Koshi Province: Difference between revisions

Koshi Province

कोशी प्रदेश
Koshi Province कोशी प्रदेश
Province
	From top left to right: Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Gokyo Lakes, Kanyam, Todke waterfall, Halesi Mahadev Temple, Pathibhara Devi Temple
	Seal
	Etymology: Derived from Sanskrit word kauśika
	Location of Koshi Province in Nepal
	Template:Koshi Pradesh districts labelled map Koshi Province
	Coordinates (Biratnagar): 26°27′15″N 87°16′47″E / 26.45417°N 87.27972°E
Country	Nepal
Formation	20 September 2015
Named as Koshi	1 March 2023
Named for	Koshi River
Capital	Biratnagar
Largest city	Biratnagar
Districts	14
Government
• Type	Self-governing Province
• Body	Government of Koshi Province
• Governor	Parshuram Khapung Limbu (CPN UML)
• Chief Minister	Hikmat Kumar Karki
• High Court	Biratnagar High Court
• Koshi Provincial Assembly	Unicameral (93 seats)
• Parliamentary constituency	28
Area
• Total	25,905 km2 (10,002 sq mi)
• Rank	2nd
Highest elevation (Mount Everest)	8,848.86 m (29,031.69 ft)
Lowest elevation (Kechana Kawal)	58 m (190 ft)
Population (2021)
• Total	4,961,412
• Rank	4th
• Density	192/km2 (500/sq mi)
• Rank	4th
• Households	1,191,556
Demonym(s)	Purbeli, Kosheli, Koshyali
Demographics
• Religions	Hinduism 66.63%; Kiratism 17.14%; Buddhism 9.20%; Islam 3.59%; Prakriti 1.33%;
• Ethnic groups	14.9% Chhetri; 11.5% Bahun; 10.2% Rai; 8.2% Limbu; 4.5% Tamang; 4.2% Tharu; 4.1% Muslims; 4.0% Magar; 3.6% Newar;
• Sex ratio	91.48 ♂ /100 ♀ (2011)
Development Parameters
• Poverty rate	0.127
• Literacy	79.7%
• Life expectancy	69
• HDI	0.553 (medium)
Time zone	UTC+5:45 (NST)
Geocode	NP-ON
ISO 3166 code	NP-P1
Vehicle registration	KOSHI XX AB XXXX
Other Official Languages	1. Limbu, 2. Maithali
Website	koshi.gov.np

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Revision as of 20:24, 1 March 2026

Koshi Province (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) is an autonomous province of Nepal adopted by the Constitution of Nepal on 20 September 2015. It covers an area of 25,905 km² (10,002 sq mi), which is about 17.5% of the country's total area. With the industrial city of Biratnagar as its capital, the province includes the major towns of Birtamod, Sundar Haraincha, Damak, Dharan, Itahari, Triyuga Municipality, and Mechinagar. It further hosts a number of Himalayan peaks including Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga (the third highest peak on Earth), Lhotse (the fourth highest peak), Makalu (the fifth highest peak), Cho Oyu (the sixth highest peak), and Ama Dablam.

The river Koshi, the largest river of the nation, and the Koshi Tappu wildlife reserve form the province's western boundary. The province is bordered by the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north, the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal to the east and Bihar to the south, and Bagmati Province and Madhesh Province to the west.^[8]^[9]^[10] The province also hosts the Koshi highway, which is one of the three crucial Nepalese north-south corridors that are designed to connect India and China via land.^[11]

Under the First-past-the-post voting system issued by the Constituency Delimitation Commission, Nepal, the province hosts 28 parliamentary seats and 56 provincial assembly seats.^[12] According to the 2021 Nepal census, there are around five million people in the province, with a population density of 190 per square kilometre.^[13] Per the earlier 2011 Nepal census, the province had approximately 4.5 million people.^[14]

Etymology

The province is named Koshi after the Koshi River, which is the largest river in the country. On 1 March 2023 the former temporary name of the province, Province No. 1, was changed to Koshi Province.^[15]

The Kosi River is significantly and culturally an important river of Nepal. The Koshi River is called Kausika in the Rigveda and Kausiki in the Mahabharata.The Kosi is associated with many ancient spiritual stories. It is mentioned in the Bal Kand section of Valmiki's Ramayana as the Kausiki who is the form assumed by Satyavati after her death. In the Markandeya Purana, the Kosi is described as the primal force. Due to the violent nature of the Kosi in monsoon season, legend says that Parvati, the wife of Shiva, after defeating the demon Durg, became known as the warrior goddess Durga who transformed into Kaushiki. In Ramayana, the river Ganges is depicted as her elder sister.^[16] According to Mahabharata epic, the God of death took the form of a woman and resides on the banks of the river to limit population growth. Kosi resonates with the folklore of Mithila. The most important depictions of Kosi folklore are Kosi as a virgin absolutely carefree and full of energy, and as a frustrated wife of old hermit Richeek wandering in the Himalayas. Koshi river is also invoked as the mother: 'Kosi Ma'.^[16]

History

Map of Kingdom of Morung between Kamala river^{[clarification needed]} in the beginning of the 7th century

When King Mung Mawrong Hang came to prominence in the Terai lands of Limbuwan, he cleared much of the forest area in present-day Rangeli, east of Biratnagar, and built a town there. He named his Kingdom Morang after his name and rose to power.^[17]^{[verification needed]} Meanwhile, King Prithvi Narayan Shah was on a campaign to conquer all the hill kingdoms into his Empire (the Kingdom of Nepal). He attacked Limbuwan on two fronts. After the Limbuwan–Gorkha War from 1771 to 1774 AD, the Limbu ministers of Morang, and Limbu rulers of the ten principalities came to an agreement with the King of Gorkha. With the Limbuwan Gorkha treaty of 1774, Limbuwan was annexed to the Kingdom of Nepal.^[18]

The term district has been used in various ways throughout the modern history of Nepal. At the end of the Rana regime, Nepal was divided into 32 districts. Eastern Nepal was composed of the following districts:

In 1956, the eastern districts of Nepal were grouped together into a region called the Aruṇ Kshetra or Arun Region, after the Arun River which flows through it. Arun Kshetra was made by combining the then five districts; it had total area of 18,000 km² (7,000 sq mi) and a total population of 1.1 million people.^[19] The five districts were:^[20]^[21]

Biratnagar District: including Sunsari District and Morang District
Dhankuta District: including Dhankuta District and Sankhuwasabha
Taplejung District: including Taplejung and Panchtharl
Mechi District: including Ilam District and Jhapa District
Bhojpur District: including Bhojpur District and Khotang District

In 1962, the administrative system once again was changed, abolishing the kshetra system. The country was restructured into 75 development districts and those districts were grouped together into zones.^[22] In 1972, what is now called Koshi Province was called the Eastern Development Region that was composed of 16 districts which were grouped into three zones: Koshi, Mechi and Sagarmatha.

In 2015, the Constitution was adopted which made 14 districts into an autonomous province which was temporarily named Province No. 1. At the cabinet meeting held on 17 January 2018, the city of Biratnagar was declared the interim capital of Province No. 1. On 6 May 2019, it was declared the permanent capital by a vote of two-thirds of the provincial Member of legislative assembly.^[1] On March 1, 2023, the province was named Koshi Province on passage of the bill in Parliament. Later, some protested the name "Koshi".^[23]

Geography

Koshi Province covers an area of 25,905 km².^[14] The province has three-fold geographical division: Himalayan in the north, Hilly in the middle and Terai in the southern part of Nepal, varying between an altitude of 70 m and 8,848 m. Terai, extended from east to west, is made up of alluvial soil. To the west of Koshi River, in between Mahabharat Range and Churia Range, there elongates a valley called Inner Terai. Churai Range, Mahabharat Range and other hills of various heights, basins, tars, and valleys form the hilly region. Some parts of this region are favorable for agriculture but some other parts are not. The Himalayan region, in the north, consists of many mountains ranges. Mahalangur, Kumbhakarna, Umvek, Lumba Sumba and Janak being some of them. The highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest (8848.86 m); and the third highest mountain, Kangchenjunga (8598 m) also lie in this province.^[24]

Nepal's lowest point, Kechana Kawal at 70 m, is located in Jhapa District of this province. There are many river basins and gentle slopes as well. Chure, Mahabharat, many basins, tars, and valleys form the Terai region. Between the Churia and Mahabharat, a low land of inner Terai exists. The Koshi River flows through the region with its seven tributaries; Indrawati, Likhu, Tamur, Dudh Kosi, Arun, Tamakoshi and Bhote Koshi (Sunkoshi). Tundra vegetables, coniferous forests, deciduous monsoon forests, and sub-tropical evergreen woods are vegetations found here. Sub-tropical, temperate, sub-temperate, and alpine and tundra types of climates are found here.^[25]

Koshi Pradesh also includes the snow fall capped peaks including Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, Makalu with Solukhumbu, Sankhuwasabha, and Taplejung districts towards the north, the jungle clad hill tracts of Okhaldhunga, Khotang, Bhojpur, Tehrathum, Ilam and Panchthar in the middle and the alluvial fertile plains of Udayapur, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa. Province No. 1 includes places like Haleshi Mahadev Temple, Pathivara Temple and Barahachhetra, which are the famous religious shrines for Hindus.^[26]

Climate

Climatic conditions of Nepal vary from one place to another in accordance with their geographical features. Koshi Pradesh has three geographical folds: the lowland of Terai, the hilly region, and the Himalayas' highlands. The low land altitude is 59 m, whereas the highest point is 8848 m.^[27]

In the north, summers are cool and winters severe, while in the south, summers are tropical and winters are mild. Climatically, the southern belt of the province, the Terai, experiences a warm and humid climate. Eastern Nepal receives approximately 2,500 millimeters of rain annually. Koshi Pradesh has five seasons: spring, summer, monsoon, autumn and winter.

Average temperatures and precipitation for selected communities in Province No. 1^[28]
Location	August (°F)	August (°C)	January (°F)	January (°C)	Annual precipitation (mm/in)
Damak	94 / 82	34 / 28	74 / 47	23 / 8	2618 /103.07
Dharan	85.1/72.3	29.5/22.4	68.4/44.4	20.2/6.9	1416/55.7
Biratnagar	83.1	28.4	60.8	16	1549.8/61
Bhadrapur	82.2	27.9	61.2	16.2	2351.9/92.6
Dhankuta	76.5	24.7	54.5	12.5	1809.5/71.2
Khandbari	74.8	23.8	52	11.1	2040.7/80.3
Ilam	71.8	22.1	50.9	10.5	2551.5/100.5
Itahari	82	27.8	59.5	15.3	1414.8/55.7
Bhojpur	69.1	20.6	46.8	8.2	2290.4/90.2
Khumbu Pasang Lhamu	56.1/38.3	13.4/3.5	33.8/-0.8	1/-18.2	645/25.4

Mountains

The northern part of Koshi Pradesh has the highest mountain in the world. Here is a list of mountains in Koshi Pradesh.^[29]

Mountain/peak	metres	feet	Section	Notes

Rivers

Koshi Barrage over Koshi River

There are many rivers in the region that flow south from the Himalayas which are tributaries of other large rivers that join Ganga River (in India). Sapta Koshi or the Koshi is the main river of the region. Seven tributaries join the Koshi so it is called Saptkoshi.

The major rivers in the province are:

Mechi River
Kankai River
Koshi River (SaptaKoshi) Below given names are tributaries:

Protected areas

Sagarmatha National Park – 1,148 km² (443 sq mi)
Makalu Barun National Park – 1,500 km² (580 sq mi)
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve – 175 km² (68 sq mi)
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area – 2,035 km² (786 sq mi)

Subdivisions

There are 137 local administrative units in this province, including one metropolitan city, 2 sub-metropolitan cities, 46 municipalities and 88 rural municipalities.

Districts

The province is made up of the 14 following districts:

Municipality

Cities and villages are governed by municipalities in Nepal. A district may have one or more municipalities. Koshi Province has two types of municipalities.

Urban municipality (Urban municipality has three levels):
- Metropolitan city
- Sub-metropolitan city and
- Municipality
Rural municipality (Gaunpalika)

The government of Nepal has set out minimum criteria to meet city and towns. These criteria include a certain population, infrastructure, and revenues.

v t e Largest cities in Koshi Province 2021 census
Rank		District	Pop.
1	Biratnagar	Morang District	244,750
2	Itahari	Sunsari District	198,098
3	Dharan	Sunsari District	173,093
4	Mechinagar	Jhapa District	131,520
5	Sundar Haraicha	Morang District	121,305
6	Birtamod	Jhapa District	117,355
7	Damak	Jhapa District	107,410
8	Triyuga	Udayapur District	104,375
9	Barahakshetra	Sunsari District	91,891
10	Arjundhara	Jhapa District	84,429

Administration

The province is governed by Unicameral parliamentary system of representative Democracy. The house consists of 93 seats where 56 candidates are elected by FPTP and 37 by proportional basis.

The legislative assembly comprises a chief minister who is executive head, deputy chief minister who assists the chief minister, a speaker who hosts the assembly, a deputy speaker who assists the speaker, and various ministries which look over respective departments.^{[citation needed]}

The first provincial elections in Nepal were held on 26 November and 7 December 2017. According to the results of this election in Koshi province, the biggest party is CPN (UML) winning 51 seats; the second biggest party is Nepali Congress which won 21 seats; the third biggest party is CPN (Maoist Center) which won 15 seats .^[30]

In a meeting on 17 January 2018, the government of Nepal finalized the temporary capital of Province No. 1, which was renamed as Koshi Province in Falgun 17 2079 and appointed Govinda Subba as the governor.^[31] Sher Dhan Rai was elected as first chief minister of Koshi Province on 14 February 2018.^[32] Currently Hikmat Kumar Karki is serving as chief minister, the executive head of the Koshi government.^[32]

For convenience and decentralisation, the province is divided into 14 districts, making it the province with the most districts in Nepal. CDO is the administrative head of each District. District inturn is further divided into Metropolitan city or/and Sub Metropolitan city or/and Municipality or/and Rural Municipality which has its own Local Government.^{[citation needed]}

Infrastructure

Entrepreneurship, Investment, and Emerging Industries

Koshi Province has emerged as one of Nepal's most active subnational governments in promoting private sector-led economic growth. The provincial government has pursued a strategy combining policy reform, public–private partnerships, and dedicated investment facilitation to attract domestic and foreign capital across sectors including tourism, agriculture, agro-processing, hydropower, infrastructure, and information technology. The Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI) maintains a provincial chapter in Koshi,^[33] and the Confederation of Nepalese Industries Young Entrepreneurs' Forum (CNIYEF) operates a Koshi Chapter working to develop the next generation of business leaders in the region.^[34]

The first Koshi Province Investment Summit was held in Biratnagar on 1–2 May 2025 (Baisakh 18–19, 2082 BS), marking a landmark event in Nepal's federal economic governance.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38] The summit was inaugurated by the then Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli and hosted under the leadership of Chief Minister Hikmat Kumar Karki, with coordination handled by the Provincial Investment Authority (PIA), led by Executive Director Dr. Saroj Koirala.^[39] A total of 71 projects across eight sectors — tourism, agriculture, industry, infrastructure, energy, information technology, services, and waste management — were presented to investors, with a combined estimated value of NPR 173.49 billion.^[40] Ahead of the event, the provincial government amended eight laws through executive ordinances — including the Provincial Industrial Enterprises Act, the Public Private Partnership and Investment Authority Act, and the Provincial Tourism Act — to remove bureaucratic barriers and create a more investment-friendly legal environment.^[41] Investors from China, Russia, the United States, South Korea, India, and the non-resident Nepali diaspora participated alongside major domestic industrialists. By the conclusion of the two-day event, Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) had been signed for 46 projects worth NPR 152.16 billion, covering agriculture, industry, tourism, infrastructure, energy, information technology, and waste management.^[42] An additional five MoUs were concluded in the weeks following the summit, bringing the total to 51 committed projects. Writing in The Kathmandu Post in February 2026, analysts described the summit as a "concrete step toward operationalising federalism through economic governance," arguing it could help transform the province into a production-oriented growth centre contributing to national capital formation and employment generation, in contrast to Nepal's historically import- and consumption-driven fiscal structure. ^[43]

To sustain the momentum generated by the Investment Summit, the provincial government launched the Udaya project in 2025 with financial and technical support from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC).^[44] Designed to run for ten years — with an initial four-year implementation phase — Udaya targets small and medium enterprises (SMEs) across all 14 districts of Koshi Province with the aim of creating 3,000 jobs in its first phase. The project provides collateral-free loans ranging from NPR 3 million to NPR 30 million through a credit guarantee fund of NPR 600 million, designed to mobilise approximately NPR 8 billion in total bank lending. A Challenge Fund of NPR 280 million will additionally support the promotional and competitive capacity of emerging businesses.

In the information technology sector, the CNIYEF Koshi Chapter organised the 1st Koshi IT Summit 2025 in Biratnagar on 3 May 2025, bringing together industry leaders, policymakers, entrepreneurs, IT professionals, and investors to explore opportunities for leveraging technology as a catalyst for economic growth and innovation in the region. The summit aimed to develop a roadmap for a sustainable IT ecosystem in Koshi Province, foster public–private–academic partnerships, and attract investment into IT-driven startups.^[45] Complementing these initiatives, the Step Up project — co-financed by the Happel Foundation and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation — has been active in Koshi Province, promoting youth entrepreneurship and self-employment as a means of reducing outmigration, particularly among young people in rural hill and Terai communities.

Entrepreneurial activity has expanded in Koshi Province in recent years, supported by targeted policies, investment promotion events and a growing startup ecosystem. A special study by Nepal Rastra Bank reported that 160 startup enterprises in the province attracted a combined investment of around Rs 2.56 billion, with approximately 61 percent contributed as equity and 39 percent as loans. The study found that most startups operate in agriculture and forestry, followed by manufacturing, services, tourism and information technology, indicating a gradual diversification of the provincial economy.^[46]

Healthcare

Koshi province stretches from Himalayan region to the Terai belt due to which health facilities are more viable in Terai than other parts.

Koshi Province has 791 public health facilities including four large hospitals (BPKIHS, Koshi Hospital, Nobel Medical College, Birat Medical College). Altogether, there are 18 public hospitals, one regional medical store, 41 primary health centres, 648 health posts, 34 urban health care centres, and 41 community health units.

Energy

There are various power stations in Koshi province:

Mai Hydropower Station is one of station located in Illam and was established in 2014 producing 22 MW energy.
Puwa Khola Hydropower Station is located in Illam with capacity of 6.2 MW energy and was established in 1999.
Chatara Hydropower Station is located in Sunsari District with production capacity of 3.2 MW energy. It was established in 1996.
Iwa Khola Hydropower Project was established in 2018–19.
Upper Mai Hydropower Station is located in Illam with a capacity of 12 MW.
Pikhuwa Khola Hydropower Station is located in Bhojpur with a capacity of 5 MW.
Hewa Khola-A Hydroelectric Project is located in Pachthar with a capacity of 14.9 MW.
Jogmai Khola Hydropower Station is located in Illam with a capacity of 7.6 MW.
Upper Puwa-1 Hydropower Station is located in Illam with a capacity of 3 MW.
Upper Mai-C Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established with a capacity of 6.1 MW.
Kabeli B1 Hydropower Station is located in Pachthar and was established in 2019 with a capacity of 25 MW.
Lower Hewa Hydropower Station is located in Pachthar and was established in 2017 with a capacity of 21.6 MW.
Mai Cascade Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established in 2014 with a capacity of 8 MW.
Puwa Khola-1 Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established in 2014 with a capacity of 4 MW.
Solu Hydropower Station is located in Solukhumbu and was established in 2016 with a capacity of 23.5 MW.
Molun Khola Small Hydropower Station is located in Okhaldhunga and was established in 2019 with a capacity of 7 MW.
Upper Khorunga Hydropower Station is located in Tehrathum and was established in 2018 with a capacity of 7.5 MW.
Super Mai Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established in 2020 with a capacity of 7.8 MW.
Super Mai-A Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established in 2020 with a capacity of 9.6 MW.
Super Mai Khola Cascade Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established in 2020 with a capacity of 3.8 MW.
Mai Khola Small Hydropower Station is located in Illam and was established in 2008 with a capacity of 4.5 MW.

Provincial Assembly

The first meeting of the provincial assembly was held on 5 February 2018 in Biratnagar and was chaired by Om Prakash Sarbagi.^[47] Pradeep Kumar Bhandari was elected unopposed as the Speaker of the Provincial Assembly on 11 February 2018.^[48] Saraswoti Pokharel was also elected unopposed to the post of Deputy Speaker on 15 February 2018.^{[citation needed]}

Party		FPTP	PR	Total

	CPN (UML)	25	15	40
	Nepali Congress	17	12	29
	CPN (Maoist Centre)	9	4	13
	CPN (Unified Socialist)	3	1	4
	Federal Socialist Forum, Nepal	-	1	1
	Rastriya Prajatantra Party	2	4	6
Total		56	37	93
Source: Election Commission of Nepal

Transportation

Only three districts out of Koshi's fourteen fall in Terai and one district falls in inner Terai. Elevation from the lowest point of Nepal, Kechana (70 m above sea level) to the highest point of world, Everest (8848 m above sea level) lies in this province, so maintaining a consistent road network is challenging, but all districts are connected by road networks. Air services are available. Rail services are under construction.

Roadways

NH2 Mechi Highway near Buddhashanti rural municipality

Hilepani Junction at an elevation of 1,822 m (5,978 ft)

Highways in Koshi Province
S#	Highway number	Length	Terminus	Note
1	Invalid type: NH	135	Kakarbhitta, Koshi Barrage	Interprovincial NH
2	Invalid type: NH	352	Kechana, Gharila Pass	Provincial NH
3	Invalid type: NH	525	Chiyo Bhanjyang, Bahadura Khola	Interprovincial NH
4	Invalid type: NH	15	Birtamod, Chandragadhi	Provincial NH
5	Invalid type: NH	124	Mechipul, Laukahi	Interprovincial NH
6	Invalid type: NH	135	Chatara, Ganeshchowk	Provincial NH
7	Invalid type: NH	48	Chatara, Koshi new bridge	Interprovincial NH
8	Invalid type: NH	320	Biratnagar, Kimathanka	Provincial NH
9	Invalid type: NH	250	Bahundangi, Baireni	Interprovincial NH
10	Invalid type: NH	92	Basantapur, Bohoratar	Provincial NH
11	Invalid type: NH	19	Phikkal Bazar, Chhabbise	Provincial NH
12	Invalid type: NH	163	Ghurmi, Barkhadanda	Provincial NH
13	Invalid type: NH	40	Basaha, Phattehpur	Interprovincial NH
14	Invalid type: NH	111	Siswari bridge, Mohure	Interprovincial NH
15	Invalid type: NH	161	Jyamire, Salleri	Interprovincial NH
16	Invalid type: NH	108	Diktel, Pekarnas	Interprovincial NH
17	Invalid type: NH	25	Surunga, Lasunganj	Provincial NH
18	Invalid type: NH	50	Biplate, Sandakpur	Provincial NH
19	Invalid type: NH	135	Ghorepani, Basa	Provincial NH
20	Invalid type: NH	44	Chisapani, Rabi	Provincial NH
21	Invalid type: NH	100	Damak ringroad	Provincial NH
22	Invalid type: NH	12.29	Cancer Hospital, Belsot	Interprovincial NH

Airways

Many domestic airports and air services are available in the region including one of the most geographically challenging airports, Lukla Airport.

Airports in Koshi:

Bhojpur Airport (Bhojpur)
Biratnagar Airport (Biratnagar)
Kangel Danda Airport (Kangel, Solukhumbu)
Man Maya Airport (Khanidanda, Khotang)
Thamkharka Airport (Khotang Bazar)
Lamidanda Airport (Lamidanda, Khotang)
Tenzing-Hillary Airport (Lukla, Solukhumbu)
Phaplu Airport (Phaplu, Solukhumbu)
Rumjatar Airport (Rumjatar, Okhladhunga)
Syangboche Airport (Syangboche, Solukhumbu)
Taplejung Airport (Taplejung)
Tumlingtar Airport (Tumlingtar, Sankhuwasabha)
Bhadrapur Airport (Bhadrapur, Jhapa)

^[49]

Railways

Bathnaha–Katahari

Legend

0 km

Bathnaha

custom yard

4.2 km

7 km

Jogbani

Border

5.3 km

custom yard

6.3 km

Katahari

18 km

There is a 13 km railway track which has been laid in Nepal by Indian Railways is connected to Bathnaha railway station. Bathnaha is a village situated at Araria district of Bihar state of India. A custom yard station has been built both side of the border on Bathnaha–Katahari railway section. Katahari is at distance of 18 km from Bathnaha Railway Station.^[50]^[51] Itahari will be further connected with Katahari, which is 20 km from Biratnagar (Katahari).^[52]

Economy

Koshi has the second largest economy in Nepal, and contributes 15% to the national GDP. Koshi's GDP growth rate was estimated to be 6.5% in fiscal year 2018/19.

The population in absolute poverty in Koshi was 12.4%, and the multidimensional poverty rate was 19.7%.

Agriculture

Agriculture accounts for 38% of Koshi's GDP and is the main source of livelihood for 75% of the population.

The province has 714 registered businesses, with agriculture and forestry industry having the highest number registered businesses 114 (15.96%). Koshi contributes 22% of the total paddy production of Nepal and 29.3% of the national maize production.

Sports

Cricket

Koshi province has a wide audience in the province. It has been a pioneer in organising night matches. Inaruwa, Sunsari organised the first night cricket in Nepal.^[53] The first night football was organised in Duhabi, Sunsari on 31 March 2018.^[54]

The provincial teams take part in various games inside and outside Nepal.^[55] The team includes men as well as women. The overall sports in the province are administered by the Province 1 Sports Department.

There are numerous stadiums in Koshi:

Major football cups include:

Demographics

Historical population
Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1981	2,954,510	—
1991	3,520,335	+1.77%
2001	4,201,795	+1.79%
2011	4,534,943	+0.77%
2021	4,961,412	+0.90%
Sources:^[58]

The total population of the province according to the 2021 Nepal census was 4,961,412, of whom 2,544,084 were women (51.3%). 95 male per 100 female was the sex ratio. There were 1,191,556 households. 79.7% of the total population were literate. 86.1% of the total population of the male were educated, while 73.6% of the total of the female population were literate.^[59]

Religion

Religions of Koshi Province (2021)

Hinduism (67%)

Buddhism (9%)

Kirat (17%)

Islam (4%)

Christianity (2.32%)

Prakriti (0.45%)

Other (0.08%)

Hinduism is the major religion of the province. Kirat Mundhum is the second major religion of the province. 67% of the total population are Hindus, 17% are Kirantis, 9% are Buddhists, 4% are Muslims, 2% are Christians and others make up 1%.^[60]

Ethnic groups

The province is very ethnically diverse. In 2011, the largest group was Chhetri, making up 14.58% of the population. This is followed by Madheshi with (14.26%). Next is Hill Brahmin (11.98%). Other Khas Arya groups are the Kami (3.27%) and Damai (1.78%). The Janajati groups are the Rai (10.21%), Limbu (8.01%), Tamang (4.62%), Magar (4.13%), Newar (3.68%) and Gurung (1.36%). Some Terai groups include Tharu (4.10%), Musalman (3.55%), Rajbanshi (2.47%), Musahar (1.35%), Yadav (1.30%) and Santal (1.11%).^[61]^[62]

As of 2021, Chhetris were the largest ethnic group with 11.0% of the population. Rai 10.2%,Bahun constituted 8.3% of the population, Limbu 7.8%,10.2%, Sherpa 7.3%, Tamang 4.6%, Tharu 4.2%, Muslims 4.1%, Magar 4.0% and Newar 3.6%.^[3] The various Madheshi non-Dalit communities were 8.68% of the population, of which the Yadav (1.42%) and Teli (0.98%) were the largest and second-largest non-Dalit communities. Madheshi Dalits were 3.40%, of which Musahar were 1.51%.^[59]

Language

Languages of Koshi Pradesh (2021)^[62]

Nepali (45.27%)

Maithili (11.68%)

Yakthung/Limbu (7.70%)

Shepa/Bhote (7.30%)

Tharu (4.40%)

Tamang (3.54%)

Magar Dhut (2.88%)

Bantawa (2.70%)

Rajbanshi (2.58%)

Others (17.93%)

Nepali language is lingua franca of the province and is the mother tongue of 45.27% of the population. Maithili is the second-largest language, spoken by 11.68%. 7.70% of the population spoke Sherpa,7.30% of the population spoke Limbu, 4.40% Tharu, 3.54% Tamang, 2.88% Magar Dhut, 2.70% Bantawa, 2.58% Rajbanshi, 2.32% Urdu, 1.85% Rai, 1.67% Chamling, 1.32% Sherpa, 1.26% Nepal Bhasha and 1.08% Santali.^[62]

The Language Commission of Nepal has recommended Limbu and Maithili as official language in the province. The commission has also recommended Tharu, Tamang, Magar, Bantawa, Urdu, Rajbanshi, Nepal Bhasa, Chamling, Sherpa and Santhali to be additional official languages, for specific regions and purposes in the province.^[63]

Education

Koshi is renowned for its educational facilities; 71.22% of the population of the province can read and write.^[64]

Education up to the level of master's degree is provided by Purbanchal University, which offers courses like Bachelor of Science in Agriculture and Bachelor of Science in Nursing.^{[citation needed]} Insand titutions like BPKIHS, Birat Medical College Teaching Hospital, Nobel Medical College Teaching Hospital, B&C Medical College Teaching Hospital offer MBBS and BDS courses along with paramedic courses.^{[citation needed]}

Notable people

Girija Prasad Koirala, former prime minister
KP Sharma Oli, former prime minister
Bidya Devi Bhandari, former president of Nepal
Rajendra Prasad Lingden, chairman of Rastriya Prajatantra Party
Pramod Kharel, singer
Rachana Rimal, singer
Nawayug Shrestha, national football player
Lalit Rajbanshi, national cricket player
Malvika Subba, Miss Nepal 2002
Malina Joshi, Miss Nepal 2011
Manita Devkota, Miss Nepal Universe 2018
Harka Raj Rai, independent mayor of Dharan
Sabin Rai, singer
Siddhicharan Shrestha, writer
Kiran Chemjong, football player, captain of Nepal national football team
Dayahang Rai, actor
Sanduk Ruit, ophthalmologist, referred to as the "God of Sight"
Mahaguru Phalgunanda, leader of the Kirat religion for the Kirat people
Lhakpa Sherpa, mountaineer
Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, mountaineer
Mira Rai, Nepalese trail runner and sky runner
Sushila Karki, the first female (interim) prime minister, the former (and the first female) chief justice of the Supreme Court of Nepal
Phupu Lhamu Khatri, judoka and Olympian
Swarup Singh Karki, Dewan (prime minister)
Nikita Chandak, Miss Nepal 2017
Sugam Pokharel, singer
Girish Khatiwada, rapper, radio, television personality, and vlogger.
Bipin Karki, actor
Sunil Pokharel, actor

References

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↑ "मध्यावधि रोक्न सांसदहरूले मलाई समर्थन गर्नुभयो : मुख्यमन्त्री कार्की" [MPs supported me to block mid-terms: CM Karki]. Online Khabar. 2023.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 "National Population and Housing Census 2021". Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office. 2023.
↑ "NepalMap profile: Province No. 1". NepalMap. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
↑ "NID | Overview". Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
↑ "Province Wise Multidimensional Poverty Index". Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
↑ "Calls grow to include Bantawa and Chamling as official languages in Koshi Province".
↑ "Biratnagar celebrates its status of provincial capital". The Himalayan Times. 2018. Archived from the original on 20 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
↑ "Locals intensify protest in Dhankuta after Biratnagar named as provincial HQ". Kathmandu Post Ekantipur. 2018. Archived from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
↑ "Nepal government announces Provincial Capitals and Chiefs". DDI News. 2018. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
↑ "Crucial North-South corridors making slow but steady progress". The Rising Nepal. 22 June 2025.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
↑ "Editorial: Important step". The Himalayan Times. 2017. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
↑ "राष्ट्रिय जनगणना २०७८ प्रारम्भिक नतिजा". Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal (in नेपाली). 2022. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 "Province 1: Call for opportunities in the land of great promise". Kantipur Publications Pvt. Ltd. 2015. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
↑ "Nepal's 'Province 1' renamed 'Koshi' after country's largest river". Canada Asia Sustainability Tracker. 2023. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 Valmiki, Maharishi. Ramayana (1st ed.). India: Various.
↑ "प्रदेश नं. १ सरकारको आधिकारिक पोर्टल". p1.gov.np. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
↑ Swatantra, G. (2018). Nepal KO itshaas (1st ed.). Kathmandu: Kriti publishers. pp. 1–567.
↑ नेपालको जिल्ला प्रशासन पुनर्गठनको रिपोर्ट, २०१३ (PDF). Nepal: Nepal Govt. pp. 31, 32, 33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
↑ Caplan, L. (2000). Land and social change in east Nepal.
↑ History and Culture of the Kirat People: Part I-II.
↑ "Memorial Step of King Mahendra in 1st Poush 2017 BS". Review Nepal. 2017. Archived from the original on 7 February 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
↑ "Protest against naming of Koshi Province intensifies". Kathmandu Post. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ "Geography of Nepal". Embassy of Nepal - Tokyo, Japan. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ Republica. "Welcome to Federal Nepal, Koshi!". My Republica. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ Board, Nepal Tourism. "Geography". ntb.gov.np. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ "Koshi's weather forecast for today". justweather.org. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ "Nepal Travel Weather Averages (Weatherbase)". Weatherbase. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
↑ "Province1". walkthroughhimalayas.com. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ "Province No. 1". kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
↑ "Government finalises provinces' governors and temporary headquarters". nepalekhabar.com. 17 January 2018. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 "Sherdhan Rai elected CM of Province 1". kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. 14 February 2018. Archived from the original on 14 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
↑ "FNCCI Koshi Province". Retrieved 2026. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
↑ "CNIYEF Koshi Chapter". Retrieved 2026. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
↑ "Koshi Province Investment Summit 2025". Koshi Province Investment Authority. Retrieved 2025. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
↑ "Rs 2.56 billion invested in startups in Koshi Province". The Rising Nepal. 6 January 2026.
↑ "Rs 2.56 billion invested in startups in Koshi Province: NRB". The Himalayan Times. 06 January 2026. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ "Most startups in Koshi Province profitable despite funding and market challenges: NRB study". Khabarhub. 06 January 2026. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ "Koshi Province Investment Summit: PM calls for investing confidently". The Rising Nepal. 1 May 2025.
↑ "Preparations over for Koshi Province Investment Summit". The Rising Nepal. 30 April 2025.
↑ "First-ever investment summit in Koshi". The Annapurna Express. 1 May 2025.
↑ "Koshi Province Investment Summit: MoUs signed for investments worth 152 billion". Makalu Khabar English. 2 May 2025.
↑ "Investing in federalism". The Kathmandu Post. 17 February 2026.
↑ "Koshi Province launches 'Udaya' project to create 3,000 jobs". Khabarhub English. 29 August 2025.
↑ "1st Koshi IT Summit 2025". CNIYEF Koshi Chapter. Retrieved 2025. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
↑ "Rs 2.56 billion invested in startups in Koshi Province". The Rising Nepal.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
↑ "First Province Assembly meeting of Province 1 today". Archived from the original on 1 April 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
↑ "Pradeep Bhandari named Province 1 speaker". Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
↑ "Feasibility report of larger Dharan Airport ready". Nagrik News. 1 July 2017. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.
↑ "Indian locomotive arrives in Biratnagar for test run". KMG. 4 November 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
↑ "Railway Transit for Cargo Bound for Biratnagar, Nepal via Jogbani, India". South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation. 25 April 2018. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
↑ "EIA of proposed electric railway in Province 1 ready". The Himalayan. 18 December 2019. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
↑ "MM One day national cricket starts on Jan 5". kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
↑ RSS. "Province 1 sees growing night-time sporting sensation". My Republica. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
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↑ "Morang: Dug-out Construction Begins At Sahid Maidan, Biratnagar". GoalNepal. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
↑ "Biggest Cities Nepal". www.geonames.org. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
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↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 "Population size and distribution of Koshi Province". Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
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↑ "सरकारी कामकाजको भाषाका आधारहरूको निर्धारण तथा भाषासम्बन्धी सिफारिसहरू (पञ्चवर्षीय प्रतिवेदन- साराांश) २०७८" (PDF). Language Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
↑ Province-Wise Literacy Rate of 5 Years and Above Population in 2011 AD (PDF) (Report). 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2020.

Template:Municipalities of Koshi Province Template:Koshi Province topics Template:Provinces of Nepal Template:Districts of Nepal Template:Nepal topics

[capital-1] 1.0 ^1.1 "प्रदेश १ राजधानी: विराटनगरको पक्षमा दुईतिहाई, नाम टुंगो लागेन" [Province No. 1 Capital: Two-thirds of MLAs vote in favour of Biratnagar]. Annapurna Post (in नेपाली). 2019. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2019.

[2] "मध्यावधि रोक्न सांसदहरूले मलाई समर्थन गर्नुभयो : मुख्यमन्त्री कार्की" [MPs supported me to block mid-terms: CM Karki]. Online Khabar. 2023.

[census2021-3] 3.0 ^3.1 "National Population and Housing Census 2021". Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office. 2023.

[4] "NepalMap profile: Province No. 1". NepalMap. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2020.

[5] "NID | Overview". Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.

[6] "Province Wise Multidimensional Poverty Index". Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.

[7] "Calls grow to include Bantawa and Chamling as official languages in Koshi Province".

[8] "Biratnagar celebrates its status of provincial capital". The Himalayan Times. 2018. Archived from the original on 20 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.

[9] "Locals intensify protest in Dhankuta after Biratnagar named as provincial HQ". Kathmandu Post Ekantipur. 2018. Archived from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.

[10] "Nepal government announces Provincial Capitals and Chiefs". DDI News. 2018. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.

[11] "Crucial North-South corridors making slow but steady progress". The Rising Nepal. 22 June 2025.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[12] "Editorial: Important step". The Himalayan Times. 2017. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.

[13] "राष्ट्रिय जनगणना २०७८ प्रारम्भिक नतिजा". Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal (in नेपाली). 2022. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2022.

[Kantipur_Publications_Pvt._Ltd-14] 14.0 ^14.1 "Province 1: Call for opportunities in the land of great promise". Kantipur Publications Pvt. Ltd. 2015. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.

[15] "Nepal's 'Province 1' renamed 'Koshi' after country's largest river". Canada Asia Sustainability Tracker. 2023. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.

[Valmiki-16] 16.0 ^16.1 Valmiki, Maharishi. Ramayana (1st ed.). India: Various.

[17] "प्रदेश नं. १ सरकारको आधिकारिक पोर्टल". p1.gov.np. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2023.

[18] Swatantra, G. (2018). Nepal KO itshaas (1st ed.). Kathmandu: Kriti publishers. pp. 1–567.

[19] नेपालको जिल्ला प्रशासन पुनर्गठनको रिपोर्ट, २०१३ (PDF). Nepal: Nepal Govt. pp. 31, 32, 33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2020.

[20] Caplan, L. (2000). Land and social change in east Nepal.

[21] History and Culture of the Kirat People: Part I-II.

[22] "Memorial Step of King Mahendra in 1st Poush 2017 BS". Review Nepal. 2017. Archived from the original on 7 February 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2018.

[23] "Protest against naming of Koshi Province intensifies". Kathmandu Post. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[24] "Geography of Nepal". Embassy of Nepal - Tokyo, Japan. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[25] Republica. "Welcome to Federal Nepal, Koshi!". My Republica. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[26] Board, Nepal Tourism. "Geography". ntb.gov.np. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[27] "Koshi's weather forecast for today". justweather.org. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[28] "Nepal Travel Weather Averages (Weatherbase)". Weatherbase. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2018.

[29] "Province1". walkthroughhimalayas.com. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[30] "Province No. 1". kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.

[31] "Government finalises provinces' governors and temporary headquarters". nepalekhabar.com. 17 January 2018. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2018.

[CM_of_Province_1-32] 32.0 ^32.1 "Sherdhan Rai elected CM of Province 1". kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. 14 February 2018. Archived from the original on 14 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.

[33] "FNCCI Koshi Province". Retrieved 2026. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[34] "CNIYEF Koshi Chapter". Retrieved 2026. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[35] "Koshi Province Investment Summit 2025". Koshi Province Investment Authority. Retrieved 2025. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[36] "Rs 2.56 billion invested in startups in Koshi Province". The Rising Nepal. 6 January 2026.

[37] "Rs 2.56 billion invested in startups in Koshi Province: NRB". The Himalayan Times. 06 January 2026. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[38] "Most startups in Koshi Province profitable despite funding and market challenges: NRB study". Khabarhub. 06 January 2026. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[39] "Koshi Province Investment Summit: PM calls for investing confidently". The Rising Nepal. 1 May 2025.

[40] "Preparations over for Koshi Province Investment Summit". The Rising Nepal. 30 April 2025.

[41] "First-ever investment summit in Koshi". The Annapurna Express. 1 May 2025.

[42] "Koshi Province Investment Summit: MoUs signed for investments worth 152 billion". Makalu Khabar English. 2 May 2025.

[43] "Investing in federalism". The Kathmandu Post. 17 February 2026.

[44] "Koshi Province launches 'Udaya' project to create 3,000 jobs". Khabarhub English. 29 August 2025.

[45] "1st Koshi IT Summit 2025". CNIYEF Koshi Chapter. Retrieved 2025. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[46] "Rs 2.56 billion invested in startups in Koshi Province". The Rising Nepal.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[47] "First Province Assembly meeting of Province 1 today". Archived from the original on 1 April 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.

[48] "Pradeep Bhandari named Province 1 speaker". Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.

[49] "Feasibility report of larger Dharan Airport ready". Nagrik News. 1 July 2017. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.

[50] "Indian locomotive arrives in Biratnagar for test run". KMG. 4 November 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2020.

[51] "Railway Transit for Cargo Bound for Biratnagar, Nepal via Jogbani, India". South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation. 25 April 2018. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2020.

[52] "EIA of proposed electric railway in Province 1 ready". The Himalayan. 18 December 2019. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2022.

[kathmandu_post-53] "MM One day national cricket starts on Jan 5". kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019.

[54] RSS. "Province 1 sees growing night-time sporting sensation". My Republica. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.

[55] "Province Number 1 squad - Prov-1-Nepal Squad - PM Cup (T20), 2022 Squad". ESPNcricinfo. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.

[56] "Morang: Dug-out Construction Begins At Sahid Maidan, Biratnagar". GoalNepal. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[57] "Biggest Cities Nepal". www.geonames.org. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[58] "Nepal: Provinces and Districts". citypopulation.de. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 26 February 2022.

[:1-59] 59.0 ^59.1 "Population size and distribution of Koshi Province". Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2023.

[60] "Province No. 1". nepaltraveller.com. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[61] "Province 1". Nepal Outlook | Believe in Data. Retrieved 24 April 2023.

[:0-62] 62.0 ^62.1 ^62.2 "National Data Portal-Nepal". nationaldata.gov.np. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2021.

[langcomreport-63] "सरकारी कामकाजको भाषाका आधारहरूको निर्धारण तथा भाषासम्बन्धी सिफारिसहरू (पञ्चवर्षीय प्रतिवेदन- साराांश) २०७८" (PDF). Language Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2021.

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