavala]]s, the Ghurid governor of Delhi planned an invasion of Chandel Empire.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=147}} A force led by [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]], And with strong generals like [[Iltutmish]], surrounded the Chandel fort of [[Kalanjara]] in 1202 AD and launched the attack without any warning.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} Due to this, military power could not come from Mahoba, the military capital of Chandelas and the military force present in Kalinjar was very less. But the Paramardivarman didn't accept his defeat against Ghurids, he fought with great bravery and courage and put up stiff resistance but was killed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=DZiCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24&dq=Chandelas+fought+bravely&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPr7ecg8OBAxUFa94KHe9LCv4Q6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=Chandelas%20fought%20bravely&f=false|title=Socio-Cultural life in Medieval History|last=Jahan|first=Dr Ishrat|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-0-359-22280-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Srivastava |first=Ashok Kumar |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=DBshAAAAMAAJ&q=Paramardi+stiff+resistance&dq=Paramardi+stiff+resistance&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjLoezi1ueCAxU-TGcHHUlAC3wQ6AF6BAgOEAM |title=The Life and Times of Kutb-ud-din Aibak |date=1972 |publisher=Govind Satish Prakashan |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=Sisir Kumar |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA126&dq=Paramardi+stiff+resistance&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjLoezi1ueCAxU-TGcHHUlAC3wQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=Paramardi%20stiff%20resistance&f=false |title=The Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition) |date=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1997-9 |language=en}}</ref>
According to a [[Kalanjara]] inscription, while one of Paramardi Varman's predecessors had imprisoned the wives of the earthly rulers, Paramardi Varman's heroics made even the divine rulers anxious about the safety of their wives. As a result, the gods let loose an army of [[mlechchhas]] (foreigners) against him, and made him face a  defeat.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=143}}
After the death of Paramardi, the Chandelas fought with courage and bravery till the end under the leadership of his commander Ajay Dev but were killed due to lack of military force.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=sLo9AAAAMAAJ&q=Chandelas+fought+bravely+Qutubuddin&dq=Chandelas+fought+bravely+Qutubuddin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwillczzg8OBAxURdPUHHbdGAysQ6AF6BAgMEAM#Chandelas%20fought%20bravely%20Qutubuddin|title=Muslim Rule in India|last=Mahajan|first=Vidya Dhar|date=1965|publisher=S. Chand|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=d_O1AAAAIAAJ&q=Chandelas+fought+bravely+Qutubuddin&dq=Chandelas+fought+bravely+Qutubuddin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-p4WJhMOBAxVUVN4KHZhhBoU4ChDoAXoECAIQAw#Chandelas%20fought%20bravely%20Qutubuddin|title=The Sultanate of Delhi|last=Mahajan|first=Vidya


Dhar|last2=Mahajan|first2=Savitri|date=1963|publisher=S. Chand|language=en}}</ref> After the war, only 200 Chandel warriors were able to survive (if they save them).{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=147}}
Prithviraj Chauhan was killed after [[Second Battle of Tarain]] against the [[Ghurids]] in 1192. After defeating the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamanas]] (Chauhans) and the [[Gahadavala]]s, the Ghurid governor of Delhi planned an invasion of Chandela kingdom.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=147}} A force led by [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]], and accompanied by strong generals such as [[Iltutmish]], besieged the Chandela fort of [[Kalanjara]] in 1202.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}


''Taj-ul-Maasir'', written by the Delhi chronicler [[Hasan Nizami]], states that Parmar (Paramardi) initially offered some resistance, but then fled to the safety of the fort. Subsequently, he surrendered before ruler of Delhi, and agreed to be his vassal.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=147}} He promised to pay a tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could execute this agreement. His [[dewan]] Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) continued to resist the ruler of Delhi after his death. The dewan was finally forced to surrender as the water reservoirs within the fort dried up during a drought. ''Taj-ul-Masir'' further states that after the Sultanate's victory, temples were converted into mosques and 50,000 Hindu men were taken as slaves. Qutb al-Din Aibak appointed Hazabbar-ud-Din Hasan Arnal as the governor of Kalanjara, and also captured [[Mahoba]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=148}}
''Taj-ul-Maasir'', written by the Delhi chronicler [[Hasan Nizami]], states that Parmar (Paramardivarman) initially offered some resistance, but then fled to the safety of the fort. Subsequently, he surrendered before ruler of Delhi, and agreed to be his vassal.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=147}} He promised to pay a tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could execute this agreement. His [[dewan]] Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) continued to resist the ruler of Delhi after his death. The dewan was finally forced to surrender as the water reservoirs within the fort dried up during a drought. ''Taj-ul-Masir'' further states that after the Sultanate's victory, temples were converted into mosques and 50,000 men were taken as slaves. Qutb al-Din Aibak appointed Hazabbar-ud-Din Hasan Arnal as the governor of Kalanjara, and also captured [[Mahoba]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=148}}


The 16th century Muslim historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=148}}
The 16th century Muslim historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=148}}


Firishta as well as Fakhruddin Mubarakshah state that the fall of Kalanjara happened in the [[Hijri year]] 599 (1202-1203 CE). According to ''Taj-ul-Masir'', Kalanjara fell on 20th of [[Rajab]], in the Hijri year 599, on Monday. However, this date corresponds to 12 April 1203 CE, which was a Friday. Based on different interpretations of the historical sources, different scholars date the fall of Kalanjara to either 1202 CE or 1203 CE.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}}
Firishta as well as Fakhruddin Mubarakshah state that the fall of Kalanjara happened in the [[Hijri year]] 599 (1202–1203 CE). According to ''Taj-ul-Masir'', Kalanjara fell on 20th of [[Rajab]], in the Hijri year 599, on Monday. However, this date corresponds to 12 April 1203, which was a Friday. Based on different interpretations of the historical sources, different scholars date the fall of Kalanjara to either 1202 or 1203.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}}


According to the Chandel inscriptions, Paramardivarman was succeeded by [[Trailokyavarman]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
According to the Chandela inscriptions, Paramardi was succeeded by [[Trailokyavarman]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}
== Administration ==
== Administration ==
According to the Baghari inscription, Paramardi-Varman placed the burden of government on the shoulder of his prime minister Sallakshana, who was a [[Brahmin]] of [[Vashistha]] [[gotra]]. He ordered his minister Sallakshana to commissioned two marble temples dedicated to [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]. After Sallakshana death, his son Purushottama inherited his post.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}}
 
According to the Baghari inscription, Paramardivarman placed the burden of government on his prime minister Sallakshana, who was a [[Brahmin]] of [[Vashistha]] [[gotra]].On Paramardivarman's orders Sallakshana commissioned temples dedicated to [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]. After his death, his son Purushottama inherited his post.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=149}}


The Baghari inscription also mentions one Gadadhara as Paramardivarman's minister of war and peace (''sandhna-vigraha-sachiva''). According to the [[Ajaygarh]] inscription of [[Bhojavarman]], a [[Kayastha]] named Gangadhara was the Kancukin ([[chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]]) of Paramardi. Gangadhara and his brother Jaunadhara are said to have fought at Kalanjara, possibly in the battle against the Delhi forces.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=149-150}}
The Baghari inscription also mentions one Gadadhara as Paramardivarman's minister of war and peace (''sandhna-vigraha-sachiva''). According to the [[Ajaygarh]] inscription of [[Bhojavarman]], a [[Kayastha]] named Gangadhara was the Kancukin ([[chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]]) of Paramardi. Gangadhara and his brother Jaunadhara are said to have fought at Kalanjara, possibly in the battle against the Delhi forces.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=149-150}}


Ajayapala and Madanapala, the sons of a former [[senapati]] (general) Kilhana, were two Brahmin senapatis of Paramardi.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}} Ajayapala is also known to have been a senapati of Paramardi's grandfather [[Madanavarman]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=136}} Muslim chronicles mention Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) as a [[dewan]] who continued to resist the Delhi forces after Paramardi's death. The medieval bardic tradition also mentions [[Alha]] (Alhandeva Chandel) and [[Udala]] (Udaideva or Udal) as his generals. Other officers mentioned in the historical records include Mahipala and an ''amatya'' named Vatsaraja.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}}
Ajayapala and Madanapala, the sons of a former [[senapati]] (general) Kilhana, were two Brahmin senapatis of Paramardivarman.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}} Ajayapala is also known to have been a senapati of Paramardi's grandfather [[Madanavarman]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=136}} Muslim chronicles mention Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) as a [[dewan]] who continued to resist the Delhi forces after Paramardivarman's death. The medieval bardic tradition also mentions [[Alha]] and [[Udala]] (or Udal) as his generals. Other officers mentioned in the historical records include Mahipala and an ''amatya'' named Vatsaraja.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}}


He patronized a number of scholars, including:{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}}
Paramardivarman was a learned man, and is attributed as the author of a eulogy to [[Shiva]], inscribed on a stone at [[Kalanjara]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=150}} He patronized a number of scholars, including:{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}}


* Vatsaraja, the author of ''Rupa-Kashatakam'' (a collection of six plays)
* Vatsaraja, the author of ''Rupa-Kashatakam'' (a collection of six plays)
Line 151: Line 134:
* Gunabhadra Munipa Saiddhanti, the [[Jain]] author of ''Dhanya-Kumara-Charita''
* Gunabhadra Munipa Saiddhanti, the [[Jain]] author of ''Dhanya-Kumara-Charita''


Although himself a [[Vaishnav]], Paramardi-Varman was tolerant towards Buddhists, Jains and [[Shaivite|Shaivites]]. A copper-plate inscription shows that when he granted a village to a [[Brahmin]], he respected the rights of a Buddhist shrine located in that village.
Although himself a [[Shaivite]], Paramardivarman was tolerant towards Buddhists, Jains and Vaishnavites. A copper-plate inscription shows that when he granted a village to a [[Brahmin]], he respected the rights of a Buddhist shrine located in that village. Several images of the Jain [[tirthankara]]s were set up at various places during his reign.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}} The best known of these are at the [[Aharji]] Jain Tirth Near [[Tikamgarh]].{{cn|date=December 2020}} His minister Sallakshana commissioned a [[Vishnu]] temple.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}}


Several images of the Jain [[tirthankara]]s were set up at various places during his reign.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=151}} The best known of these are at the [[Aharji]] Jain Tirth Near [[Tikamgarh]].{{cn|date=December 2020}}
== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|30em}}
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* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113 |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |author=Sisirkumar Mitra |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113 |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |author=Sisirkumar Mitra |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 }}
{{ref end}}
{{ref end}}
{{Chandelas of Jejakabhukti}}
{{Chandelas of Jejakabhukti}}
[[Category:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]]
[[Category:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:13th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:13th-century Indian monarchs]]

Revision as of 04:34, 3 January 2026


Paramardivarman
Param-bhattaraka, Parameshwara, Param-Maheshwara, Maharajadhiraja, Srīkalanjaradhipati
King of Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
Reignc. 1165-1202 CE
PredecessorYashovarman II
SuccessorTrailokyavarman
IssueSabhajitvarman
Bramhadevavarman
Trailokyavarman
Names
Srīmat Paramardi Varman Deva
Sanskrit: श्रीमत-परमर्दी-वर्म-देव
Regnal name
Paramardin
HouseChandravansh
DynastyChandel
FatherYashovarman II
ReligionShaivism

Paramardivarman[1] (reigned c. 1165–1203), IAST: Paramardi), known as Parmardideva, and famous in folklores as Parmala, while Parimal in Hindu scriptures, was the last greatest king of the Chandel dynasty of Jejakabhukti. He succeeded his father Yashovarman II as the king of the Jejakabhukti Kingdom. In 1182, Prithviraj Chauhan III raided and plundered the Madanpura city, which Paramardivarman recaptured after defeating Chahamanas of Shakambhari in few months. Paramardi signed the Treaty of Kalinjar around 1202–03 during the siege by the Ghurid general Qutbuddin Aibak, but died before the treaty was finalised.

Early life

Paramardi Varman's Bateshvar inscription suggests that he succeeded his father Yashovarman. However, other Chandela inscriptions (including those of his own) suggest that he succeeded his grandfather Madanavarman. It is possible that Yashovarman ruled for a very short period, or did not rule at all, having died while Madanavarman was still alive.[2]

According to the Parmal Raso, Paramardi ascended the throne at the age of 5 years. An Ajaygarh inscription appears to corroborate this claim: it states that Paramardi was a leader even as a child (bāl-opi netā).[3]

He is mentioned as Paramardi-deva in inscriptions. The medieval bardic legends such as Alha-Khand call him Paramala or Parimala. In modern vernaculars, he is also known as Paramardideva, Parmar, Paramal Deo and Parimal Chandel (because of schwa deletion). A gold coin issued by him, featuring a seated goddess, gives his name as Srimat Paramardi.[4]

Reign

Map
Find spots of the inscriptions from Paramardi's reign[5]

Paramardi Varman was the last of the powerful Chandela rulers, and has been mentioned in several legendary texts such as Paramala Raso (Parmal Raso or Mahoba Khand), Prithviraj Raso and Alha-Khand (Alha Raso or Ballad of Alha). While these texts are based on historical events, much of their content has been fabricated to glorify either Prithviraj Chauhan. Thus, these texts are of doubtful historicity, and therefore, much of Paramardi Varman's reign is shrouded in obscurity.[6][7]

Several Chandela inscriptions also mention Paramardi Varman, but these contain little historical information. For example, the Semra copper-plate inscription vaguely eulogizes him as someonoe who surpassed Makaradhvaja (the god of love) in handsomeness, the ocean in depth, the lord of heaven in majesty, Brihaspati in wisdom, and Yudhishthira in truthfulness. The Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription credits him with military victories and states that other kings bowed to him, but does not name any of these kings.[6] The Ajaygarh inscription of his grandson's wife Kalyanadevi similarly describes him as a universal sovereign, whose enemies were left in a pitiful condition.[6] Such claims of extensive conquests are not corroborated by historical evidence.[8]

Early career

The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi Varman's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE), Mahoba (1166-1167 CE), Ichhawar (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and Charkhari (1178 CE).[9] All of these inscriptions use the imperial titles for him: Paramabhattaraka-Maharajadhiraja-Parameshvara Parama-Maheshvara Shri-Kalanjaradhipati Shrimanmat Paramardideva. This indicates that in the early part of his reign, Paramardi retained the territories that he had inherited from his grandfather Madanavarman.[7]

An 1183 CE Mahoba inscription states that the lord of Tripuri fainted whenever he heard the songs about Paramardi Varman's bravery. This suggests that Paramardi Varman defeated a Kalachuri king of Tripuri, possibly Jayasimha.[8]

Chahamana invasion

During 1182-1183 CE, the Chahamana ruler Prithviraj Chauhan invaded the Chandela kingdom of Jejakabhukti. The Chandela records do not mention this invasion, presumably to avoid describing the humiliating defeat of their king.[7]

According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to Delhi after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces (Ghurids). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital Mahoba. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general Udal against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.[10]

Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother Alha left the Chandela court. They took shelter with Jaichand, the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj.[10] Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela territory via Gwalior and Bateshwar. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed.[11]

Prithviraj then started a march towards Mahoba. Facing an imminent defeat, Paramardi and his nobles sought a truce on the advice of his chief queen Malhan Devi. Prithviraj agreed to the truce, but remained encamped on the banks of the Betwa River in the Chandela territory. The Chandelas, meanwhile, requested Alha and Udal to come back from Kannauj.[11] The two brothers were initially hesitant, but agreed to return after their mother appealed them to honour their allegiance to the Chandelas. Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons, to support the Chandelas. Paramardi himself became nervous, and retreated to the Kalanjara fort with some of his soldiers. His son Brahmajit, along with Alha and Udal, led the Chandela army against Prithviraj Chauhan. In the ensuing battle, the Chandelas were defeated. Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of Jaichand were killed in the conflict. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked the Chandela capital of Mahoba.[12]

Next, Prithviraj dispatched his general Chavand Rai to Kalanjara. The Chauhan army captured the fort, took Paramardi as prisoner, and marched back towards Delhi.[13] According to the Parmal Raso, Alha's son Indal Kumar launched a surprise attack on the returning Chauhan army, and freed Paramardi. Out of shame, Paramardi later committed suicide at the Gajraj temple.[13] Parmal Raso states that his 50 wives committed sati (self-immolation) after his death.[14] According to Chand Bardai, he retired to Gaya and died there.[13] The Prithviraj Raso states that Prithviraj appointed Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son Samarjit recaptured Mahoba with help of Narasimha, an officer of Jaichand. Samarjit then ruled the territory between Kalanjara and Gaya. However, no such prince is mentioned in the Chandela records.[15]

The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable, but it is known that Prithviraj Chauhan indeed sacked Mahoba. This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at Madanpur.[12] However, the prolonged occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.[15] Moreover, it is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the Chauhan victory. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE Ajaygarh stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.[13] These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.[16] The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom.[15]

The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of Dasharna country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi Varman managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.[16]

Ghurid invasion and death

See also: Siege of Kalinjar

According to a Kalanjara inscription, while one of Paramardi Varman's predecessors had imprisoned the wives of the earthly rulers, Paramardi Varman's heroics made even the divine rulers anxious about the safety of their wives. As a result, the gods let loose an army of mlechchhas (foreigners) against him, and made him face a defeat.[8]

Prithviraj Chauhan was killed after Second Battle of Tarain against the Ghurids in 1192. After defeating the Chahamanas (Chauhans) and the Gahadavalas, the Ghurid governor of Delhi planned an invasion of Chandela kingdom.[17] A force led by Qutb al-Din Aibak, and accompanied by strong generals such as Iltutmish, besieged the Chandela fort of Kalanjara in 1202.[16]

Taj-ul-Maasir, written by the Delhi chronicler Hasan Nizami, states that Parmar (Paramardivarman) initially offered some resistance, but then fled to the safety of the fort. Subsequently, he surrendered before ruler of Delhi, and agreed to be his vassal.[17] He promised to pay a tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could execute this agreement. His dewan Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) continued to resist the ruler of Delhi after his death. The dewan was finally forced to surrender as the water reservoirs within the fort dried up during a drought. Taj-ul-Masir further states that after the Sultanate's victory, temples were converted into mosques and 50,000 men were taken as slaves. Qutb al-Din Aibak appointed Hazabbar-ud-Din Hasan Arnal as the governor of Kalanjara, and also captured Mahoba.[18]

The 16th century Muslim historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.[18]

Firishta as well as Fakhruddin Mubarakshah state that the fall of Kalanjara happened in the Hijri year 599 (1202–1203 CE). According to Taj-ul-Masir, Kalanjara fell on 20th of Rajab, in the Hijri year 599, on Monday. However, this date corresponds to 12 April 1203, which was a Friday. Based on different interpretations of the historical sources, different scholars date the fall of Kalanjara to either 1202 or 1203.[14]

According to the Chandela inscriptions, Paramardi was succeeded by Trailokyavarman.[16]

Administration

According to the Baghari inscription, Paramardivarman placed the burden of government on his prime minister Sallakshana, who was a Brahmin of Vashistha gotra.On Paramardivarman's orders Sallakshana commissioned temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu. After his death, his son Purushottama inherited his post.[14]

The Baghari inscription also mentions one Gadadhara as Paramardivarman's minister of war and peace (sandhna-vigraha-sachiva). According to the Ajaygarh inscription of Bhojavarman, a Kayastha named Gangadhara was the Kancukin (chamberlain) of Paramardi. Gangadhara and his brother Jaunadhara are said to have fought at Kalanjara, possibly in the battle against the Delhi forces.[19]

Ajayapala and Madanapala, the sons of a former senapati (general) Kilhana, were two Brahmin senapatis of Paramardivarman.[20] Ajayapala is also known to have been a senapati of Paramardi's grandfather Madanavarman.[21] Muslim chronicles mention Aj Deo (Ajaya-Deva) as a dewan who continued to resist the Delhi forces after Paramardivarman's death. The medieval bardic tradition also mentions Alha and Udala (or Udal) as his generals. Other officers mentioned in the historical records include Mahipala and an amatya named Vatsaraja.[20]

Paramardivarman was a learned man, and is attributed as the author of a eulogy to Shiva, inscribed on a stone at Kalanjara.[20] He patronized a number of scholars, including:[22]

  • Vatsaraja, the author of Rupa-Kashatakam (a collection of six plays)
  • Gadadhara, a poet styled as Kavi-Chakravarti
  • Jaganika, the author of Alha-Khanda
  • Gunabhadra Munipa Saiddhanti, the Jain author of Dhanya-Kumara-Charita

Although himself a Shaivite, Paramardivarman was tolerant towards Buddhists, Jains and Vaishnavites. A copper-plate inscription shows that when he granted a village to a Brahmin, he respected the rights of a Buddhist shrine located in that village. Several images of the Jain tirthankaras were set up at various places during his reign.[22] The best known of these are at the Aharji Jain Tirth Near Tikamgarh.[citation needed] His minister Sallakshana commissioned a Vishnu temple.[22]

References

  1. ↑ Thapar, Romila (4 November 2013). The Past Before Us: Historical Traditions of Early North India. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72652-9.
  2. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 139-140.
  3. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 140.
  4. ↑ P. C. Roy 1980, pp. 54-55.
  5. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 119, 124.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 141.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 120.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 143.
  9. ↑ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 119.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 121.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 122.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 123.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 124.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 149.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 125.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, p. 126.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 147.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 148.
  19. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, pp. 149-150.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 150.
  21. ↑ R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 136.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 R. K. Dikshit 1976, p. 151.

Bibliography

Template:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti

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