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{{Short description|Edible fruit}}
{{Short description|Edible fruit}}
{{About||other species of strawberry|Fragaria|other uses}}
{{About||other species of strawberry|Fragaria|other uses}}
 
{{Good article}}
 
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{CS1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| name = Strawberry<br />''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa''
|name           = Strawberry ''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa''
| image= Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) single2.jpg
|image         = Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) single2.jpg
| image_caption = Strawberry fruit
|image_caption = Strawberry fruit
| image2 = Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) halved.jpg
|genus         = Fragaria
| image2_caption = Halved strawberry
|species       = × ananassa
| genus = Fragaria
|authority     = [[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne|Duchesne]]
| species = × ananassa
| authority = [[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne|Duchesne]]
}}
}}


The '''garden strawberry''' (or simply '''strawberry'''; ''Fragaria × ananassa'')<ref name=Manganaris2014>{{cite journal |vauthors=Manganaris GA, Goulas V, Vicente AR, Terry LA |title=Berry antioxidants: small fruits providing large benefits|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|volume=94|issue=5|pages=825–33|date=March 2014|pmid=24122646|doi=10.1002/jsfa.6432|bibcode=2014JSFA...94..825M }}</ref> is a widely grown [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid species]] of the genus ''[[Fragaria]]'', collectively known as the strawberries, which are cultivated worldwide for their fruit. The fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in large quantities, either fresh or in such prepared foods as [[fruit preserves|jam]], juice, [[pie]]s, [[ice cream]], [[milkshake]]s, and chocolates. Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also widely used in products such as candy, soap, [[lip gloss]], perfume, and many others.
The '''garden strawberry''' (or simply '''strawberry'''; '''''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa''''')<ref name="Feldmann 2024"/> is a widely grown [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] plant cultivated worldwide for its [[fruit]]. The genus ''[[Fragaria]]'', the strawberries, is in the rose family, [[Rosaceae]]. The fruit is appreciated for its aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is eaten either fresh or in prepared foods such as [[fruit preserves|jam]], [[ice cream]], and [[chocolate]]s. Artificial strawberry flavourings and aromas are widely used in commercial products. Botanically, the strawberry is not a [[berry (botany)|berry]], but an [[aggregate fruit|aggregate]] [[accessory fruit|accessory]] fruit. Each apparent 'seed' on the outside of the strawberry is actually an [[achene]], a botanical fruit with a seed inside it.


The garden strawberry was first bred in [[Brittany]], France, in the 1750s via a cross of ''[[Virginia strawberry|Fragaria virginiana]]'' from eastern North America and ''[[Fragaria chiloensis]]'', which was brought from Chile by [[Amédée-François Frézier]] in 1714.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html |title=Strawberry, The Maiden With Runners |publisher=Botgard.ucla.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706193324/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html |archive-date=6 July 2010  }}</ref> [[Cultivar]]s of ''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' <!--N.B.: Editors please keep multiplication sign outside quote marks, otherwise it appears italicised on certain browsers-->have replaced, in commercial production, the woodland strawberry (''[[Fragaria vesca]]''), which was the first strawberry species cultivated in the early 17th century.<ref name="welsh1">{{cite web |last=Welsh |first=Martin |url=http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802231801/http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php |archive-date=2 August 2008 |title=Strawberries |publisher=Nvsuk.org.uk }}</ref>
The garden strawberry was first bred in [[Brittany]], France, in the 1750s via a cross of ''[[Virginia strawberry|F. virginiana]]'' from eastern North America and ''[[Fragaria chiloensis|F. chiloensis]]'', which was brought from Chile by [[Amédée-François Frézier]] in 1714. [[Cultivar]]s of ''F.'' × ''ananassa'' have replaced the woodland strawberry ''[[Fragaria vesca|F. vesca]]'' in commercial production. In 2023, world production of strawberries exceeded ten million tons, led by China with 40% of the total.


From a botanical point of view, the strawberry is not a [[berry (botany)|berry]] but an [[aggregate fruit|aggregate]] [[accessory fruit|accessory]] fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's [[Ovary (botany)|ovaries]] but from the [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] that holds the ovaries.<ref name="Esau">Esau, K. (1977). ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York. {{ISBN|0-471-24520-8}}.</ref> Each apparent "seed" ([[achene]]) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it.<ref name="Esau" />
Strawberries have appeared in literature and art from Roman times; [[Virgil]] wrote about the snake lurking beneath the strawberry, an image reinterpreted by later writers including [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. Strawberries appear in Italian, Flemish, and German paintings, including [[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]''. It has been understood to symbolise the ephemerality of earthly joys or the benefit that blessed souls get from religion, or to allegorise death and resurrection. By the late 20th century, its meaning had shifted: it symbolised female sexuality.


In 2019, world production of strawberries was nine million tons, led by China with 40% of the total.
== Evolution ==


== History ==
=== History and taxonomy ===


{{Main|Breeding of strawberries}}
In Europe, until the 17th century cultivated plants were obtained by transplanting strawberries from the forests; the plants were [[Asexual propagation|propagated asexually]] by pegging down the [[Stolon|runners]], allowing them to root, and then separating the new plants.<ref name="welsh1">{{cite web |last=Welsh |first=Martin |url=http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802231801/http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php |archive-date=2 August 2008 |title=Strawberries |publisher=National Vegetable Society}}</ref> ''[[Virginia strawberry|F. virginiana]]'', the Virginia strawberry, was brought to Europe from eastern North America; ''[[Fragaria chiloensis|F. chiloensis]]'', the Chilean strawberry, was brought from Chile by [[Amédée-François Frézier]] in 1714.<!--<ref name="UCLA Botgard"/>--> At first introduction to Europe, the Chilean strawberry plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit.<!--<ref name="UCLA Botgard"/>--> French gardeners in [[Brittany]] in the 1750s noticed that the Chilean plants bore only female flowers. They planted the wild woodland strawberry ''F. vesca'' among the Chilean plants to provide pollen; the Chilean strawberry plants then bore abundant fruits.<ref name="UCLA Botgard">{{cite web |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html |title=Strawberry, The Maiden With Runners |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706193324/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Strawberry gariguette DSC03063.JPG|right|thumb|alt=Closeup of a healthy, red strawberry|''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' 'Gariguette,' a cultivar grown in southern France]]


The first garden strawberry was grown in [[Brittany]], France, during the late 18th century.<ref name="welsh1" /> Prior to this, [[Fragaria|wild strawberries]] and cultivated selections from wild strawberry species were the common source of the fruit.
In 1759, Philip Miller recorded the 'pine strawberry' (''F. ananassa'') in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea, England]].<ref name="UCLA Botgard"/> In the gardens of the [[Palace of Versailles]], France, [[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne]] found in 1766 that ''F. ananassa'' was a hybrid of the recently arrived ''F. chiloensis'' and ''F. virginiana''.<ref name="Feldmann 2024"/> In 1806, Michael Keens of [[Isleworth]], England selected the Keens Imperial cultivar from many hybrids,<ref name="Johnson 1990"/> winning the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s Silver Cup.<ref name="UCLA Botgard"/> Both the names 'pine' and 'ananassa' meant "pineapple", for the fruit's flavour.<ref name="Johnson 1990">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Harold A. |title=The Contributions of Private Strawberry Breeders |url=https://journals.ashs.org/view/journals/hortsci/25/8/article-p897.xml |journal=HortScience |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=897–902 |date=August 1990|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.25.8.897 }}</ref> Modern strawberries and both parent species are [[octoploid]] (8N, meaning they have 8 sets of 7 [[chromosome]]s).<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=24282021 |year=2014 |last1=Hirakawa |first1=H. |title=Dissection of the octoploid strawberry genome by deep sequencing of the genomes of fragaria species |journal=DNA Research |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=169–181 |last2=Shirasawa |first2=K. |last3=Kosugi |first3=S. |last4=Tashiro |first4=K. |last5=Nakayama |first5=S. |last6=Yamada |first6=M. |last7=Kohara |first7=M. |last8=Watanabe |first8=A. |last9=Kishida |first9=Y. |last10=Fujishiro |first10=T. |last11=Tsuruoka |first11=H. |last12=Minami |first12=C. |last13=Sasamoto |first13=S. |last14=Kato |first14=M. |last15=Nanri |first15=K. |last16=Komaki |first16=A. |last17=Yanagi |first17=T. |last18=Guoxin |first18=Q. |last19=Maeda |first19=F. |last20=Ishikawa |first20=M. |last21=Kuhara |first21=S. |last22=Sato |first22=S. |last23=Tabata |first23=S. |last24=Isobe |first24=S.N.|doi=10.1093/dnares/dst049 |pmc=3989489}}</ref> The [[genome]] sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Edger |first1=Patrick P. |last2=Poorten |first2=Thomas J. |last3=VanBuren |first3=Robert |last4=Hardigan |first4=Michael A. |last5=Colle |first5=Marivi |last6=McKain |first6=Michael R. |last7=Smith |first7=Ronald D. |last8=Teresi |first8=Scott J. |last9=Nelson |first9=Andrew D.L. |last10=Wai |first10=Ching Man |last11=Alger |first11=Elizabeth I. |date=March 2019 |title=Origin and evolution of the octoploid strawberry genome |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=541–547 |doi=10.1038/s41588-019-0356-4 |pmid=30804557 |pmc=6882729 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


The strawberry fruit was mentioned in ancient Roman literature in reference to its medicinal use. The French began taking the strawberry from the forest to their gardens for harvest in the 14th century. [[Charles V of France|Charles V]], France's king from 1364 to 1380, had 1,200 strawberry plants in his royal garden. In the early 15th century western European monks were using the wild strawberry in their illuminated manuscripts. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} The entire strawberry plant was used to treat depressive illnesses.
[[File:Hybridisation and polyploidy in strawberries.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|center|Hybridisation and polyploidy in strawberries. Garden strawberries are [[octoploid]] (8N), like both parents, the Virginia and Chilean strawberries.]]


By the 16th century, references of cultivation of the strawberry became more common. People began using it for its supposed medicinal properties and botanists began naming the different species. In England the demand for regular strawberry farming had increased by the mid-16th century.
Further breeding in the following centuries produced varieties with a longer cropping season and more fruit.<ref name="UCLA Botgard"/> During the [[Green Revolution]] of the 1950s, [[agronomy|agronomists]] used selective breeding to expand [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] diversity of the garden strawberry. Adoption of perpetual flowering hybrids not sensitive to changes in [[Photoperiodism|photoperiod]] gave higher yields and enabled production in California to expand.<ref name="Feldmann 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Feldmann |first1=Mitchell J. |last2=Pincot |first2=Dominique D. A. |last3=Cole |first3=Glenn S. |last4=Knapp |first4=Steven J. |title=Genetic gains underpinning a little-known strawberry Green Revolution |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |date=19 March 2024 |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=2468 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-46421-6 |pmid=38504104 |pmc=10951273 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.2468F}}</ref>


The combination of strawberries and cream was created by [[Thomas Wolsey]] in the court of King [[Henry VIII]].<ref name="Wimbledon">{{cite news|title=Wimbledon's strawberries and cream has Tudor roots|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_8756000/8756132.stm|agency=BBC|date=9 June 2015}}</ref> Instructions for growing and harvesting strawberries showed up in writing in 1578. By the end of the 16th century three European species had been cited: ''F. vesca'', ''F. moschata'', and ''F. viridis''. The garden strawberry was transplanted from the forests and then the plants would be propagated [[Asexual propagation|asexually]] by cutting off the runners.
<gallery class=center mode=nolines heights=220>
[[File:Two strawberry leaves sunny.jpg|alt=Strawberry leaves|thumb|Strawberry leaves]]
File:Fragaria vesca LC0389.jpg|''[[Fragaria vesca]]'', a wild woodland strawberry, was cultivated until the 17th century.
Two subspecies of ''F. vesca'' were identified: ''F. sylvestris alba'' and ''F. sylvestris semperflorens''. The introduction of ''F. virginiana'' from eastern North America to Europe in the 17th century is an important part of history because it is one of the two species that gave rise to the modern strawberry. The new species gradually spread through the continent and did not become completely appreciated until the end of the 18th century. A French excursion journeyed to Chile in 1712, which led to the introduction of a strawberry plant with female flowers that resulted in the common strawberry.
File:Strawberry gariguette DSC03063.JPG|[[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne]] discovered that the cultivated strawberry ('Gariguette' pictured) was a hybrid of ''[[Fragaria chiloensis|F. chiloensis]]'' and ''[[Virginia strawberry|F. virginiana]]''.<ref name="Feldmann 2024"/>
</gallery>


The Mapuche and Huilliche Indians of Chile cultivated the female strawberry species until 1551, when the Spanish came to conquer the land. In 1765, a European explorer recorded the cultivation of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry. At first introduction to Europe, the plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit.  French gardeners in Brest and [[Cherbourg]] around the mid-18th century first noticed that when ''F. moschata'' and ''F. virginiana'' were planted in between rows of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry would bear abundant and unusually large fruits. Soon after, [[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne]] began to study the [[breeding of strawberries]] and made several discoveries crucial to the science of plant breeding, such as the sexual reproduction of the strawberry which he published in 1766. Duchesne discovered that the female ''F. chiloensis'' plants could only be pollinated by male ''F. moschata'' or ''F. virginiana'' plants.<ref name="duchesne">{{cite book |url=http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/darrow/Darrow_TheStrawberry.pdf |title=The strawberry; history, breeding, and physiology |year=1966 |publisher=New York Holt Rinehart and Winstonrived}}</ref> This is when the Europeans became aware that plants had the ability to produce male-only or female-only flowers.
=== Phylogeny ===


Duchesne determined ''F. ananassa'' to be a hybrid of ''F. chiloensis'' and ''F. virginiana''. ''F. ananassa'', which produces large fruits, is so named because it resembles the pineapple in smell, taste and berry shape. In England, many varieties of ''F. ananassa'' were produced, and they form the basis of modern varieties of strawberries currently cultivated and consumed. Further breeding was also conducted in Europe and America to improve the hardiness, disease resistance, size, and taste.<ref name="duchesne"/>
The [[phylogeny]] of the cultivated strawberry within the genus ''Fragaria'' of the [[Rosaceae]] family was determined by [[chloroplast DNA|chloroplast genomics]] in 2021. The [[polyploidy]] (number of sets of [[chromosome]]s) is shown as "2N" etc. by each species.<ref name="Sun Sun Liu 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Jian |last2=Sun |first2=Rui |last3=Liu |first3=Huabo |last4=Chang |first4=Linlin |last5=Li |first5=Shuangtao |last6=Zhao |first6=Mizhen |last7=Shennan |first7=Carol |last8=Lei |first8=Jiajun |last9=Dong |first9=Jing |last10=Zhong |first10=Chuanfei |last11=Xue |first11=Li |last12=Gao |first12=Yongshun |last13=Wang |first13=Guixia |last14=Zhang |first14=Yuntao |title=Complete chloroplast genome sequencing of ten wild Fragaria species in China provides evidence for phylogenetic evolution of Fragaria |journal=Genomics |volume=113 |issue=3 |year=2021 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.01.027 |doi-access=free |pages=1170–1179|pmid=33705887 }}</ref>
== Composition ==
=== Nutrition ===


{{nutritional value
{{clade
| name=Nutrition
|label1=[[Rosaceae]]
| image=Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa).jpg
|1={{clade
| kJ=136
  |1=''[[Rosa (genus)|Rosa]]'' and other genera [[File:Rosa rubiginosa 1.jpg|70px]]
| fat=0.3 g
  |2={{clade
| protein=0.67 g
      |1=''[[Potentilla]]'' (cinquefoils) [[File:Potentilla recta a1.jpg|70px]]
| water=90.95 g
      |label2=''[[Fragaria]]''
| carbs=7.68 g
      |2={{clade
| fiber=2 g
        |1=at least 11 other species
| sugars=4.89 g
        |2={{clade
| calcium_mg=16
            |1=''[[Fragaria viridis|F. viridis]]'' [[Diploid|2N]] (green strawberry) [[File:Fragaria_viridis_fruit_-_Keila.jpg|50px]]
| iron_mg=0.41
            |2={{clade
| magnesium_mg=13
              |1={{clade
| phosphorus_mg=24
                  |1=''[[Fragaria orientalis|F. orientalis]]'' [[Tetraploid|4N]] (eastern strawberry) [[File:Fragaria orientalis 42864136.jpg|70px]]
| potassium_mg=154
                  |2=''[[Fragaria moschata|F. moschata]]'' [[Hexaploid|6N]] (musk strawberry) [[File:Fragaria moschata detail.JPG|70px]]
| sodium_mg=1
                  }}
| zinc_mg=0.14
              |2={{clade
| manganese_mg=0.386
                  |1=''F. mandshurica''
| vitC_mg=58.8
                  |2={{clade
| thiamin_mg=0.024
                    |1=''[[Fragaria vesca|F. vesca]]'' ssp. ''vesca'' 2N (wild strawberry) [[File:Fragaria vesca - metsmaasikas.jpg|70px]]
| riboflavin_mg=0.022
                    |2={{clade
| niacin_mg=0.386
                        |1=''F. vesca'' ssp. ''bracteata'' 2N
| pantothenic_mg=0.125
                        |2={{clade
| vitB6_mg=0.047
                          |1=''[[Fragaria virginiana|F. virginiana]]'' 8N (Virginia strawberry, parent species) [[File:Fragaria virginiana 3243.JPG|70px]]
| folate_ug=24
                          |2={{clade
| choline_mg=5.7
                              |1=''[[Fragaria chiloensis|F. chiloensis]]'' 8N (Chilean strawberry, parent species) [[File:USFWS fragaricus chiloensis1 (23535206260).jpg|80px]]
| vitE_mg=0.29
                              |2='''''F.'' x ''ananassa'' [[Octoploid|8N]] (the [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] garden strawberry)''' [[File:Fruits of Fragaria × ananassa.JPG|80px]]
| vitK_ug=2.2
                              }}
| source_usda = 0
                          }}
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/747448/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
                        }}
                    }}
                  }}
              }}
            }}
        }}
      }}
  }}
}}
}}


Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% [[carbohydrate]]s, 1% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and contain negligible fat (table). A 100&nbsp;gram reference amount of strawberries supplies 33 [[kilocalorie]]s, is a rich source of [[vitamin C]] (71% of the [[Daily Value]], DV), a good source of [[manganese]] (18% DV), and provides several other vitamins and dietary minerals in small amounts. Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential [[unsaturated fatty acid]]s in the [[achene]] (seed) oil.<ref name="Giampieri2012" />
== Description ==


=== Phytochemicals ===
{{see also|Fragaria}}


Garden strawberries contain the dimeric [[ellagitannin]] agrimoniin which is an isomer of [[sanguiin H-6]].<ref name="Lipinska2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lipińska L, Klewicka E, Sójka M |title=The structure, occurrence and biological activity of ellagitannins: a general review|journal=Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Technologia Alimentaria|volume=13|issue=3|pages=289–99|date=September 2014|pmid=24887944|doi=10.17306/j.afs.2014.3.7|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite journal | last1 = Vrhovsek | first1 = U. | last2 = Guella | first2 = G. | last3 = Gasperotti | first3 = M. | last4 = Pojer | first4 = E. | last5 = Zancato | first5 = M. | last6 = Mattivi | first6 = F. | doi = 10.1021/jf2052256 | title = Clarifying the Identity of the Main Ellagitannin in the Fruit of the Strawberry, ''Fragaria vesca'' and ''Fragaria ananassa'' Duch | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 60 | issue = 10 | pages = 2507–16 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22339338}}</ref> Other polyphenols present include [[flavonoid]]s, such as [[anthocyanin]]s, [[flavanol]]s, [[flavonol]]s and [[phenolic acid]]s, such as [[hydroxybenzoic acid]] and [[hydroxycinnamic acid]].<ref name="Giampieri2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Giampieri F, Tulipani S, Alvarez-Suarez JM, Quiles JL, Mezzetti B, Battino M |title=The strawberry: composition, nutritional quality, and impact on human health|journal=Nutrition|volume=28|issue=1|pages=9–19|date=January 2012|pmid=22153122|doi=10.1016/j.nut.2011.08.009}}</ref> Strawberries contain [[fisetin]] and possess higher levels of this flavonoid than other fruits.<ref name="auto" /><ref name="Khan2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan N, Syed DN, Ahmad N, Mukhtar H |title=Fisetin: a dietary antioxidant for health promotion|journal=Antioxidants & Redox Signaling|volume=19|issue=2|pages=151–62|date=July 2013|pmid=23121441|pmc=3689181|doi=10.1089/ars.2012.4901}}</ref> Although achenes comprise only about 1% of total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of the total polyphenol in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include [[ellagic acid]], ellagic acid [[glycoside]]s, and ellagitannins.<ref name="aaby">{{cite journal
[[File:Strawberry vs Peapod.svg|thumb|center|upright=2|Botanical structure of a strawberry, compared to a [[pea]]pod. The strawberry is a swollen [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]], covered with many small [[achene]]s, the botanical fruits.<ref name="Parrucci Eubanks 1997"/>]]
| pmid = 15884835
| year = 2005
| last1 = Aaby
| first1 = K
| title = Phenolic composition and antioxidant activities in flesh and achenes of strawberries (''Fragaria ananassa'')
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 53
| issue = 10
| pages = 4032–40
| last2 = Skrede
| first2 = G
| last3 = Wrolstad
| first3 = R. E.
| doi = 10.1021/jf048001o
}}</ref>


=== Color ===
In culinary terms, a strawberry is an edible fruit. From a botanical point of view, it is not a [[berry (botany)|berry]] but an [[aggregate fruit|aggregate]] [[accessory fruit|accessory]] fruit, because the fleshy part is derived from the [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]]. Each apparent seed on the outside of the strawberry is actually an [[achene]], a botanical fruit with a seed inside it.<ref name="Parrucci Eubanks 1997">{{cite web |last1=Parrucci |first1=Lynn |last2=Eubanks |first2=Amy |title=The Strawberry: A Multiple Fruit |year=1997 |url=https://carnegiemuseums.org/magazine-archive/1997/mayjun/dept4.htm |publisher=Carnegie Museums |access-date=6 November 2024}}</ref>


[[Pelargonidin-3-glucoside]] is the major anthocyanin in strawberries and [[cyanidin-3-glucoside]] is found in smaller proportions. Although glucose seems to be the most common substituting sugar in strawberry anthocyanins, rutinose, arabinose, and rhamnose conjugates have been found in some strawberry cultivars.<ref name="Giampieri2012" />
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Two strawberry leaves sunny.jpg|Leaves
File:Flower of Fragaria × ananassa.JPG|Flower
File:Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) close-up.jpg|[[Achene]]s (botanical fruits)
File:Strawberry growth (Video).webm|Growth (video)
</gallery>


Purple minor pigments consisting of dimeric anthocyanins (flavanol-anthocyanin adducts : catechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, epicatechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, afzelechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside and epiafzelechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside) can also be found in strawberries.<ref>{{cite journal|pages=1421–28|doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.05.003|pmid=15231416|title = Dimeric anthocyanins from strawberry (''Fragaria ananassa'') consisting of pelargonidin 3-glucoside covalently linked to four flavan-3-ols|journal=Phytochemistry|volume=65|issue=10|year = 2004|last1 = Fossen|first1 = Torgils|last2=Rayyan|first2=Saleh|last3=Andersen|first3=Øyvind M|bibcode=2004PChem..65.1421F }}</ref>
== Composition ==


=== Flavor and fragrance ===
=== Nutrition ===


[[Image:Furaneol.svg|thumb|left|130px|[[Furaneol]] is an important component of the fragrance of strawberries.]]
{{nutritional value
|name=Nutrition
|image=Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa).jpg
|kJ=136
|fat=0.3 g
|protein=0.67 g
|water=90.95 g
|carbs=7.68 g
|fiber=2 g
|sugars=4.89 g
|calcium_mg=16
|iron_mg=0.41
|magnesium_mg=13
|phosphorus_mg=24
|potassium_mg=154
|sodium_mg=1
|zinc_mg=0.14
|manganese_mg=0.386
|vitC_mg=58.8
|thiamin_mg=0.024
|riboflavin_mg=0.022
|niacin_mg=0.386
|pantothenic_mg=0.125
|vitB6_mg=0.047
|folate_ug=24
|choline_mg=5.7
|vitE_mg=0.29
|vitK_ug=2.2
|source_usda=0
|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/747448/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}


Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavor are favorable attributes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Framing the perfect strawberry: An exercise in consumer-assisted selection of fruit crops|journal=Journal of Berry Research|year=2012|volume=2|issue=1|pages=45–61|doi=10.3233/JBR-2011-027|vauthors=Colquhoun TA, etal|doi-access=free}}</ref> In [[plant breeding]] and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and [[essential oils|volatile]] compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of a ripe strawberry.<ref name="UFla">{{cite journal | pmid = 24523895| year = 2014| last1 = Schwieterman| first1 = M. L.| title = Strawberry flavor: Diverse chemical compositions, a seasonal influence, and effects on sensory perception| journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 9| issue = 2| pages = e88446| last2 = Colquhoun| first2 = T. A.| last3 = Jaworski| first3 = E. A.| last4 = Bartoshuk| first4 = L. M.| last5 = Gilbert| first5 = J. L.| last6 = Tieman| first6 = D. M.| last7 = Odabasi| first7 = A. Z.| last8 = Moskowitz| first8 = H. R.| last9 = Folta| first9 = K. M.| author-link9 = Kevin Folta | last10 = Klee| first10 = H. J.| last11 = Sims| first11 = C. A.| last12 = Whitaker| first12 = V. M.| last13 = Clark| first13 = D. G.| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0088446| pmc = 3921181| bibcode = 2014PLoSO...988446S| doi-access = free}}</ref> Although often sweet tasting, strawberries actually have relatively low sugar levels compared to other fruits. [[Ester]]s, [[terpene]]s, and [[furan]]s are the chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavor, sweetness and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to favorable flavor and fragrance.<ref name=UFla /><ref name=Goodyear/><ref name=Negri/> In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds, methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics.<ref name=Goodyear/><ref name=Negri/>
Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% [[carbohydrate]]s, 1% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and contain negligible fat (table). A reference amount of {{convert |100|g|oz}} supplies 33 [[kilocalorie]]s, is a rich source of [[vitamin C]] (65% of the [[Daily Value]], DV), and a good source of [[manganese]] (17% DV), with no other [[micronutrient]]s in significant content (table). Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential [[unsaturated fatty acid]]s in the [[achene]] (seed) oil.<ref name="Giampieri2012"/>


Chemicals present in the fragrance of strawberries include:
=== Phytochemicals ===
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[methyl acetate]]
* (''E'')-2-hexen-1-ol
* (''E'')-2-hexenal
* (''E'')-2-pentenal
* (''E'',''E'')-2,4-hexadienal
* (''Z'')-2-hexenyl acetate
* (''Z'')-3-hexenyl acetate
* [[1-hexanol]]
* [[2-heptanol]]
* [[2-heptanone]]
* 2-methyl butanoic acid
* 2-methylbutyl acetate
* [[alpha-terpineol]]
* [[amyl acetate]]
* [[amyl butyrate]]
* [[benzaldehyde]]
* [[benzyl acetate]]
* [[butyl acetate]]
* [[butyl butyrate]]
* butyl hexanoate
* [[butyric acid]]
* [[Caprylic acid|octanoic acid]]
* decyl acetate
* decyl butyrate
* [[d-limonene]]
* ethyl 2-methylbutanoate
* ethyl 3-methylbutanoate
* [[ethyl acetate]]
* [[ethyl benzoate]]
* [[ethyl butyrate]]
* [[ethyl decanoate]]
* [[ethyl hexanoate]]
* [[ethyl octanoate]]
* [[ethyl pentanoate]]
* [[Ethyl propionate|ethyl propanoate]]
* ethyl-2-hexenoate
* [[farnesene|α-farnesene]]
* [[farnesene|β-farnesene]]
* [[furaneol]]
* [[gamma-Decalactone|γ-decalactone]]<ref name=Goodyear/><ref name=Negri/>
* γ-dodecalactone
* [[heptanoic acid]]
* [[hexanal|''n''-hexanal]]
* [[hexanoic acid]]
* [[hexyl acetate]]
* [[isoamyl acetate]]
* isoamyl hexanoate
* [[isopropyl acetate]]
* isopropyl butanoate
* isopropyl hexanoate
* [[linalool]]
* mesifurane
* [[methyl anthranilate]]<ref name=Goodyear/><ref name=Negri/>
* [[methyl butyrate]]
* [[methyl hexanoate]]
* methyl isovalerate
* methyl octanoate
* [[methyl pentanoate]]
* [[Methyl propionate|methyl propanoate]]
* [[Nerolidol|(''E'')-nerolidol]]
* [[nonanal]]
* [[nonanoic acid]]
* ocimenol
* [[octyl acetate]]
* octyl butyrate
* octyl hexanoate
* octyl isovalerate
* propyl butyrate
* [[propyl hexanoate]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jouquand|first1=Celine|first2= Craig|last2=Chandler | first3=Anne | last3=Plotto |first4=Kevin |last4=Goodner|title=A Sensory and Chemical Analysis of Fresh Strawberries Over Harvest Dates and Seasons Reveals Factors that Affect Eating Quality|journal=J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci.|year=2008|volume=133|issue=6|pages=859–67|url=http://journal.ashspublications.org/content/133/6/859.full.pdf|doi=10.21273/JASHS.133.6.859|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Div col end}}


As strawberry flavor and [[fragrance]] are characteristics that may appeal to consumers,<ref name="Goodyear">{{cite magazine |author1=Dana Goodyear |title=How Driscoll's reinvented the strawberry |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/08/21/how-driscolls-reinvented-the-strawberry |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=26 June 2019 |date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="Negri">{{cite journal | last1=Negri | first1=Alfredo S. | last2=Allegra | first2=Domenico | last3=Simoni | first3=Laura | last4=Rusconi | first4=Fabio | last5=Tonelli | first5=Chiara | last6=Espen | first6=Luca | last7=Galbiati | first7=Massimo | title=Comparative analysis of fruit aroma patterns in the domesticated wild strawberries ''Profumata di Tortona'' (''F. moschata'') and ''Regina delle Valli'' (''F. vesca'') | journal=Frontiers in Plant Science | volume=6 | date=11 February 2015 | issn=1664-462X | doi=10.3389/fpls.2015.00056 | page=56|pmid=25717332|pmc=4324068| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 17954736| year = 2007| last1 = Thompson| first1 = J. L.| title = Preferences for commercial strawberry drinkable yogurts among African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic consumers in the United States| journal = Journal of Dairy Science| volume = 90| issue = 11| pages = 4974–87| last2 = Lopetcharat| first2 = K| last3 = Drake| first3 = M. A.| doi = 10.3168/jds.2007-0313| doi-access = free}}</ref> they are used widely in a variety of manufacturing, including foods, beverages, [[confection]]s, perfumes and cosmetics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://io9.com/5958880/how-flavor-chemists-make-your-food-so-addictively-good|title=How Flavor Chemists Make Your Food So Addictively Good|publisher=io9|date=8 November 2012|access-date=26 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Cassell |first=D|url=http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2014/flavor-trends-yogurt/|publisher=Food Processing|title=2014 Flavor Trends: Yogurt's Fruitful Union|date=2014|access-date=26 April 2014}}</ref>
Garden strawberries contain diverse [[phytochemical]]s, including the [[protein dimer|dimeric]] [[ellagitannin]] agrimoniin, which is an isomer of [[sanguiin H-6]].<ref name="Lipinska 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Lipińska |first1=Lidia |last2=Klewicka |first2=Elżbieta |last3=Sójka |first3=Michał |title=The structure, occurrence and biological activity of ellagitannins: a general review |journal=Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia Alimentaria |publisher=Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Poznaniu (Poznan University of Life Sciences) |volume=13 |issue=3 |date=30 September 2014 |doi=10.17306/j.afs.2014.3.7 |doi-access=free |pages=289–299|pmid=24887944 }}</ref><ref name="Vrhovsek 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Vrhovsek |first1=U. |last2=Guella |first2=G. |last3=Gasperotti |first3=M. |last4=Pojer |first4=E. |last5=Zancato |first5=M. |last6=Mattivi |first6=F. |doi=10.1021/jf2052256 |title=Clarifying the Identity of the Main Ellagitannin in the Fruit of the Strawberry, ''Fragaria vesca'' and ''Fragaria ananassa'' Duch |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=60 |issue=10 |pages=2507–2516 |year=2012 |pmid=22339338|bibcode=2012JAFC...60.2507V }}</ref> Other polyphenols present include [[flavonoid]]s, such as [[anthocyanin]]s, [[flavanol]]s, [[flavonol]]s and [[phenolic acid]]s, such as [[hydroxybenzoic acid]] and [[hydroxycinnamic acid]].<ref name="Giampieri2012">{{cite journal |last1=Giampieri |first1=Francesca |last2=Tulipani |first2=Sara |last3=Alvarez-Suarez |first3=Josè M. |last4=Quiles |first4=Josè L. |last5=Mezzetti |first5=Bruno |last6=Battino |first6=Maurizio |title=The Strawberry: Composition, Nutritional Quality, and Impact on Human Health |journal=Nutrition |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.nut.2011.08.009 |pages=9–19|pmid=22153122 }}</ref> Although achenes comprise only about 1% of the total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of all polyphenols in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include [[ellagic acid]], ellagic acid [[glycoside]]s, and ellagitannins.<ref name="Aaby 2005">{{cite journal |pmid=15884835 |last1=Aaby |first1=K. |last2=Skrede |first2=G. |last3=Wrolstad |first3=R.E. |title=Phenolic composition and antioxidant activities in flesh and achenes of strawberries (''Fragaria ananassa'') |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |year=2005 |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=4032–4040 |doi=10.1021/jf048001o|bibcode=2005JAFC...53.4032A }}</ref>


=== Genetics ===
[[Pelargonidin-3-glucoside]] is the major [[anthocyanin]] pigment in strawberries, giving them their red colour, with [[cyanidin-3-glucoside]] in smaller amounts.<!--<ref name="Fossen 2004"/>--> Strawberries also contain purple minor pigments, such as dimeric anthocyanins.<ref name="Fossen 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Fossen |first1=Torgils |last2=Rayyan |first2=Saleh |last3=Andersen |first3=Øyvind M. |title=Dimeric anthocyanins from strawberry (''Fragaria ananassa'') consisting of pelargonidin 3-glucoside covalently linked to four flavan-3-ols |year=2004 |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=1421–1428 |doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.05.003 |pmid=15231416 |bibcode=2004PChem..65.1421F}}</ref>
Modern strawberries are [[octaploid|octoploid]] (8 sets of [[chromosome]]s).<ref>{{cite journal
| pmid = 24282021
| year = 2014
| last1 = Hirakawa
| first1 = H
| title = Dissection of the octoploid strawberry genome by deep sequencing of the genomes of fragaria species
| journal = DNA Research
| volume = 21
| issue = 2
| pages = 169–81
| last2 = Shirasawa
| first2 = K
| last3 = Kosugi
| first3 = S
| last4 = Tashiro
| first4 = K
| last5 = Nakayama
| first5 = S
| last6 = Yamada
| first6 = M
| last7 = Kohara
| first7 = M
| last8 = Watanabe
| first8 = A
| last9 = Kishida
| first9 = Y
| last10 = Fujishiro
| first10 = T
| last11 = Tsuruoka
| first11 = H
| last12 = Minami
| first12 = C
| last13 = Sasamoto
| first13 = S
| last14 = Kato
| first14 = M
| last15 = Nanri
| first15 = K
| last16 = Komaki
| first16 = A
| last17 = Yanagi
| first17 = T
| last18 = Guoxin
| first18 = Q
| last19 = Maeda
| first19 = F
| last20 = Ishikawa
| first20 = M
| last21 = Kuhara
| first21 = S
| last22 = Sato
| first22 = S
| last23 = Tabata
| first23 = S
| last24 = Isobe
| first24 = S. N.
| doi = 10.1093/dnares/dst049
| pmc = 3989489
}}</ref> The [[genome]] sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Edger|first1=Patrick P.|last2=Poorten|first2=Thomas J.|last3=VanBuren|first3=Robert|last4=Hardigan|first4=Michael A.|last5=Colle|first5=Marivi|last6=McKain|first6=Michael R.|last7=Smith|first7=Ronald D.|last8=Teresi|first8=Scott J.|last9=Nelson|first9=Andrew D. L.|last10=Wai|first10=Ching Man|last11=Alger|first11=Elizabeth I.|date=March 2019|title=Origin and evolution of the octoploid strawberry genome|journal=Nature Genetics|language=en|volume=51|issue=3|pages=541–547|doi=10.1038/s41588-019-0356-4|pmid=30804557|pmc=6882729|issn=1546-1718|doi-access=free}}</ref>


== Toxicity ==
=== Flavour and fragrance ===
=== Allergy ===


Some people experience an [[anaphylactoid reaction]] to eating strawberries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpmc.org/advanced/pediatrics/patients/topics/food-allergies.html|title=Children and food allergies|publisher=California Pacific Medical Center|date=2013|access-date=27 April 2014}}</ref> The most common form of this reaction is [[oral allergy syndrome]], but symptoms may also mimic [[hay fever]] or include [[dermatitis]] or [[hives]], and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 19940506| year = 2010| last1 = Patiwael| first1 = J. A.| title = Occupational allergy in strawberry greenhouse workers| journal = International Archives of Allergy and Immunology| volume = 152| issue = 1| pages = 58–65| last2 = Vullings| first2 = L. G.| last3 = De Jong| first3 = N. W.| last4 = Van Toorenenbergen| first4 = A. W.| last5 = Gerth Van Wijk| first5 = R| last6 = De Groot| first6 = H| doi = 10.1159/000260084| url = http://repub.eur.nl/pub/28314| hdl = 1765/28314| s2cid = 31952236| hdl-access = free}}</ref> [[Proteomic]] studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1).<ref name="Munoz">{{cite journal | pmid = 19969523| year = 2010| last1 = Muñoz| first1 = C| title = The strawberry fruit Fra a allergen functions in flavonoid biosynthesis| journal = Molecular Plant| volume = 3| issue = 1| pages = 113–24| last2 = Hoffmann| first2 = T| last3 = Escobar| first3 = N. M.| last4 = Ludemann| first4 = F| last5 = Botella| first5 = M. A.| last6 = Valpuesta| first6 = V| last7 = Schwab| first7 = W| doi = 10.1093/mp/ssp087| doi-access = free}}</ref> [[Homology (biology)|Homologous]] proteins are found in [[birch]] [[pollen]] and apple, suggesting that people may develop [[cross-reactivity]] to all three species.
[[File:Furaneol.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.5|[[Furaneol]] contributes to the fragrance of strawberries.]]


White-fruited strawberry [[cultivar]]s, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for strawberry allergy sufferers. Since they lack a protein necessary for normal ripening by anthocyanin synthesis of red pigments, they do not turn the mature berries of other cultivars red.<ref name=Munoz /> They ripen but remain white, pale yellow or "golden", appearing like immature berries; this also has the advantage of making them less attractive to birds. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hjernø K, Alm R, Canbäck B, Matthiesen R, Trajkovski K, Björk L, Roepstorff P, Emanuelsson C |title=Down-regulation of the strawberry Bet v 1-homologous allergen in concert with the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway in colorless strawberry mutant |journal=Proteomics |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=1574–87 |year=2006|pmid=16447153 | doi=10.1002/pmic.200500469|s2cid=29423198 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Idea TV GmbH |url=http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/medicine_health/report-45626.html |title=The chemistry of strawberry allergy (includes 'Sofar' reference) |publisher=Innovations-report.com |date=21 June 2005 |access-date=9 March 2013}}</ref>
Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavour are important attributes of strawberries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colquhoun |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Levin |first2=Laura A. |last3=Moskowitz |first3=Howard R. |last4=Whitaker |first4=Vance M. |last5=Clark |first5=David G. |last6=Folta |first6=Kevin M. |title=Framing the perfect strawberry: An exercise in consumer-assisted selection of fruit crops |journal=Journal of Berry Research |publisher=IOS Press |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=2012 |doi=10.3233/jbr-2011-027 |doi-access=free |pages=45–61|bibcode=2012JBerR...2...45C }}</ref> In [[plant breeding]] and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and [[essential oils|volatile]] compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of the ripe fruit.<ref name="Schwieterman 2014">{{cite journal |pmid=24523895 |year=2014 |last1=Schwieterman |first1=M.L. |title=Strawberry flavor: Diverse chemical compositions, a seasonal influence, and effects on sensory perception |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=2 |article-number=e88446 |last2=Colquhoun |first2=T.A. |last3=Jaworski |first3=E.A. |last4=Bartoshuk |first4=L.M. |last5=Gilbert |first5=J.L. |last6=Tieman |first6=D.M. |last7=Odabasi |first7=A.Z. |last8=Moskowitz |first8=H.R. |last9=Folta |first9=K.M. |author-link9=Kevin Folta |last10=Klee |first10=H.J. |last11=Sims |first11=C.A. |last12=Whitaker |first12=V.M. |last13=Clark |first13=D.G. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0088446 |pmc=3921181 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...988446S |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Ester]]s, [[terpene]]s, and [[furan]]s are the chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavour, sweetness and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to desirable flavour and fragrance.<ref name="Schwieterman 2014"/><ref name=Goodyear/><ref name="Negri 2015"/> In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds [[methyl anthranilate]] and [[gamma-decalactone]], prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics.<ref name=Goodyear/><ref name="Negri 2015"/> As strawberry flavour and [[fragrance]] appeal to consumers,<ref name="Goodyear">{{cite magazine |first1=Dana |last1=Goodyear |title=How Driscoll's reinvented the strawberry |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/08/21/how-driscolls-reinvented-the-strawberry |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=26 June 2019 |date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="Negri 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Negri |first1=Alfredo S. |last2=Allegra |first2=Domenico |last3=Simoni |first3=Laura |last4=Rusconi |first4=Fabio |last5=Tonelli |first5=Chiara |last6=Espen |first6=Luca |last7=Galbiati |first7=Massimo |title=Comparative analysis of fruit aroma patterns in the domesticated wild strawberries ''Profumata di Tortona'' (''F. moschata'') and ''Regina delle Valli'' (''F. vesca'') |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=6 |date=11 February 2015 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2015.00056 |page=56 |pmid=25717332 |pmc=4324068 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17954736 |year=2007 |last1=Thompson |first1=J.L. |title=Preferences for commercial strawberry drinkable yogurts among African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic consumers in the United States |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |volume=90 |issue=11 |pages=4974–87 |last2=Lopetcharat |first2=K. |last3=Drake |first3=M.A. |doi=10.3168/jds.2007-0313 |doi-access=free}}</ref> they are used widely in manufacturing, including foods, beverages, perfumes and cosmetics.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dvorsky |first=George |url=http://io9.com/5958880/how-flavor-chemists-make-your-food-so-addictively-good |title=How Flavor Chemists Make Your Food So Addictively Good |publisher=io9 |date=8 November 2012 |access-date=26 April 2014 |archive-date=11 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111044508/http://io9.com/5958880/how-flavor-chemists-make-your-food-so-addictively-good }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Cassell |first=Deborah |url=http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2014/flavor-trends-yogurt/ |publisher=Food Processing |title=2014 Flavor Trends: Yogurt's Fruitful Union |year=2014 |access-date=26 April 2014}}</ref>


== Varieties ==
=== Allergy ===


[[File:Strawberry flower.jpg|thumb|Strawberry flower]]
Some people experience an [[anaphylactoid reaction]] to eating strawberries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpmc.org/advanced/pediatrics/patients/topics/food-allergies.html |title=Children and food allergies |publisher=California Pacific Medical Center |year=2013 |access-date=27 April 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=5 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105105206/http://www.cpmc.org/advanced/pediatrics/patients/topics/food-allergies.html}}</ref> The most common form of this reaction is [[oral allergy syndrome]], but symptoms may also mimic [[hay fever]] or include [[dermatitis]] or [[hives]], and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19940506 |year=2010 |last1=Patiwael |first1=J.A. |last2=Vullings |first2=L.G. |last3=De Jong |first3=N.W. |last4=Van Toorenenbergen |first4=A. W. |last5=Gerth Van Wijk |first5=R. |last6=De Groot |first6=H. |title=Occupational allergy in strawberry greenhouse workers |journal=International Archives of Allergy and Immunology |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=58–65 |doi=10.1159/000260084 |url=http://repub.eur.nl/pub/28314 |hdl=1765/28314 |s2cid=31952236 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Proteomic]] studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1).<!--<ref name="Munoz"/>--> White-fruited strawberry [[cultivar]]s, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for people allergic to strawberries.<ref name=Munoz>{{cite journal |pmid=19969523 |year=2010 |last1=Muñoz |first1=C. |title=The strawberry fruit Fra a allergen functions in flavonoid biosynthesis |journal=Molecular Plant |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=113–124 |last2=Hoffmann |first2=T. |last3=Escobar |first3=N.M. |last4=Ludemann |first4=F. |last5=Botella |first5=M.A. |last6=Valpuesta |first6=V. |last7=Schwab |first7=W. |doi=10.1093/mp/ssp087 |doi-access=free}}</ref> They ripen but remain pale, appearing like immature berries. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hjernø |first1=Karin |last2=Alm |first2=Rikard |last3=Canbäck |first3=Björn |last4=Matthiesen |first4=Rune |last5=Trajkovski |first5=Karin |last6=Björk |first6=Lars |last7=Roepstorff |first7=Peter |last8=Emanuelsson |first8=Cecilia|title=Down-regulation of the strawberry Bet v 1-homologous allergen in concert with the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway in colorless strawberry mutant |journal=Proteomics |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |volume=6 |issue=5 |doi=10.1002/pmic.200500469 |doi-access=free |pages=1574–1587|pmid=16447153 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/medicine_health/report-45626.html |title=The chemistry of strawberry allergy |publisher=Innovations Report |date=21 June 2005 |access-date=9 March 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) close-up.jpg|thumb|Achenes (seeds)]]
[[File:Strawberry growth (Video).webm|thumb|Strawberry growth (video)]]
[[File:Секрет пыльцы.tif|thumb|Pollen grains of strawberry]]


Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit.<ref name="missouri1" /><ref name="sagers">{{cite web |last=Sagers |first=Larry A. |url=http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420111502/http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html|archive-date=20 April 2007|title=Proper Cultivation Yields Strawberry Fields Forever |publisher=Deseret News|date=15 April 1992}}</ref> Traditionally, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "ever-bearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season.<ref name="sagers" /> One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days.<ref name=":0" />
== Varieties ==


Research published in 2001 showed that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These refer to the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of [[photoperiod]] that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hokanson |first1=S. C. |last2=Maas |first2=J. L. |year=2001|title= Strawberry biotechnology|journal=Plant Breeding Reviews|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shbmDigtiqkC&pg=PA139|isbn=978-0-471-41847-4|pages=139–79}}</ref>
{{further|Breeding of strawberries}}
Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, color, flavor, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant.<ref name="missouri1">{{cite web |url=http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6135 |title=G6135 Home Fruit Production: Strawberry Cultivars and Their Culture|publisher=University of Missouri}}</ref> On average, a strawberry has about 200 seeds on its external membrane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://strawberryplants.org/2010/05/strawberry-seeds/|title=Strawberry Seeds|website=Strawberry Plants|access-date=2 August 2016}}</ref> Some vary in foliage, and some vary materially in the relative development of their sexual organs. In most cases, the flowers appear [[hermaphroditic]] in structure, but function as either male or female.<ref>Fletcher, Stevenson Whitcomb (1917) ''Strawberry Growing'', The Macmillan Co., New York, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uQA2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127 p. 127].</ref>
{{main list|List of strawberry cultivars}}


== Uses ==
Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit.<ref name="sagers">{{cite web |last=Sagers |first=Larry A. |url=http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420111502/http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html |archive-date=20 April 2007 |title=Proper Cultivation Yields Strawberry Fields Forever |work=[[Deseret News]] |date=15 April 1992}}</ref> Strawberries occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These describe the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of [[photoperiod]] that induces flower formation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hokanson |first1=S.C. |last2=Maas |first2=J.L. |year=2001 |title=Strawberry biotechnology; In: Plant Breeding Reviews, Volume 21; chapter 4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shbmDigtiqkC&pg=PA139 |isbn=978-0-471-41847-4 |pages=139–179 |doi=10.1002/9780470650196.ch4 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons}}</ref>  Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.<ref name="missouri1"/> [[List of strawberry cultivars|Strawberry cultivars]] vary widely in attributes such as disease resistance, dessert and freezing quality, yield, and season of ripening.<ref name="missouri1">{{cite web |url=http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6135 |title=G6135 Home Fruit Production: Strawberry Cultivars and Their Culture |publisher=University of Missouri |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702100952/http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6135 }}</ref>
=== Culinary ===


[[File:Strawberries and cream Wimbledon 2014.jpg|thumb|left|Strawberries and cream]]
== Cultivation ==
In addition to being consumed fresh, strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or [[fruit preserves|preserves]],<ref name=Giampieri2013>{{cite journal |vauthors=Giampieri F, Alvarez-Suarez JM, Mazzoni L, Romandini S, Bompadre S, Diamanti J, Capocasa F, Mezzetti B, Quiles JL, Ferreiro MS, Tulipani S, Battino M |title=The potential impact of strawberry on human health|journal=Natural Product Research|volume=27|issue=4–5|pages=448–55|date=March 2013|pmid=22788743|doi=10.1080/14786419.2012.706294|s2cid=205838719}}</ref> as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars.<ref name="StrawberryOatmealBarsRecipeFoodNetwork">{{cite web |last=Drummond |first=Ree | url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/ree-drummond/strawberry-oatmeal-bars-recipe/index.html | title=Strawberry Oatmeal Bars | year=2011 | publisher=Food Network | access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> Strawberries and strawberry flavorings are a popular addition to dairy products, such as [[Flavored milk|strawberry milk]], [[strawberry ice cream]], [[Milkshakes|strawberry milkshakes]]/[[smoothies]] and [[Yogurt|strawberry yogurts]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


In the United Kingdom, "strawberries and cream" is a popular dessert consumed at the [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] tennis tournament.<ref name="Wimbledon"/> Strawberries and cream is also a staple snack in Mexico, usually available at ice cream parlors. In Sweden, strawberries are a traditional dessert served on [[Midsummer]]'s Eve. Depending on area, [[strawberry pie]], [[Rhubarb pie|strawberry rhubarb pie]], or strawberry [[shortcake]] are also common. In [[Greece]], strawberries may be sprinkled with sugar and then dipped in [[Metaxa]], a [[brandy]], and served as a dessert. In Italy, strawberries are used for various desserts and as a common flavoring for [[gelato]] (gelato alla fragola).{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}
Fresh strawberries are used as [[cocktail garnish]]es to add flavor and texture to a drink.
[[Polyphenol]] extracted from strawberries have been used in [[Kanazawa]], Japan, to create [[melting]]-resistant [[ice pop|popsicle]]s.<ref name="Huang 2017 v148">{{cite web | last=Huang | first=Echo | title=Japan has engineered a popsicle that "doesn't melt" | website=Quartz | date=August 2, 2017 | url=https://qz.com/1044255/kanazawa-ice-japan-has-engineered-a-popsicle-that-doesnt-melt-and-its-available-in-stores-in-osaka-tokyo-kanazawa | access-date=August 14, 2023}}</ref>
== Cultivation ==
=== Production ===
=== Production ===
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
{{Table alignment}}
|+ Strawberry production – 2021<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Strawberry production in 2021, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2023|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database ([[FAOSTAT]])|access-date=16 April 2023}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"  
|+ Strawberry production<br />{{small|2023, millions of tonnes}}<br/>
|-
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; | Country
|{{CHN}}||4.21
!  style="background:#ddf; | Millions of [[tonne]]s
|-
|-
| {{CHN}} || 3.38
|{{USA}}||1.25
|-
|-
| {{USA}} || 1.21
|{{EGY}}||0.73
|-
|-
| {{TUR}} || 0.67
|{{TUR}}||0.68
|-
|-
| {{MEX}} || 0.54
|{{MEX}}||0.64
|-
|-
| {{EGY}} || 0.47
|{{ESP}}||0.33
|-
|-
| {{ESP}} || 0.36
|'''World'''||'''10.49'''
|-
|-
| '''World''' || '''9.18'''
|colspan=2 style=text-align:center; |{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]]<br /> of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Strawberry production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=21 March 2025}}</ref>
|}
|}


In 2021, world production of strawberries was 9.2&nbsp;million [[tonne]]s, led by China with 37% of the total and the United States and [[Turkey]] as other significant producers (table).
In 2023, world production of strawberries was 10.5{{nbsp}}million [[tonne]]s, led by China with 40% of the total; the United States was the main secondary producer.<ref name="faostat"/>
 
Due to the relatively fragile nature of the strawberry, approximately 35 percent of the $2.2 billion United States crop was spoiled in 2020. This led to an [[Idaho]] company planning to launch gene-edited strawberries in the near future in an effort to make them more durable. In the U.S. it costs growers around $35,000 per acre to plant and $35,000 per acre to harvest strawberries now, and more durable berries might reduce the rate of spoilage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ridler |first=Keith |url=https://apnews.com/article/science-technology-business-lifestyle-california-485224678c8376fbc3c9d852417fb2f7 |title=US companies announce plans for gene-edited strawberries |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=2021-10-28 |access-date=2021-10-29 }}</ref>
 
For purposes of commercial production, plants are propagated from [[stolon|runners]] and, in general, distributed as either bare root plants or plugs. Cultivation follows one of two general models—annual [[plasticulture]],<ref name="osu-2126">{{cite web |url=http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~news/story.php?id=2126 |title=Strawberry Plasticulture Offers Sweet Rewards |publisher=Ag.ohio-state.edu |date=28 June 2002 |access-date=5 December 2009}}</ref> or a perennial system of matted rows or mounds.<ref name="nevfc_production">{{cite web|url=http://www.newenglandvfc.org/pdf_proceedings/StawberryProduction.pdf |title=Strawberry Production Basics: Matted Row |publisher= newenglandvfc.org}}</ref> Greenhouses produce a small amount of strawberries during the off season.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hort.cornell.edu/pritts/grnhouse.html |title=Pritts Greenhouse Berried Treasures |publisher=Hort.cornell.edu}}</ref>


The bulk of modern commercial production uses the plasticulture system. In this method, raised beds are formed each year, [[fumigation|fumigated]], and covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants, usually obtained from northern nurseries, are planted through holes punched in this covering, and irrigation tubing is run underneath. Runners are removed from the plants as they appear, to encourage the plants to put most of their energy into fruit development. After harvesting, the plastic is removed and the plants are plowed into the ground.<ref name="osu-2126" /><ref name="noble">{{cite web |url=http://www.noble.org/Ag/Horticulture/StrawberryFields/index.html |title=Strawberry Fields Forever |publisher=Noble.org }}</ref> Strawberry plants produce more and better fruit when they are young. After a year or two, they decline. Replacing them annually improves yields and enables denser planting.<ref name="osu-2126" /><ref name="noble" /> However, this necessitates a longer growing season, for the plants to establish themselves. It also costs more to annually purchase plants, form new mounds, and cover them with (new) plastic.<ref name="noble" />
For commercial production, plants can be propagated from bare root plants or plugs. One method of cultivation uses annual [[plasticulture]];<ref name="osu-2126">{{cite web |url=http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~news/story.php?id=2126 |title=Strawberry Plasticulture Offers Sweet Rewards |publisher=[[Ohio State University]] |date=28 June 2002 |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119052744/http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/%7Enews/story.php?id=2126 }}</ref> another is a perennial system of matted rows or mounds which has been used in cold growing regions for many years.<ref name="nevfc_production">{{cite web |url=http://www.newenglandvfc.org/pdf_proceedings/StawberryProduction.pdf |title=Strawberry Production Basics: Matted Row |publisher=newenglandvfc.org |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=3 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403194807/http://www.newenglandvfc.org//pdf_proceedings/stawberryproduction.pdf }}</ref> In some areas, greenhouses are used; in principle they can provide strawberries during the off season for field crops.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hort.cornell.edu/pritts/grnhouse.html |title=Pritts Greenhouse Berried Treasures |publisher=[[Cornell University]]}}</ref>


The other major method retains plants for multiple years. This is most common in colder climates. The plants are grown in rows or on mounds.<ref name="osu-2126" /><ref name="nevfc_production" /> This method requires lower investment and lower maintenance, overall.<ref name="nevfc_production" /> Yields are typically lower than in plasticulture.<ref name="nevfc_production" />
In the plasticulture system, raised beds are covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants are planted through holes punched in this covering. Irrigation tubing can be run underneath if necessary.<ref name="osu-2126" /><ref name="noble">{{cite web |url=http://www.noble.org/Ag/Horticulture/StrawberryFields/index.html |title=Strawberry Fields Forever |publisher=Noble.org |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=26 November 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126182638/http://www.noble.org/Ag/Horticulture/StrawberryFields/index.html }}</ref>


Another method uses a [[Uses of compost#Erosion control|compost sock]]. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more [[flavonoid]]s, [[anthocyanin]]s, [[fructose]], [[glucose]], [[sucrose]], [[malic acid]], and [[citric acid]] than fruit produced in the black [[plastic mulch]] or matted row systems.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wang SW. |author2=Millner P. |doi=10.1021/jf9020575|pmid=20560628 |title=Effect of Different Cultural Systems on Antioxidant Capacity, Phenolic Content, and Fruit Quality of Strawberries (''Fragaria × aranassa'' Duch.)|journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]]|volume=57|issue=20|pages=9651–57|year=2009}}</ref> Similar results in an earlier study conducted by [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang SY, Lin HS |title=Compost as a soil supplement increases the level of antioxidant compounds and oxygen radical absorbance capacity in strawberries|journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]]|volume=51|issue=23|pages=6844–50|date=November 2003|pmid=14582984|doi=10.1021/jf030196x}}</ref>
Another method uses a [[Uses of compost#Erosion control|compost sock]]. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more [[flavonoid]]s, [[anthocyanin]]s, [[fructose]], [[glucose]], [[sucrose]], [[malic acid]], and [[citric acid]] than fruit produced in the black [[plastic mulch]] or matted row systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=S.W. |last2=Millner |first2=P. |doi=10.1021/jf9020575 |pmid=20560628 |title=Effect of Different Cultural Systems on Antioxidant Capacity, Phenolic Content, and Fruit Quality of Strawberries (''Fragaria'' × ''aranassa'' Duch.) |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=9651–57 |year=2009|bibcode=2009JAFC...57.9651W }}</ref> An earlier study by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] confirms the value of compost.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=S.Y. |last2=Lin |first2=H.S. |title=Compost as a soil supplement increases the level of antioxidant compounds and oxygen radical absorbance capacity in strawberries |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |volume=51 |issue=23 |pages=6844–6850 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14582984 |doi=10.1021/jf030196x|bibcode=2003JAFC...51.6844W }}</ref>


Strawberries may also be propagated by seed, though this is primarily a hobby activity, and is not widely practiced commercially. A few seed-propagated cultivars have been developed for home use, and research into growing from seed commercially is ongoing.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = D. | last2 = Goodall | first2 = A. | last3 = Reeves | first3 = J. | doi = 10.1007/BF00022647 | title = An improved technique for the germination of strawberry seeds | journal = Euphytica | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 362 | year = 1973 | s2cid = 26544785 }}</ref> Seeds ([[achene]]s) are acquired either via commercial seed suppliers, or by collecting and saving them from the fruit.
Strawberries may be propagated by seed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=D. |last2=Goodall |first2=A. |last3=Reeves |first3=J. |title=An improved technique for the germination of strawberry seeds |journal=Euphytica |volume=22 |issue=2 |page=362 |year=1973 |doi=10.1007/BF00022647 |bibcode=1973Euphy..22..362W |s2cid=26544785}}</ref> Strawberries can be grown indoors in pots.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hessayon |first=D.G. |title=The House Plant Expert |date=1996 |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-90350535-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/newhouseplantexp00hess |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/newhouseplantexp00hess/page/146 146]}}</ref> Strawberries will not grow indoors in winter though an experiment using a combination of blue and red [[LED lamp]]s shows that this could be achieved in principle.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/strawberries-in-winter-welcome-to-franken-season-9032888.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/strawberries-in-winter-welcome-to-franken-season-9032888.html |archive-date=25 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Strawberries in winter? Welcome to franken-season |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> In [[Florida]], winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |last=Stark |first=Michelle |url=https://www.tampabay.com/things-to-do/food/cooking/10-facts-about-florida-strawberries-that-might-surprise-you/2268248/ |title=10 facts about Florida strawberries that might surprise you |newspaper=[[Tampa Bay Times]] |date=7 March 2016 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref>
 
Strawberries can also be grown indoors in strawberry pots.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/newhouseplantexp00hess|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/newhouseplantexp00hess/page/146 146]|quote= Strawberries grown indoors in strawberry pots.|title=The House Plant Expert|last=Hessayon|first=D. G.|date=1996|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=9780903505352|language=en}}</ref> Strawberries will not grow indoors in winter unless aided by a combination of blue and red [[LED lamp|LED lights]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/strawberries-in-winter-welcome-to-franken-season-9032888.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/strawberries-in-winter-welcome-to-franken-season-9032888.html |archive-date=25 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Strawberries in winter? Welcome to franken-season|work=The Independent|access-date=7 June 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref> In southern lands, such as [[Florida]], winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=http://www.tampabay.com/things-to-do/food/cooking/10-facts-about-florida-strawberries-that-might-surprise-you/2268248|title=10 facts about Florida strawberries that might surprise you|date=7 March 2016|access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref>
 
The Kashubian strawberry (''Truskawka kaszubska'' or ''Kaszëbskô malëna'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2009:089:0004:0008:EN:PDF |title=COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 510/2006 'TRUSKAWKA KASZUBSKA' or 'KASZËBSKÔ MALËNA' EC No: PL-PGI-0005-0593-19.03.2007|publisher=European Union |date=18 April 2009}}</ref> is the first Polish fruit to be given commercial protection under EU law. It is produced in [[Kartuzy County|Kartuzy]], [[Kościerzyna County|Kościerzyna]] and [[Bytów County|Bytów]] counties and in the municipalities of [[Przywidz, Pomeranian Voivodeship|Przywidz]], [[Wejherowo]], [[Luzino]], [[Szemud]], [[Linia, Pomeranian Voivodeship|Linia]], [[Łęczyce]] and [[Cewice]] in [[Kashubia]]. Only the following varieties may be sold as ''kaszëbskô malëna'': Senga Sengana, Elsanta, Honeoye that have been graded as Extra or Class I.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}


<gallery mode="packed">
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Dülmen, Kirchspiel, Erdbeerfeld -- 2015 -- 6492-6.jpg|Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
File:Dülmen, Kirchspiel, Erdbeerfeld -- 2015 -- 6492-6.jpg|Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
File:Plasticulture.jpg|alt=A large strawberry field with plastic covering the earth around the strawberry plants.|A field using the plasticulture method
File:Plasticulture.jpg|A field using the plasticulture method
File:Picker on a strawberry field in Quebec, Canada.jpg|Strawberries are usually picked and placed in shallow boxes in the field.
</gallery>
</gallery>


=== Manuring and harvesting ===
=== Domestic cultivation ===
Most strawberry plants are now fed with [[artificial fertilizer]]s, both before and after harvesting, and often before planting in [[plasticulture]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/document_hs370 |title=HS1116/HS370: Nitrogen Fertilization of Strawberry Cultivars: Is Preplant Starter Fertilizer Needed? |publisher=Edis.ifas.ufl.edu |date=6 August 2007 |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-date=21 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121231127/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/document_hs370 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


To maintain top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day. The berries are picked with the caps still attached and with at least half an inch of stem left. Strawberries need to remain on the plant to fully ripen because they do not continue to ripen after being picked. Rotted and overripe berries are removed to minimize insect and disease problems. The berries do not get washed until just before consumption.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bordelon|first=Bruce|title=Growing Strawberries|url=https://www.purdue.edu/hla/sites/yardandgarden/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/10/HO-46.pdf|publisher=Purdue University}}</ref>
Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous [[cultivar]]s have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Klein |first=Carol |title=Grow your own fruit |year=2009 |publisher=[[Mitchell Beazley]] |isbn=978-1-84533-434-5 |page=224}}</ref> The following cultivars have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:
[[File:Picker on a strawberry field in Quebec, Canada.jpg|alt=A man carries a flat of strawberries in a field|thumb|Strawberries are usually picked and placed in shallow boxes in the field.]]


Soil test information and plant analysis results are used to determine fertility practices. Nitrogen fertilizer is needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilized for top yields. To provide more organic matter, a cover crop of wheat or rye is planted in the winter before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a pH from 5.5 to 6.5, so lime is usually not applied.<ref>{{cite web|title=Production Guide for Commercial Strawberries|url=http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM672D.pdf|publisher=Iowa State University}}</ref>
* 'Cambridge Favourite'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5802 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Cambridge Favourite' (F) strawberry 'Cambridge Favourite' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
* 'Hapil'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=6119 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Hapil' (F) strawberry 'Hapil' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
* 'Honeoye'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5892 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Honeoye' (F) strawberry 'Honeoye' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
* 'Pegasus'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=805 |title=Fragaria 'Pegasus' strawberry 'Pegasus' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
* 'Rhapsody'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5906 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Rhapsody' (F) strawberry 'Rhapsody' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
* 'Symphony'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5066 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Symphony' PBR (F) strawberry 'Symphony' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>


The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. The delicate strawberries are still harvested by hand.<ref name="umn-6237">{{cite web |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG6237.html |title=Commercial Postharvest Handling of Strawberries (''Fragaria'' spp.) |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708141909/http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG6237.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Grading and packing often occurs in the field, rather than in a processing facility.<ref name="umn-6237" /> In large operations, strawberries are cleaned by means of water streams and shaking conveyor belts.
=== Pests and diseases ===


=== Domestic cultivation ===
Over 200 species of [[Pest (organism)|pest]] arthropods attack strawberries.<ref name="strawmaster">{{cite web |url=http://www.virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu/StrawMaster.html |title=Insect Pests of Strawberries and Their Management |publisher=Virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu |date=3 May 2000 |access-date=5 December 2009}}</ref> These include [[moth]]s, [[Drosophilidae|fruit flies]], chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, [[mite]]s, and [[aphid]]s. Non-arthropod pests include slugs.<ref name="strawmaster" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm |title=Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook |first1=Sujaya |last1=Rao |first2= Stephen C. |last2=Welter |publisher=University of Minnesota |date=20 November 2009 |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626055601/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm |archive-date=26 June 2009}}</ref> Some are vectors of plant diseases; for instance, the strawberry aphid, ''[[Chaetosiphon fragaefolii]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cédola |first1=C. |last2=Grecob |first2=N. |title=Presence of the aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, on strawberry in Argentina |journal=Journal of Insect Science |year=2010 |pmid=20569141 |pmc=3014655 |volume=10 |issue=9 |page=9 |doi=10.1673/031.010.0901}}</ref> can carry the [[strawberry mild yellow-edge virus]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Potexvirus fragariae(SMYEV0) |url=https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/SMYEV0/vectors |publisher=[[European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization]] |access-date=23 October 2024}}</ref>
[[File:Organic Gardener Holding a Large June Bearing Strawberry.jpg|thumb|upright|Organic gardener holding a large June-bearing strawberry]]


Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous [[cultivar]]s have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Klein|first=Carol|title=Grow your own fruit|year=2009|publisher=Mitchell Beazley|location=UK|isbn=978-1-84533-434-5|page=224}}</ref> The following cultivars have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:
Strawberry plants are subject to many diseases, especially when subjected to stress. The leaves may be infected by [[powdery mildew]], [[leaf spot]] (caused by the fungus ''Sphaerella fragariae''), [[leaf blight]] (caused by the fungus ''[[Phomopsis obscurans]]''), and by a variety of [[slime mold]]s. The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, [[verticillium]] wilt, [[Thielaviopsis|black root rot]], and [[nematode]]s. The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold (''[[Botrytis cinerea]]''), [[rhizopus]] rot, and leather rot.<ref name="umn-1148">{{cite web |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html |title=Strawberry Diseases |publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323074306/http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html |archive-date=23 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/yard-garden/strawberry-diseases-2-931/ |title=Strawberry Diseases |publisher=[[Colorado State University]] |access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref>
{|
|- valign=top
|
* 'Cambridge Favourite'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5802 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Cambridge Favourite' (F) strawberry 'Cambridge Favourite' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023 }}</ref>
* 'Hapil'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=6119 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Hapil' (F) strawberry 'Hapil' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023 }}</ref>
|
* 'Honeoye' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|n|i|ɔɪ}} {{respell|HUN|ee|oy}})<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5892 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Honeoye' (F) strawberry 'Honeoye' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023 }}</ref>
* 'Pegasus'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=805 |title=Fragaria 'Pegasus' strawberry 'Pegasus' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
|
* 'Rhapsody'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5906 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Rhapsody' (F) strawberry 'Rhapsody' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
* 'Symphony'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5066 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Symphony' PBR (F) strawberry 'Symphony' |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
|}


=== Marketing ===
=== Disease resistance and protection ===


[[File:Strawberries at Ljubljana Central Market.JPG|thumb|left|Fresh strawberries being sold in plastic containers]]
The {{visible anchor|AtNPR1|text=''NPR1'' gene from ''Arabidopsis thaliana''}}, ''[[AtNPR1]]'', confers ''A. thaliana''{{'}}s [[broad-spectrum resistance]] when [[transexpression|transexpressed]] in ''F. ananassa''. This includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot.<ref name="NPR-trans">{{cite journal |issue=1 |year=2020 |last1=Li |last5=Wang |volume=71 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]] |first1=Wei |last2=Deng |first2=Yiwen |last3=Ning |first3=Yuese |last4=He |first4=Zuhua |first5=Guo-Liang |title=Exploiting Broad-Spectrum Disease Resistance in Crops: From Molecular Dissection to Breeding |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-010720-022215 |pages=575–603 |pmid=32197052 |s2cid=214600762 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020AnRPB..71..575L}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Katchen Julliany P. |last2=Brunings |first2=Asha |last3=Peres |first3=Natalia A. |last4=Mou |first4=Zhonglin |last5=Folta |first5=Kevin M. |title=The Arabidopsis NPR1 gene confers broad-spectrum disease resistance in strawberry |journal=Transgenic Research |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=27 March 2015 |doi=10.1007/s11248-015-9869-5 |pages=693–704 |pmid=25812515}}</ref>


In the United States in 2017, the collective commercial production of strawberries, [[blueberry|blueberries]], [[raspberry|raspberries]], and [[blackberry|blackberries]] was a $6&nbsp;billion industry dominated by the California growing and marketing company [[Driscoll's]].<ref name=Goodyear/> In 2017, strawberries alone were a $3.5&nbsp;billion market of which 82% was for fresh fruit.<ref name="amrc">{{cite web |title=Strawberries |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/strawberries |publisher=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=26 June 2019 |date=1 April 2019}}</ref>
A 1997 study found that many [[wound volatiles]] were effective against gray mold (''B. cinerea''). Both [[Tribute (variety)|Tribute]] and [[Chandler (variety)|Chandler]] varieties benefited from the treatments, although the effects vary widely with substance and variety. Strawberry plants [[metabolism|metabolise]] these volatiles, more rapidly than do either [[blackberry]] or [[grape]].<ref name="Wound-Volatile">{{cite journal |year=2020 |issue=1 |volume=74 |pages=101–116 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Microbiology]] |last1=Inamdar |first1=Arati A. |last2=Morath |first2=Shannon |last3=Bennett |first3=Joan W. |title=Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds: More Than Just a Funky Smell? |doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-012420-080428 |pmid=32905756 |s2cid=221624018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |year=1997 |pages=4032–4037 |issue=10 |volume=45 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] (ACS) |first4=B. E. |first3=M. M. |first2=T. R. |first1=D. D. |last1=Archbold |last2=Hamilton-Kemp |last3=Barth |last4=Langlois |title=Identifying Natural Volatile Compounds That Control Gray Mold (''Botrytis cinerea'') during Postharvest Storage of Strawberry, Blackberry, and Grape |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |doi=10.1021/jf970332w |bibcode=1997JAFC...45.4032A |s2cid=84686620}}</ref>


To increase consumer demand in the 21st century, commercial producers of strawberries cultivated them mainly for favorable aroma characteristics similar to those of wild strawberries,<ref name=Negri/> in addition to having large size, heart-shape, glossy red exterior, firmness, and slow ripening for long [[shelf-life]] favorable to ship by [[ground transportation]] from farms to stores nationwide for consumption within two weeks of harvest.<ref name=Goodyear/> In US and Canadian [[grocery store]]s, fresh strawberries are typically sold in plastic [[clamshell (container)|clamshells]], and are among the top fresh produce items in grocery revenues.<ref name=Goodyear/> One marketing analysis identified strawberries and other berries as a source of "happiness" for consumers.<ref name=Goodyear/>
== Culinary use ==


=== Pests ===
{{see also|List of strawberry dishes}}


{{See also|List of Lepidoptera that feed on strawberry plants}}
Strawberries were eaten fresh with cream in the time of [[Thomas Wolsey]] in the court of King [[Henry VIII]].<ref name="Wimbledon">{{cite news |last=Driscoll-Woodford |first=Heather |title=Wimbledon's strawberries and cream has Tudor roots |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_8756000/8756132.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=9 June 2015}}</ref> Strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or [[fruit preserves|preserves]],<ref name=Giampieri2013>{{cite journal |last1=Giampieri |first1=Francesca |last2=Alvarez-Suarez |first2=Josè M. |last3=Mazzoni |first3=Luca |last4=Romandini |first4=Stefania |last5=Bompadre |first5=Stefano |last6=Diamanti |first6=Jacopo |last7=Capocasa |first7=Franco |last8=Mezzetti |first8=Bruno |last9=Quiles |first9=Josè L. |last10=Ferreiro |first10=Maria S. |last11=Tulipani |first11=Sara |last12=Battino |first12=Maurizio|title=The potential impact of strawberry on human health |journal=Natural Product Research |publisher=Informa UK |volume=27 |issue=4–5 |year=2013 |doi=10.1080/14786419.2012.706294 |pages=448–455|pmid=22788743 }}</ref> as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars.<ref name="StrawberryOatmealBarsRecipeFoodNetwork">{{cite web |last=Drummond |first=Ree |url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/ree-drummond/strawberry-oatmeal-bars-recipe/index.html |title=Strawberry Oatmeal Bars |year=2011 |publisher=Food Network |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, strawberries and cream is a popular dessert at the [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] tennis tournament.<ref name="Wimbledon"/> Desserts using strawberries include [[Pavlova (food)|pavlova]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Muster |first=Douglas |url=http://www.inmamaskitchen.com/FOOD_IS_ART/pavlova_howto.html |title=Contains Pavlova Toppings |publisher=It's Mama's Kitchen |access-date=16 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205162158/http://inmamaskitchen.com/FOOD_IS_ART/pavlova_howto.html |archive-date=2010-12-05}}</ref> ''[[fraisier]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Boyle |first=T. |title=Flavorful: 150 Irresistible Desserts in All-time Favorite Flavors |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-118-52355-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Wo4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |access-date=1 November 2015 |page=102}}</ref><ref name="Greenspan 2014 p. 103">{{cite book |last=Greenspan |first=D. |title=Baking Chez Moi: Recipes from My Paris Home to Your Home Anywhere |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-547-70832-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrzaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |access-date=1 November 2015 |page=103}}</ref> and strawberry [[shortcake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.driscolls.com/recipes/ideas-inspirations/strawberry-shortcake |title=Strawberry Shortcake Through the Years |publisher=[[Driscoll's]] |access-date=1 November 2015}}</ref>
Around 200 species of [[Pest (organism)#Classification by harmed organisms or ecosystems|pests]] are known to attack strawberries both directly and indirectly.<ref name="strawmaster">{{cite web |url=http://www.virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu/StrawMaster.html |title=Insect Pests of Strawberries and Their Management |publisher=Virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu |date=3 May 2000 |access-date=5 December 2009}}</ref> These pests include [[slug]]s, [[moth]]s, [[Drosophilidae|fruit flies]], chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, [[mite]]s, [[aphid]]s, and others.<ref name="strawmaster" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm |title=Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook &#124; CFANS &#124; University of Minnesota |publisher=Ipmworld.umn.edu |date=20 November 2009 |access-date=5 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626055601/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm |archive-date=26 June 2009  }}</ref> The caterpillars of a number of species of [[Lepidoptera]] feed on strawberry plants. For example, the [[ghost moth]] is known to be a pest of the strawberry plant.


The strawberry aphid, ''[[Chaetosiphon fragaefolii]]'', is a bug species found in the United States (Arizona), Argentina and Chile. It is a vector of the [[strawberry mild yellow-edge virus]].
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">
File:Strawberries and cream Wimbledon 2014.jpg|Strawberries and cream
File:Strawberry cheesecake round.jpg|[[Cheesecake]]
File:Pavlova dessert.JPG|[[Pavlova (dessert)|Pavlova]]
File:外出し いちご大福 (35861044490).jpg|[[Daifuku]]
File:Chocolate strawberries.jpg|[[Chocolate-covered fruit|Chocolate-covered]]
File:Jordgubb sorbet.jpg|[[Sorbet]]
File:Gelato alla fragola e stracciatella - Sicilia, Siracusa (cropped).jpg|[[Strawberry ice cream|Ice cream]]
File:Home-canned strawberry jam.jpg|[[Jam]]
</gallery>


The amounts of [[pesticides]] required for [[agroindustry|industrial production]] of strawberries ({{convert|300|lb}} in California per acre) have led to the strawberry leading the list of [[Environmental Working Group|EWG]]'s "Dirty Dozen" of pesticide-contaminated produce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxbusiness.com/features/2016/04/12/strawberries-are-now-most-contaminated-produce.html|title=Strawberries are Now the Most Contaminated Produce|first=Jade|last=Scipioni|website=[[Fox Business]]|date=12 April 2016}}</ref>
== In art, literature and culture ==


=== Diseases ===
The Roman poet [[Ovid]] wrote that in the past Golden Age, people had lived on wild fruits such as mountain strawberries.<ref name="Gibson 2003">{{cite journal |last=Gibson |first=Walter S. |title=The Strawberries of Hieronymus Bosch |journal=Cleveland Studies in the History of Art |issue=8 |year=2003 |volume=8 |pages=24–33 |jstor=20079728 |url=https://www.uvm.edu/~hag/bosch/gibson-strawberries.pdf}}</ref> [[Virgil]] wrote in his [[Eclogues]] that "Ye who cull flowers and low-growing strawberries, / Away from here lads; a chill snake lurks in the grass", and his imagery was taken up by medieval and [[Early modern period|early modern]] writers, the snake beneath the strawberry standing for dangerous literature, or beautiful but unfaithful women, or eventually any risky pleasure. In this vein, [[Shakespeare]]'s King [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]] asks for a dish of strawberries while feigning friendship to his enemy; while in ''[[Othello]]'', [[Iago]] shows [[Desdemona]]'s handkerchief "spotted with strawberries", implying she has been unfaithful and hinting at Iago's own devious plans.<ref name="Ross 1960"/>
{{See also|List of strawberry diseases}}
Strawberry plants can fall victim to a number of diseases, especially when subjected to stress.<ref name="umn-1148">{{cite web |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html |title=Strawberry Diseases |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323074306/http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html |archive-date=23 March 2009  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/yard-garden/strawberry-diseases-2-931/ |title=Strawberry Diseases |website= Colorado State University|access-date= 28 March 2018}}</ref> The leaves may be infected by [[powdery mildew]], [[leaf spot]] (caused by the fungus ''Sphaerella fragariae''), [[leaf blight]] (caused by the fungus ''[[Phomopsis obscurans]]''), and by a variety of [[slime mold]]s.<ref name="umn-1148" /> The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, [[verticillium]] wilt, [[Thielaviopsis|black root rot]], and [[nematode]]s.<ref name="umn-1148" /> The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold (''[[Botrytis cinerea]]''), [[rhizopus]] rot, and leather rot.<ref name="umn-1148" /> To prevent root-rotting, strawberries should be planted every four to five years in a new bed, at a different site.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pleasant |first=Barbara | year = 2011 | title = All About Growing Strawberries | url = http://www.motherearthnews.com/organic-gardening/growing-strawberries-zm0z11zkon.aspx| journal = Mother Earth News | issue = 248 | pages = 23–25 }}</ref>


The {{visible anchor|AtNPR1|text=''NPR1'' gene from ''Arabidopsis thaliana''}}, ''[[AtNPR1]]'', confers ''A. thaliana''{{'}}s [[broad-spectrum resistance]] when [[transexpression|transexpressed]] in ''F. ananassa''.<ref name="NPR-trans" /> This resistance includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot.<ref name="NPR-trans">{{Unbulleted list citebundle
The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures.<ref name="Ross 1960">{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Lawrence J. |year=1960 |title=The Meaning of Strawberries in Shakespeare |journal=Studies in the Renaissance |volume=7 |pages=225–240 |doi=10.2307/2857136 |jstor=2857136 |url=https://www.uvm.edu/~hag/bosch/ross.pdf<!--author's own webpage-->|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In medieval depictions, the strawberry often appears in the [[Virgin Mary]]'s garden, while in the ''Madonna of the Strawberries'', she is seated on a strawberry bed and garlanded with strawberry leaves.<ref name="Ross 1960"/>
|{{*}} {{cite journal | issue=1 | date=2020 | last1=Li | last5=Wang | volume=71 | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]] | issn=1543-5008 | first1=Wei | last2=Deng | first2=Yiwen | last3=Ning | first3=Yuese | last4=He | first4=Zuhua | first5=Guo-Liang | title=Exploiting Broad-Spectrum Disease Resistance in Crops: From Molecular Dissection to Breeding | doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-010720-022215 | pages=575–603 | pmid=32197052 | s2cid=214600762}}|{{*}} {{cite journal | issue=4 | volume=24 | first5=Kevin M. | last1=Silva | pages=693–704 | publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] ([[International Society for Transgenic Technologies]] (ISTT)) | journal=[[Transgenic Research]] | issn=0962-8819 | first1=Katchen Julliany P. | last2=Brunings | first2=Asha | last3=Peres | first3=Natalia A. | last4=Mou | first4=Zhonglin | last5=Folta | title=The ''Arabidopsis'' NPR1 gene confers broad-spectrum disease resistance in strawberry | year=2015 | doi=10.1007/s11248-015-9869-5 | pmid=25812515 | s2cid=17663129}}
}}</ref>


A 1997 study assessed many {{visible anchor|Wound volatile|text=[[wound volatiles]]}} and found all effective against gray mold (''B. cinerea'').<ref name="Wound-Volatile" /> Both [[Tribute (variety)|Tribute]] and [[Chandler (variety)|Chandler]] were tested and benefited from the treatments, although there are large differences between the substance x variety effects.<ref name="Wound-Volatile" /> Strawberry [[metabolism|metabolizes]] these volatiles, and does so more rapidly than either [[blackberry]] or [[grape]].<ref name="Wound-Volatile">
In the work of the late medieval painter [[Hieronymus Bosch]], strawberries feature in ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' amongst "frolicking nude figures".<ref name="Gibson 2003"/> Fray Jose de Siguenza described the painting as embodying the strawberry as a symbol of the [[ephemerality]] of earthly joys.<ref name="Gibson 2003"/> More recently, scholars have seen the symbolism entirely differently: Clément Wertheim-Aymes believed it meant the blessed souls' benefit from religion; Pater Gerlach supposed it meant spiritual love; and Laurinda Dixon asserted it was part of an [[allegory]] of death and resurrection.<ref name="Gibson 2003"/> By the late 20th century, the strawberry (and the [[raspberry]]) had become "traditional symbols of the mouth and female sexuality".<ref name="Varney 1996">{{cite journal |last=Varney |first=Wendy |title=The briar around the strawberry patch |journal=Women's Studies International Forum |volume=19 |issue=3 |year=1996 |doi=10.1016/0277-5395(96)00010-6 |pages=267–276}}</ref>
  {{Unbulleted list citebundle
      |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2020 | issue=1 | volume=74 | pages=101–116 | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | journal=[[Annual Review of Microbiology]] | issn=0066-4227 | last1=Inamdar | first1=Arati A. | last2=Morath | first2=Shannon | last3=Bennett | first3=Joan W. | title=Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds: More Than Just a Funky Smell? | doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-012420-080428| pmid=32905756 | s2cid=221624018 }}
      |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=1997 | pages=4032–4037 | issue=10 | volume=45 | publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] (ACS) | first4=B. E. | first3=M. M. | first2=T. R. | first1=D. D. | last1=Archbold | last2=Hamilton-Kemp | last3=Barth | last4=Langlois | title=Identifying Natural Volatile Compounds That Control Gray Mold (''Botrytis cinerea'') during Postharvest Storage of Strawberry, Blackberry, and Grape | journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] | issn=0021-8561 | doi=10.1021/jf970332w | s2cid=84686620}}
  }}
</ref>


The plants can also develop disease from temperature extremes during winter.<ref name="umn-1148" /> Watering strawberry roots, and not the leaves, is preferred as moisture on leaves encourages fungal growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Julie Bawden | year = 2009 | title = Strawberry Success | journal = Organic Gardening | volume = 56 | issue = 5 | pages = 52–56 }}</ref> Strawberries may also often appear conjoined together or deformed due to poor pollination.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.udel.edu/weeklycropupdate/?p=13340|title=Misshapen Strawberry Fruits|website=University of Delaware|date=16 May 2019 |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=220 heights=180>
File:Oberrheinischer Meister - Madonna mit den Erdbeeren.png|''Madonna of the Strawberries'',<br/>the [[Upper Rhenish Master]], 1420–1430
File:Bosch, Hieronymus - The Garden of Earthly Delights, central panel - Detai Man eating a strawberry, Man eating a cherry, and a man bending over a fictional fruit.jpg|''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'', man eating a strawberry (detail),<br/>[[Hieronymus Bosch]], 1490–1500
File:The strawberry girl.PNG|''The strawberry girl'',<br/>[[Ammi Phillips]], {{circa}} 1830
File:Still Life with Strawberry Basket.jpg|''Still Life with Strawberry Basket'',<br/>[[Severin Roesen]], 1860–1871
File:Strawberry gatherers (1880), by William Gunning King.jpg|''Strawberry Gatherers'',<br/>William Gunning King, 1880
File:Strawberrythief.jpg|"[[Strawberry Thief]]" textile pattern,<br/>[[William Morris]], 1883<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Michele |title=William Morris Strawberry Thief |year=2010 |publisher=Country Bumpkin Publications |isbn=978-0-9805753-1-6}}</ref>
File:Renoir - Still Life with Strawberries, 1914.jpg|''Still Life with Strawberries'',<br/>[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], 1914
</gallery>


== See also ==
== See also ==
 
* [[Outline of strawberries]]
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[California Strawberry Commission]]
* [[California Strawberry Commission]]
* [[Fraise Tagada]] (strawberry-shaped candy popular in France)
* [[List of culinary fruits]]
* [[List of culinary fruits]]
* [[List of strawberry cultivars]]
* [[List of strawberry dishes]]
* [[List of strawberry dishes]]
* [[List of strawberry topics]]
* [[Musk strawberry]] (hautbois strawberry)
* [[Musk strawberry]] (hautbois strawberry)
* [[Plant City, Florida]] (winter strawberry capital of the world)
* [[Plant City, Florida]] (winter strawberry capital of the world)
* [[Pineberry]]
* [[Pineberry]]
* [[Pomology]]
* [[Pomology]]
* [[Strawberry cake]]
* [[Strawberry generation]]
* [[Strawberry sauce]]
{{div col end}}


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|30em}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
 
{{Commons category multi|Strawberries|Fragaria × ananassa}}
{{Cookbook}}


* [https://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?244 ''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' data from GRIN Taxonomy Database]
* [https://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?244 ''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' data from GRIN Taxonomy Database]
* {{cite AmCyc |last=Thurber |first=George |wstitle=Strawberry|short=x}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Strawberry |short=x}}
* {{YouTube|mdCbB0XfW9M|Demonstration of strawberry growth lifecycle timelapse}}
* {{YouTube|mdCbB0XfW9M|Demonstration of strawberry growth lifecycle timelapse}}


{{fragaria}}
{{Fragaria}}
 
{{Taxonbar|from=Q13158}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q13158}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Strawberries]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Fragaria]]
[[Category:Fragaria]]
[[Category:Hybrid fruit]]
[[Category:Hybrid fruit]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Strawberries]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Symbols of Delaware]]
[[Category:Symbols of Delaware]]
[[Category:Berries]]

Latest revision as of 12:36, 24 March 2026


For other species of strawberry, see Fragaria. For other uses, see Strawberry (disambiguation).

Strawberry Fragaria × ananassa
Strawberry fruit
Scientific classification edit
: [[Template:Taxonomy/Fragaria]]
Species:
Template:Taxonomy/FragariaF. × ananassa
Binomial name
Template:Taxonomy/FragariaFragaria × ananassa

The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; Fragaria × ananassa)[1] is a widely grown hybrid plant cultivated worldwide for its fruit. The genus Fragaria, the strawberries, is in the rose family, Rosaceae. The fruit is appreciated for its aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is eaten either fresh or in prepared foods such as jam, ice cream, and chocolates. Artificial strawberry flavourings and aromas are widely used in commercial products. Botanically, the strawberry is not a berry, but an aggregate accessory fruit. Each apparent 'seed' on the outside of the strawberry is actually an achene, a botanical fruit with a seed inside it.

The garden strawberry was first bred in Brittany, France, in the 1750s via a cross of F. virginiana from eastern North America and F. chiloensis, which was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714. Cultivars of F. × ananassa have replaced the woodland strawberry F. vesca in commercial production. In 2023, world production of strawberries exceeded ten million tons, led by China with 40% of the total.

Strawberries have appeared in literature and art from Roman times; Virgil wrote about the snake lurking beneath the strawberry, an image reinterpreted by later writers including Shakespeare. Strawberries appear in Italian, Flemish, and German paintings, including Hieronymus Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights. It has been understood to symbolise the ephemerality of earthly joys or the benefit that blessed souls get from religion, or to allegorise death and resurrection. By the late 20th century, its meaning had shifted: it symbolised female sexuality.

Evolution[edit | edit source]

History and taxonomy[edit | edit source]

In Europe, until the 17th century cultivated plants were obtained by transplanting strawberries from the forests; the plants were propagated asexually by pegging down the runners, allowing them to root, and then separating the new plants.[2] F. virginiana, the Virginia strawberry, was brought to Europe from eastern North America; F. chiloensis, the Chilean strawberry, was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714. At first introduction to Europe, the Chilean strawberry plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit. French gardeners in Brittany in the 1750s noticed that the Chilean plants bore only female flowers. They planted the wild woodland strawberry F. vesca among the Chilean plants to provide pollen; the Chilean strawberry plants then bore abundant fruits.[3]

In 1759, Philip Miller recorded the 'pine strawberry' (F. ananassa) in Chelsea, England.[3] In the gardens of the Palace of Versailles, France, Antoine Nicolas Duchesne found in 1766 that F. ananassa was a hybrid of the recently arrived F. chiloensis and F. virginiana.[1] In 1806, Michael Keens of Isleworth, England selected the Keens Imperial cultivar from many hybrids,[4] winning the Royal Horticultural Society's Silver Cup.[3] Both the names 'pine' and 'ananassa' meant "pineapple", for the fruit's flavour.[4] Modern strawberries and both parent species are octoploid (8N, meaning they have 8 sets of 7 chromosomes).[5] The genome sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019.[6]

Hybridisation and polyploidy in strawberries. Garden strawberries are octoploid (8N), like both parents, the Virginia and Chilean strawberries.

Further breeding in the following centuries produced varieties with a longer cropping season and more fruit.[3] During the Green Revolution of the 1950s, agronomists used selective breeding to expand phenotypic diversity of the garden strawberry. Adoption of perpetual flowering hybrids not sensitive to changes in photoperiod gave higher yields and enabled production in California to expand.[1]

Phylogeny[edit | edit source]

The phylogeny of the cultivated strawberry within the genus Fragaria of the Rosaceae family was determined by chloroplast genomics in 2021. The polyploidy (number of sets of chromosomes) is shown as "2N" etc. by each species.[7]

Template:Clade

Description[edit | edit source]

See also: Fragaria
Botanical structure of a strawberry, compared to a peapod. The strawberry is a swollen receptacle, covered with many small achenes, the botanical fruits.[8]

In culinary terms, a strawberry is an edible fruit. From a botanical point of view, it is not a berry but an aggregate accessory fruit, because the fleshy part is derived from the receptacle. Each apparent seed on the outside of the strawberry is actually an achene, a botanical fruit with a seed inside it.[8]

  • Leaves
    Leaves
  • Flower
    Flower
  • Achenes (botanical fruits)
    Achenes (botanical fruits)
  • Growth (video)

Composition[edit | edit source]

Nutrition[edit | edit source]

Template:Nutritional value

Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). A reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz) supplies 33 kilocalories, is a rich source of vitamin C (65% of the Daily Value, DV), and a good source of manganese (17% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table). Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential unsaturated fatty acids in the achene (seed) oil.[9]

Phytochemicals[edit | edit source]

Garden strawberries contain diverse phytochemicals, including the dimeric ellagitannin agrimoniin, which is an isomer of sanguiin H-6.[10][11] Other polyphenols present include flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, flavanols, flavonols and phenolic acids, such as hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxycinnamic acid.[9] Although achenes comprise only about 1% of the total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of all polyphenols in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include ellagic acid, ellagic acid glycosides, and ellagitannins.[12]

Pelargonidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin pigment in strawberries, giving them their red colour, with cyanidin-3-glucoside in smaller amounts. Strawberries also contain purple minor pigments, such as dimeric anthocyanins.[13]

Flavour and fragrance[edit | edit source]

Furaneol contributes to the fragrance of strawberries.

Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavour are important attributes of strawberries.[14] In plant breeding and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of the ripe fruit.[15] Esters, terpenes, and furans are the chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavour, sweetness and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to desirable flavour and fragrance.[15][16][17] In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone, prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics.[16][17] As strawberry flavour and fragrance appeal to consumers,[16][17][18] they are used widely in manufacturing, including foods, beverages, perfumes and cosmetics.[19][20]

Allergy[edit | edit source]

Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to eating strawberries.[21] The most common form of this reaction is oral allergy syndrome, but symptoms may also mimic hay fever or include dermatitis or hives, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems.[22] Proteomic studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1). White-fruited strawberry cultivars, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for people allergic to strawberries.[23] They ripen but remain pale, appearing like immature berries. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.[24][25]

Varieties[edit | edit source]

Further information: Breeding of strawberries
For a more comprehensive list, see List of strawberry cultivars.

Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit.[26] Strawberries occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These describe the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of photoperiod that induces flower formation.[27] Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.[28] Strawberry cultivars vary widely in attributes such as disease resistance, dessert and freezing quality, yield, and season of ripening.[28]

Cultivation[edit | edit source]

Production[edit | edit source]

Strawberry production
2023, millions of tonnes
 China 4.21
 United States 1.25
 Egypt 0.73
 Turkey 0.68
 Mexico 0.64
 Spain 0.33
World 10.49
Source: FAOSTAT
of the United Nations[29]

In 2023, world production of strawberries was 10.5 million tonnes, led by China with 40% of the total; the United States was the main secondary producer.[29]

For commercial production, plants can be propagated from bare root plants or plugs. One method of cultivation uses annual plasticulture;[30] another is a perennial system of matted rows or mounds which has been used in cold growing regions for many years.[31] In some areas, greenhouses are used; in principle they can provide strawberries during the off season for field crops.[32]

In the plasticulture system, raised beds are covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants are planted through holes punched in this covering. Irrigation tubing can be run underneath if necessary.[30][33]

Another method uses a compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more flavonoids, anthocyanins, fructose, glucose, sucrose, malic acid, and citric acid than fruit produced in the black plastic mulch or matted row systems.[34] An earlier study by the United States Department of Agriculture confirms the value of compost.[35]

Strawberries may be propagated by seed.[36] Strawberries can be grown indoors in pots.[37] Strawberries will not grow indoors in winter though an experiment using a combination of blue and red LED lamps shows that this could be achieved in principle.[38] In Florida, winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November.[39]

  • Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
    Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
  • A field using the plasticulture method
    A field using the plasticulture method
  • Strawberries are usually picked and placed in shallow boxes in the field.
    Strawberries are usually picked and placed in shallow boxes in the field.

Domestic cultivation[edit | edit source]

Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous cultivars have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes.[40] The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

Pests and diseases[edit | edit source]

Over 200 species of pest arthropods attack strawberries.[47] These include moths, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites, and aphids. Non-arthropod pests include slugs.[47][48] Some are vectors of plant diseases; for instance, the strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii,[49] can carry the strawberry mild yellow-edge virus.[50]

Strawberry plants are subject to many diseases, especially when subjected to stress. The leaves may be infected by powdery mildew, leaf spot (caused by the fungus Sphaerella fragariae), leaf blight (caused by the fungus Phomopsis obscurans), and by a variety of slime molds. The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, verticillium wilt, black root rot, and nematodes. The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold (Botrytis cinerea), rhizopus rot, and leather rot.[51][52]

Disease resistance and protection[edit | edit source]

The NPR1 gene from Arabidopsis thaliana, AtNPR1, confers A. thaliana's broad-spectrum resistance when transexpressed in F. ananassa. This includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot.[53][54]

A 1997 study found that many wound volatiles were effective against gray mold (B. cinerea). Both Tribute and Chandler varieties benefited from the treatments, although the effects vary widely with substance and variety. Strawberry plants metabolise these volatiles, more rapidly than do either blackberry or grape.[55][56]

Culinary use[edit | edit source]

See also: List of strawberry dishes

Strawberries were eaten fresh with cream in the time of Thomas Wolsey in the court of King Henry VIII.[57] Strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or preserves,[58] as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars.[59] In the United Kingdom, strawberries and cream is a popular dessert at the Wimbledon tennis tournament.[57] Desserts using strawberries include pavlova,[60] fraisier,[61][62] and strawberry shortcake.[63]

In art, literature and culture[edit | edit source]

The Roman poet Ovid wrote that in the past Golden Age, people had lived on wild fruits such as mountain strawberries.[64] Virgil wrote in his Eclogues that "Ye who cull flowers and low-growing strawberries, / Away from here lads; a chill snake lurks in the grass", and his imagery was taken up by medieval and early modern writers, the snake beneath the strawberry standing for dangerous literature, or beautiful but unfaithful women, or eventually any risky pleasure. In this vein, Shakespeare's King Richard III asks for a dish of strawberries while feigning friendship to his enemy; while in Othello, Iago shows Desdemona's handkerchief "spotted with strawberries", implying she has been unfaithful and hinting at Iago's own devious plans.[65]

The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures.[65] In medieval depictions, the strawberry often appears in the Virgin Mary's garden, while in the Madonna of the Strawberries, she is seated on a strawberry bed and garlanded with strawberry leaves.[65]

In the work of the late medieval painter Hieronymus Bosch, strawberries feature in The Garden of Earthly Delights amongst "frolicking nude figures".[64] Fray Jose de Siguenza described the painting as embodying the strawberry as a symbol of the ephemerality of earthly joys.[64] More recently, scholars have seen the symbolism entirely differently: Clément Wertheim-Aymes believed it meant the blessed souls' benefit from religion; Pater Gerlach supposed it meant spiritual love; and Laurinda Dixon asserted it was part of an allegory of death and resurrection.[64] By the late 20th century, the strawberry (and the raspberry) had become "traditional symbols of the mouth and female sexuality".[66]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Feldmann MJ, Pincot DD, Cole GS, et al. (19 March 2024). "Genetic gains underpinning a little-known strawberry Green Revolution". Nature Communications. 15 (1): 2468. Bibcode:2024NatCo..15.2468F. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46421-6. PMC 10951273. PMID 38504104.
  2. ↑ Welsh M. "Strawberries". National Vegetable Society. Archived from the original on 2 August 2008.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "Strawberry, The Maiden With Runners". University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Johnson HA (August 1990). "The Contributions of Private Strawberry Breeders". HortScience. 25 (8): 897–902. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.25.8.897.
  5. ↑ Hirakawa H, Shirasawa K, Kosugi S, et al. (2014). "Dissection of the octoploid strawberry genome by deep sequencing of the genomes of fragaria species". DNA Research. 21 (2): 169–181. doi:10.1093/dnares/dst049. PMC 3989489. PMID 24282021.
  6. ↑ Edger PP, Poorten TJ, VanBuren R, et al. (March 2019). "Origin and evolution of the octoploid strawberry genome". Nature Genetics. 51 (3): 541–547. doi:10.1038/s41588-019-0356-4. PMC 6882729. PMID 30804557.
  7. ↑ Sun J, Sun R, Liu H, et al. (2021). "Complete chloroplast genome sequencing of ten wild Fragaria species in China provides evidence for phylogenetic evolution of Fragaria". Genomics. 113 (3): 1170–1179. doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.01.027. PMID 33705887.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Parrucci L, Eubanks A (1997). "The Strawberry: A Multiple Fruit". Carnegie Museums. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Giampieri F, Tulipani S, Alvarez-Suarez JM, et al. (2012). "The Strawberry: Composition, Nutritional Quality, and Impact on Human Health". Nutrition. 28 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2011.08.009. PMID 22153122.
  10. ↑ Lipińska L, Klewicka E, Sójka M (30 September 2014). "The structure, occurrence and biological activity of ellagitannins: a general review". Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia Alimentaria. 13 (3). Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Poznaniu (Poznan University of Life Sciences): 289–299. doi:10.17306/j.afs.2014.3.7. PMID 24887944.
  11. ↑ Vrhovsek U, Guella G, Gasperotti M, et al. (2012). "Clarifying the Identity of the Main Ellagitannin in the Fruit of the Strawberry, Fragaria vesca and Fragaria ananassa Duch". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 60 (10): 2507–2516. Bibcode:2012JAFC...60.2507V. doi:10.1021/jf2052256. PMID 22339338.
  12. ↑ Aaby K, Skrede G, Wrolstad R (2005). "Phenolic composition and antioxidant activities in flesh and achenes of strawberries (Fragaria ananassa)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (10): 4032–4040. Bibcode:2005JAFC...53.4032A. doi:10.1021/jf048001o. PMID 15884835.
  13. ↑ Fossen T, Rayyan S, Andersen ØM (2004). "Dimeric anthocyanins from strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) consisting of pelargonidin 3-glucoside covalently linked to four flavan-3-ols". Phytochemistry. 65 (10): 1421–1428. Bibcode:2004PChem..65.1421F. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.05.003. PMID 15231416.
  14. ↑ Colquhoun TA, Levin LA, Moskowitz HR, et al. (2012). "Framing the perfect strawberry: An exercise in consumer-assisted selection of fruit crops". Journal of Berry Research. 2 (1). IOS Press: 45–61. Bibcode:2012JBerR...2...45C. doi:10.3233/jbr-2011-027.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Schwieterman M, Colquhoun T, Jaworski E, et al. (2014). "Strawberry flavor: Diverse chemical compositions, a seasonal influence, and effects on sensory perception". PLOS ONE. 9 (2) e88446. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988446S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088446. PMC 3921181. PMID 24523895.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Goodyear D (14 August 2017). "How Driscoll's reinvented the strawberry". The New Yorker. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Negri AS, Allegra D, Simoni L, et al. (11 February 2015). "Comparative analysis of fruit aroma patterns in the domesticated wild strawberries Profumata di Tortona (F. moschata) and Regina delle Valli (F. vesca)". Frontiers in Plant Science. 6: 56. doi:10.3389/fpls.2015.00056. PMC 4324068. PMID 25717332.
  18. ↑ Thompson J, Lopetcharat K, Drake M (2007). "Preferences for commercial strawberry drinkable yogurts among African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic consumers in the United States". Journal of Dairy Science. 90 (11): 4974–87. doi:10.3168/jds.2007-0313. PMID 17954736.
  19. ↑ Dvorsky G (8 November 2012). "How Flavor Chemists Make Your Food So Addictively Good". io9. Archived from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  20. ↑ Cassell D (2014). "2014 Flavor Trends: Yogurt's Fruitful Union". Food Processing. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  21. ↑ "Children and food allergies". California Pacific Medical Center. 2013. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
  22. ↑ Patiwael J, Vullings L, De Jong N, et al. (2010). "Occupational allergy in strawberry greenhouse workers". International Archives of Allergy and Immunology. 152 (1): 58–65. doi:10.1159/000260084. hdl:1765/28314. PMID 19940506. S2CID 31952236.
  23. ↑ Muñoz C, Hoffmann T, Escobar N, et al. (2010). "The strawberry fruit Fra a allergen functions in flavonoid biosynthesis". Molecular Plant. 3 (1): 113–124. doi:10.1093/mp/ssp087. PMID 19969523.
  24. ↑ Hjernø K, Alm R, Canbäck B, et al. (2006). "Down-regulation of the strawberry Bet v 1-homologous allergen in concert with the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway in colorless strawberry mutant". Proteomics. 6 (5). Wiley: 1574–1587. doi:10.1002/pmic.200500469. PMID 16447153.
  25. ↑ "The chemistry of strawberry allergy". Innovations Report. 21 June 2005. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
  26. ↑ Sagers LA (15 April 1992). "Proper Cultivation Yields Strawberry Fields Forever". Deseret News. Archived from the original on 20 April 2007.
  27. ↑ Hokanson S, Maas J (2001). Strawberry biotechnology; In: Plant Breeding Reviews, Volume 21; chapter 4. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 139–179. doi:10.1002/9780470650196.ch4. ISBN 978-0-471-41847-4.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "G6135 Home Fruit Production: Strawberry Cultivars and Their Culture". University of Missouri. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "Strawberry production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. Retrieved 21 March 2025.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Strawberry Plasticulture Offers Sweet Rewards". Ohio State University. 28 June 2002. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
  31. ↑ "Strawberry Production Basics: Matted Row" (PDF). newenglandvfc.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  32. ↑ "Pritts Greenhouse Berried Treasures". Cornell University.
  33. ↑ "Strawberry Fields Forever". Noble.org. Archived from the original on 26 November 2005. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  34. ↑ Wang S, Millner P (2009). "Effect of Different Cultural Systems on Antioxidant Capacity, Phenolic Content, and Fruit Quality of Strawberries (Fragaria × aranassa Duch.)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (20): 9651–57. Bibcode:2009JAFC...57.9651W. doi:10.1021/jf9020575. PMID 20560628.
  35. ↑ Wang S, Lin H (November 2003). "Compost as a soil supplement increases the level of antioxidant compounds and oxygen radical absorbance capacity in strawberries". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51 (23): 6844–6850. Bibcode:2003JAFC...51.6844W. doi:10.1021/jf030196x. PMID 14582984.
  36. ↑ Wilson D, Goodall A, Reeves J (1973). "An improved technique for the germination of strawberry seeds". Euphytica. 22 (2): 362. Bibcode:1973Euphy..22..362W. doi:10.1007/BF00022647. S2CID 26544785.
  37. ↑ Hessayon D (1996). The House Plant Expert. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-90350535-2.
  38. ↑ "Strawberries in winter? Welcome to franken-season". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
  39. ↑ Stark M (7 March 2016). "10 facts about Florida strawberries that might surprise you". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
  40. ↑ Klein C (2009). Grow your own fruit. Mitchell Beazley. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-84533-434-5.
  41. ↑ "Fragaria × ananassa 'Cambridge Favourite' (F) strawberry 'Cambridge Favourite'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  42. ↑ "Fragaria × ananassa 'Hapil' (F) strawberry 'Hapil'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  43. ↑ "Fragaria × ananassa 'Honeoye' (F) strawberry 'Honeoye'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  44. ↑ "Fragaria 'Pegasus' strawberry 'Pegasus'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  45. ↑ "Fragaria × ananassa 'Rhapsody' (F) strawberry 'Rhapsody'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  46. ↑ "Fragaria × ananassa 'Symphony' PBR (F) strawberry 'Symphony'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Insect Pests of Strawberries and Their Management". Virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu. 3 May 2000. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
  48. ↑ Rao S, Welter SC (20 November 2009). "Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook". University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
  49. ↑ Cédola C, Grecob N (2010). "Presence of the aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, on strawberry in Argentina". Journal of Insect Science. 10 (9): 9. doi:10.1673/031.010.0901. PMC 3014655. PMID 20569141.
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  52. ↑ "Strawberry Diseases". Colorado State University. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
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