Dynasty: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 23:50, 29 March 2026

Family photograph of the Imperial House of Japan, the world's oldest continuous royal dynasty since at least the 5th century, with three generations (from left): Empress Michiko, Emperor Akihito, their son Emperor Naruhito and his consort Empress Masako, Crown Prince Akishino and Crown Princess Akishino, and behind them their children (2021)

A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,^[1] usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A "house" is an imperial, royal or noble family, not always ruling. Historians periodize the histories of many states and civilizations, such as the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 1453), Imperial Iran (678 BC – AD 1979), Ancient Egypt (3100–30 BC), and Ancient and Imperial China (2070 BC – AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term "dynasty" may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned.

Before the 18th century, most dynasties throughout the world were traditionally reckoned patrilineally, such as those that followed the Frankish Salic law. In polities where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husband's family name. This has changed in all of Europe's remaining monarchies, where succession law and conventions have maintained dynastic names de jure through a female.

Terminology[edit | edit source]

The word "dynasty" (from the Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., dynasteía "power", "lordship", from dynástes "ruler")^[2] is sometimes used informally for people who are not rulers but are, for example, members of a family with influence and power in other areas, such as a series of successive owners of a major company, or any family with a legacy, such as a dynasty of poets or actors. It is also extended to unrelated people, such as major poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team.^[3]

The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a "noble house",^[4] which may be styled as "imperial", "royal", "princely", "ducal", "comital" or "baronial", depending upon the chief or present title borne by its members, but it is more often referred by adding the name afterwards, as in "House of Habsburg".

Dynast[edit | edit source]

The Spanish royal family of the House of Bourbon dates its roots to the Capetian dynasty of the 9th century, thus making it the oldest still reigning dynasty in Europe (photograph of King Felipe VI, Queen Letizia, the Princess of Asturias and her younger sister Infanta Sofía, in 2019)

A ruler from a dynasty is sometimes referred to as a "dynast", but this term is also used to describe any member of a reigning family who retains a right to succeed to a throne. For example, King Edward VIII ceased to be a dynast of the House of Windsor following his abdication.

In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a "dynast" is a family member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchy's rules still in force. For example, after the 1914 assassinations of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his morganatic wife, their son Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg, was bypassed for the Austro-Hungarian throne because he was not a Habsburg dynast. Even after the abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Duke Maximilian and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position.

The term "dynast" is sometimes used only to refer to agnatic descendants of a realm's monarchs, and sometimes to include those who hold succession rights through cognatic royal descent. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people. For example, David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon, a nephew of Queen Elizabeth II, is in the line of succession to the British crown, making him a British dynast. On the other hand, since he is not a patrilineal member of the British royal family, he is not a dynast of the House of Windsor.

Comparatively, the German aristocrat Prince Ernst August of Hanover, a male-line descendant of King George III, possesses no legal British name, titles or styles (although he is entitled to reclaim the former royal dukedom of Cumberland). He was born in the line of succession to the British throne and was bound by Britain's Royal Marriages Act 1772 until it was repealed when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 took effect on 26 March 2015.^[5] Thus, he requested and obtained formal permission from Queen Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco in 1999. Yet, a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time, stipulating that dynasts who marry Roman Catholics are considered "dead" for succession to the British throne.^[6] That exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts before triggering it by marriage to a Roman Catholic.^[5]

Dynastic marriage[edit | edit source]

Family portrait of Empress Maria Theresa of the Habsburg dynasty, surrounded by her children who were married into various European dynasties. Marriage policy amongst dynasties led to the *Pax Austriaca*.

A "dynastic marriage" is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, so that the descendants are eligible to inherit the throne or other royal privileges.^[7] For example, the marriage of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, making their eldest child, Princess Catharina-Amalia, the heir apparent to the Crown of the Netherlands. The marriage of his younger brother, Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau, in 2003 lacked government support and parliamentary approval. Thus, Prince Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession to the Dutch throne, and consequently lost his title as a "Prince of the Netherlands", and left his children without dynastic rights.

The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 was an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI on 19 April 1713 to ensure that the Habsburg monarchy could be inherited by his daughter undivided (→ agnatic-cognatic primogeniture).^[8] In 1736, Francis Stephen of Lorraine married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, the sole heir of Emperor Charles VI. With the marriage of Maria Theresa, the only offspring of the House of Austria, she became together with her husband the founder of the new dynasty of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Since 1740 he was her co-regent in the Habsburg hereditary lands and from 1745 he was Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I, but was hardly involved in government affairs.^[9] Francis was as Duke of Lorraine the last non-Habsburg monarch of the Holy Roman Empire. The couple were the founders of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, which ruled until 1918. Empress Maria Theresa of the Habsburg dynasty had her children married into various European dynasties. Habsburg marriage policy amongst European dynasties led to the Pax Austriaca.^[10]^[11]

History[edit | edit source]

Historians periodize the histories of many states and civilizations, such as Ancient Iran (3200 BC – 1979 AD), Ancient Egypt (3100–30 BC) and Ancient and Imperial China (2070 BC – AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term "dynasty" may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, and also to describe events, trends and artefacts of that period (e.g., "a Ming dynasty vase"). Until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty: that is, to expand the wealth and power of his family members.^[12]

Before the 18th century, most dynasties throughout the world had traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as those that followed the Frankish Salic law. In polities where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husband's family name. This has changed in all of Europe's remaining monarchies, where succession law and conventions have maintained dynastic names de jure through a female. For instance, the House of Windsor is maintained through the children of Queen Elizabeth II, as it did with the monarchy of the Netherlands, whose dynasty remained the House of Orange-Nassau through three successive queens regnant. The earliest such example among major European monarchies was in the Russian Empire in the 18th century, where the name of the House of Romanov was maintained through Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna. This also happened in the case of Queen Maria II of Portugal, who married Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry, but whose descendants remained members of the House of Braganza, per Portuguese law;, since the 1800s, the only female monarch in Europe who had children belonging to a different house was Queen Victoria and that was due to disagreements over how to choose a non German house. In Limpopo Province of South Africa, Balobedu determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mother's dynasty when coming into her inheritance. Less frequently, a monarchy has alternated or been rotated, in a multi-dynastic (or polydynastic) system—that is, the most senior living members of parallel dynasties, at any point in time, constitute the line of succession.^{[citation needed]}

Longevity[edit | edit source]

King Tupou VI of Tonga and Queen Nanasipau'u, head of one of the oldest still ruling royal dynasties in the world, dating back to c. 950 CE of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire

Dynasties lasting at least 200 years include the following. Legendary lineages that cannot be historically confirmed are not included.

Dynasty	Years Ruled	Corrected Length of Rule	Notes
Imperial House of Japan	c. 500 CE – present	~1,500+ years	Continuous, mostly ceremonial since 12th century; pre-500 CE emperors semi-legendary, exact start uncertain.^[13]^[14]^{[lower-alpha 1]}
Wessex/England/Britain	c. 520 CE – present	~1,500 years	Non-continuous; was deposed in 1066 but survived through marriages and cadet branches.^{[lower-alpha 2]}
Chera	c. 200 BCE – 1100 CE	~1,300 years	Estimation; fragmented early records, gaps likely.^[17]^[18]
Pandya	c. 300 BCE – 900 CE	~1,200 years	Estimation; intermittent rule after 900 CE, gaps in continuity.^[19]^[20]
Tonga	c. 950 CE – present	~1,075 years	Estimation; title changed in 1865, constitutional now.^[21]^[22]
Capetian	987 CE – present	1,038 years	Continuous through cadet branches (e.g., Bourbon); active in Spain.^[23]
Bagrationi	780 CE – 1801 CE	~1,021 years	Georgian royal house; ended with Russian annexation.^[24]
Guhila / Sisodia	566 CE – 1537 CE	~971 years	Mewar rajputs; ceremonial after 1537.^[25]^[26]
Silla	57 BCE – 935 CE	992 years	Korean kingdom; estimation for early start.^[27]
Adaside	c. 1700 BCE – 722 BCE	978 years	Neo-Assyrian period; estimation.^[28]
Eastern Ganga	498 CE – 1434 CE	~936 years	Odisha rulers; diminished after 1434.^[29]^[30]
Baduspanids	665 CE – 1598 CE	933 years	Tabaristan rulers.^[31]
Chola	c. 300 BCE – 200 CE, 848–1279 CE	~929 years	Non-continuous; interregnum ~200–848 CE; early period semi-legendary.^[32]^[33]
Zhou	1046 BCE – 256 BCE	790 years	Nominal rule in later Warring States period; traditional dates.^[34]
Abbasid	750–1258 CE, 1261–1517 CE	764 years	Non-continuous; caliphal rule, ceremonial after 1258.^[35]
Rurikid	862 CE – 1598 CE	736 years	Kievan Rus to Tsardom of Russia.^[36]
Sayfawa	c. 1085 CE – 1846 CE	~761 years	Kanem–Bornu Empire; estimation.^[37]
Grimaldi	1297 CE	729 years	Reigning Princes of Monaco
Goguryeo	37 BCE – 668 CE	705 years	Korean kingdom; well-documented.^[38]
Solomon	1270 CE – 1975 CE	705 years	Ethiopian emperors; restored in 1270.^[39]
Bavand dynasty	651 CE – 1349 CE	698 years	Tabaristan rulers.^[40]
Kachhwaha	1128 CE – 1818 CE	690 years	Jaipur rajputs; effective rule ended with British control.^[41]^[42]
Bolkiah	c. 1360 CE – present	~665 years	Brunei sultans; estimation for early start.^[43]
Ottoman	1299 CE – 1922 CE	623 years	Sultans of Ottoman Empire.^[44]
Vijaya	543 BCE – 66 CE	609 years	Sri Lankan kings; traditional dates.^[45]
Ahom	1228 CE – 1826 CE	598 years	Assam kingdom.^[46]
Oldenburg	1448 CE – present	577 years	Danish/Norwegian royals; active in Denmark.^[47]
Rathore	1243 CE – 1818 CE	575 years	Marwar/Jodhpur rajputs; ended with British control.^[48]^[49]
Bohkti	c. 1330 CE – 1855 CE	~525 years	Kurdish principality; adjusted start date.^[50]
Joseon and Korean Empire	1392 CE – 1910 CE	518 years	Korean rulers.^[51]
Habsburg	1278 CE – 1780 CE	502 years	Line Agnatic: All are extinct (after death of Maria Theresa).
Shang	1600 BCE – 1046 BCE	496 years	Chinese royal rulers^[52]
Goryeo	918 CE – 1392 CE	474 years	Korean kingdom.^[53]
Arsacid	247 BCE – 224 CE	471 years	Parthian Empire.^[54]
Nabhani	1154 CE – 1624 CE	470 years	Oman imams.^[55]
Han and Shu Han	202 BCE – 9 CE, 25–220 CE	448 years	Non-continuous; Chinese emperors.^[56]
Árpád	858 CE – 1301 CE	443 years	Hungarian kings.^[57]
Mataram	1586 CE – present	~439 years	Indonesian sultans; estimation for continuity.^[58]
Sassanian	224 CE – 651 CE	427 years	Persian Empire.^[59]
Davidic	c. 1010 BCE – 586 BCE	~424 years	Kingdom of Judah; traditional dates.^[60]
Jafnid	220 CE – 638 CE	418 years	Arab kingdom.^[61]
Piast	960 CE – 1370 CE	410 years	Polish dukes/kings.^[62]
Argead	c. 700 BCE – 309 BCE	~391 years	Macedonian kings; adjusted start.^[63]
Copán	426 CE – 810 CE	384 years	Maya city-state.^[64]
Siri Sanga Bo	1220 CE – 1597 CE	377 years	Kandy kingdom, Sri Lanka.^[65]
Umayyad	661–750 CE, 756–1031 CE	364 years	Non-continuous; caliphs.^[66]
Yuan and Northern Yuan	1271 CE – 1635 CE	364 years	Mongol China.^[67]
Komnenos	1057–1059 CE, 1081–1185 CE, 1204–1461 CE	363 years	Byzantine emperors; non-continuous.^[68]
Later Lê (Primitive and Revival Lê)	1428–1527 CE, 1533–1789 CE	355 years	Vietnamese emperors; non-continuous.^[69]
Estridsen	1047–1375 CE, 1387–1412 CE	353 years	Danish kings; non-continuous.^[70]
Aryacakravarti	1277 CE – 1619 CE	342 years	Jaffna kingdom.^[71]
Lakhmid	c. 268 CE – 602 CE	~334 years	Arab kingdom.^[72]
Stuart	1371–1651, 1660–1714	334 years	Scottish/British royals; non-continuous.^[73]
Mughal	1526 CE – 1857 CE	331 years	Mughal Empire; cadet branch of Timurid dynasty.^[74]^[75]
Plantagenet	1154 CE – 1485 CE	331 years	English kings.^[76]
Jiménez	905 CE – 1234 CE	329 years	Navarre/Aragon.^[77]
Bendahara	1699 CE – present	~326 years	Pahang/Malaysia sultans; estimation.^[78]
Song	960 CE – 1279 CE	319 years	Chinese emperors.^[79]
Romanov	1613 CE – 1917 CE	304 years	Russian tsars.^[80]
Liao and Western Liao	916 CE – 1218 CE	302 years	Khitan rulers.^[81]
Later Jin and Qing	1616 CE – 1912 CE	296 years	Manchu China.^[82]
Ming and Southern Ming	1368 CE – 1662 CE	294 years	Chinese emperors.^[83]
Babenberg	962 CE – 1246 CE	284 years	Austrian dukes.^[84]
Ptolemaic	305 BCE – 30 BCE	275 years	Hellenistic Egypt.^[85]
Tang	618–690 CE, 705–907 CE	274 years	Chinese emperors; non-continuous.^[86]
Fatimid	909 CE – 1171 CE	262 years	Caliphs.^[87]
Nasrid	1230 CE – 1492 CE	262 years	Granada emirate.^[88]
Rajasa	1222 CE -1478 CE	256 years	Javanese rulers^[89]
Thutmosid	c. 1550 BCE – c. 1295 BCE	~255 years	Egyptian pharaohs.^[90]
Dunkeld	1034 CE – 1286 CE	252 years	Scottish kings.^[91]
Bubastite	c. 945 BCE – c. 715 BCE	~230 years	Egyptian pharaohs.^[90]
Achaemenid	550 BCE – 330 BCE	220 years	Persian Empire; adjusted start.^[92]^[93]
Bernadotte	1818 CE – present	208 years	Swedish monarchs; Norwegian monarchs from 1818 – 1905^[94]

Extant sovereign dynasties[edit | edit source]

There are 43 sovereign states with a monarch as head of state, of which 41 are ruled by dynasties.^{[lower-alpha 3]} There are currently 26 sovereign dynasties.

Dynasty	Realm	Reigning monarch	Dynastic founder^{[lower-alpha 4]}	Dynastic place of origin^{[lower-alpha 5]}
Windsor^{[lower-alpha 6]}^{[lower-alpha 7]}	Antigua and Barbuda	King Charles III	King-Emperor George V^{[lower-alpha 8]}	Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany)
	Commonwealth of Australia^{[lower-alpha 9]}
	Bahamas
	Belize
	Canada
	Grenada
	Jamaica
	New Zealand^{[lower-alpha 10]}
	Papua New Guinea
	Saint Kitts and Nevis
	Saint Lucia
	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
	Solomon Islands
	Tuvalu
	File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom^{[lower-alpha 11]}
Khalifa	Bahrain	King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa	Sheikh Khalifa bin Mohammed	Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia)
Belgium^{[lower-alpha 12]}	Belgium	King Philippe	King Albert I^{[lower-alpha 13]}	Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany)
Wangchuck	Bhutan	Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck	Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck	Trongsa, Bhutan
Bolkiah	Brunei	Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah	Sultan Muhammad Shah	Tarim in Hadhramaut^{[lower-alpha 14]} (in modern Yemen)
Norodom^{[lower-alpha 15]}	Cambodia	King Norodom Sihamoni	King Norodom Prohmbarirak	Cambodia
Glücksburg^{[lower-alpha 16]}	Denmark^{[lower-alpha 17]}	King Frederik X	Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg	Glücksburg (in modern Germany)
Glücksburg^{[lower-alpha 16]}	Norway^{[lower-alpha 18]}	King Harald V		Glücksburg (in modern Germany)
Dlamini	Eswatini	King Mswati III	Chief Dlamini I	East Africa
Yamato^{[lower-alpha 19]}	Japan	Emperor Naruhito	Emperor Jimmu^{[lower-alpha 20]}	Nara (in modern Japan)
Hashim^{[lower-alpha 21]}	Jordan	King Abdullah II	King Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi	Hejaz (in modern Saudi Arabia)
Sabah	Kuwait	Emir Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah	Sheikh Sabah I bin Jaber	Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia)
Moshesh	Lesotho	King Letsie III	Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe I	Lesotho
Liechtenstein	Liechtenstein	Prince Hans-Adam II	Prince Karl I	Lower Austria (in modern Austria)
Luxembourg-Nassau^{[lower-alpha 22]}	Luxembourg	Grand Duke Guillaume V	Grand Duke Adolphe	Nassau (in modern Germany)
Temenggong^{[lower-alpha 23]}	Malaysia^{[lower-alpha 24]}	Sultan Ibrahim III	Sultan Abu Bakar	Johor (in modern Malaysia)
Grimaldi	Monaco	Prince Albert II	François Grimaldi	Genoa (in modern Italy)
Alawi	Morocco	King Mohammed VI	Sultan Abul Amlak Sidi Muhammad as-Sharif ibn 'Ali	Tafilalt (in modern Morocco)
Orange-Nassau^{[lower-alpha 25]}	Netherlands^{[lower-alpha 26]}	King Willem-Alexander	Prince William I	Nassau (in modern Germany)
Busaid	Oman	Sultan Haitham bin Tariq	Sultan Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi	Oman
Thani	Qatar	Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani	Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed	Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia)
Saud	Saudi Arabia	King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud	Emir Saud I	Diriyah (in modern Saudi Arabia)
Bourbon-Anjou^{[lower-alpha 27]}	Spain	King Felipe VI	King Philip V	Bourbon-l'Archambault (in modern France)
Bernadotte	Sweden	King Carl XVI Gustaf	King Charles XIV John	Pau (in modern France)
Chakri	Thailand	King Vajiralongkorn	King Rama I	Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (in modern Thailand)
Tupou	Tonga	King Tupou VI	King George Tupou I	Tonga
Nahyan^{[lower-alpha 28]}	United Arab Emirates^{[lower-alpha 29]}	President Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan	Sheikh Dhiyab bin Isa Al Nahyan	Liwa Oasis (in modern United Arab Emirates)

Political families[edit | edit source]

Though in elected governments, rule does not pass automatically by inheritance, political power often accrues to generations of related individuals in the elected positions of republics and constitutional monarchies. Eminence, influence, tradition, genetics, and nepotism may contribute to the phenomenon.

Hereditary dictatorship[edit | edit source]

Iranian supreme leaders Ali Khamenei (left) and Mojtaba Khamenei (right), are members of the Khamenei family, which has ruled Iran since 1989

Hereditary dictatorships are characterized by the dictator keeping political power within their family due to personal choice.^[95] The successor may be groomed during their lifetime, as was the case for Bashar al-Assad and his brother Bassel,^[96] or a member of their family may manoeuvre to take control of the dictatorship after the dictator's death, similar to the case of Ramfis Trujillo^[97] or Mojtaba Khamenei.

Current hereditary dictatorships
Dynasty	Regime	Dynastic founder	Current leader	Year founded^{[lower-alpha 30]}	Length of rule
Kim family^[98]^[99]	North Korea	Kim Il Sung	Kim Jong Un	1948	77 years, 329 days
Gnassingbé family^[100]	Togo	Gnassingbé Eyadéma	Faure Gnassingbé	1967	59 years, 112 days
Bongo family^[101]^[102]	Gabon	Omar Bongo	Brice Oligui Nguema^{[lower-alpha 31]}	1967	58 years, 249 days
Nguema family^[103]^[104]	Equatorial Guinea	Francisco Macías Nguema	Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo	1968	57 years, 296 days
Guelleh family^[103]	Djibouti	Hassan Gouled Aptidon	Ismaïl Omar Guelleh	1977	49 years, 38 days
Hun family^[105]^[106]^[107]	Cambodia	Hun Sen	Hun Manet	1985	41 years, 202 days
Khamenei family^[108]	Iran	Ali Khamenei	Mojtaba Khamenei	1989	37 years, 61 days
Déby family^[109]	Chad	Idriss Déby	Mahamat Déby	1991	35 years, 157 days
Aliyev family^[110]	Azerbaijan	Heydar Aliyev	Ilham Aliyev	1993	33 years, 41 days
Berdimuhamedow family^[111]	Turkmenistan	Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow	Serdar Berdimuhamedow	2006	19 years, 226 days

Former hereditary dictatorships
Dynasty	Regime	Dynastic founder	Last leader	Year founded	Year ended	Length of rule
López family^[112]	File:Flag of Paraguay (1842-1954).svg Paraguay	Carlos Antonio López	Francisco Solano López	1844	1870	25 years, 293 days
Trujillo family	Template:Country data Third Dominican Republic	Rafael Trujillo	Ramfis Trujillo	1930	1961	31 years, 93 days
Somoza family^[113]	Nicaragua	Anastasio Somoza García	Anastasio Somoza Debayle	1936	1979	43 years, 39 days
Duvalier family	Haiti	François Duvalier	Jean-Claude Duvalier	1957	1986	28 years, 108 days
Castro family	Cuba	Fidel Castro	Raul Castro	1959	2021	62 years, 62 days
Assad family^[114]^[115]	Template:Country data Ba'athist Syria	Hafez al-Assad	Bashar al-Assad	1971	2024	53 years, 269 days
Kabila family	Template:Country data DR Congo	Laurent-Désiré Kabila	Joseph Kabila	1997	2019	21 years, 252 days

Influential wealthy families[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

↑ Emperor Jimmu is said to have founded the kingdom of Yamato in the year 660 BCE, but this is a much later tradition. In fact, the first Japanese written records date to the 8th century CE, over a thousand years later (see Kojiki and Nihon Shoki). The first attested emperor is Yūryaku, who lived c. 500 CE. He is attested in the Inariyama and Eta Funayama Swords, both made during reign of "the Great king Waka Takiru" (Wakatakeru). The first sword is dated to the "Year of the Metal Pig", which could mean 471 or 534.^[15]
↑ Cerdic of Wessex is ultimately the ancestor of all English and British monarchs, since Henry I's wife, Margaret, was a grandaughter of Edward the Exile (see Family tree of English monarchs).^[16]
↑
Existing sovereign entities ruled by non-dynastic monarchs include:
↑ The founder of a dynasty need not necessarily equate to the first monarch of a particular realm. For example, while William I was the dynastic founder of the House of Orange-Nassau, which currently rules over the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he was never a monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
↑ Not to be confused with dynastic seat.
↑ The House of Windsor is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Windsor" in AD 1917.
↑ A sovereign state with Charles III as its monarch and head of state is known as a Commonwealth realm.
↑ George V was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha before 1917.
↑
Including:
↑
The Realm of New Zealand consists of:
↑
Including:
The crown dependencies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey, and the Isle of Man are neither part of the United Kingdom nor British overseas territories.
↑ The House of Belgium is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Belgium" in AD 1920.
↑ Albert I was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha before AD 1920.
↑ Claimed by the royal house, but the historicity is questionable.
↑ The House of Norodom is a branch of the Varman dynasty.
↑ The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is a branch of the House of Oldenburg.
↑
The Danish Realm consists of:
↑
Including:
↑ The Imperial House of Japan, or Kōshitsu (皇室), is the world's oldest continuous dynasty. The dynasty has produced an unbroken succession of Japanese monarchs since the legendary founding year of 660 BC.
↑ Most historians regard Emperor Jimmu to have been a mythical ruler. Emperor Ōjin, traditionally considered the 15th emperor, is the first who is generally thought to have existed, while Emperor Kinmei, the 29th emperor according to traditional historiography, is the first monarch for whom verifiable regnal dates can be assigned.
↑ The House of Hashim is descended from Banu Qatada, which was a branch of the House of Ali.
↑ The House of Luxembourg-Nassau is descended from the House of Nassau-Weilburg, which is a branch of the House of Nassau and the House of Bourbon-Parma.
↑ The Temenggong dynasty is the ruling dynasty of Johor and a cadet branch of the Bendahara dynasty. The Sultan of Johor is the reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
↑ The throne of Malaysia rotates among the nine constituent monarchies of Malaysia, each ruled by a dynasty. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers.
↑ The House of Orange-Nassau is a branch of the House of Nassau. Additionally, Willem-Alexander is also linked to the House of Lippe through Beatrix of the Netherlands.
↑
The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of:
↑ The House of Bourbon-Anjou is a branch of the House of Bourbon.
↑ The House of Nahyan is the ruling dynasty of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the incumbent President of the United Arab Emirates.
↑ The President of the United Arab Emirates is elected by the Federal Supreme Council. The office has been held by the Emir of Abu Dhabi since the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971.
↑ Year authoritarian system began
↑ maternal cousin of Ali Bongo

References[edit | edit source]

↑ English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897.
↑ Harper, Douglas. "dynasty". Online Etymology Dictionary.
↑ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897.
↑ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "house, n.¹ and int, 10. b." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2011.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Statement by Nick Clegg MP, UK parliament website Archived 5 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 26 March 2015 (retrieved on same date).
↑ "Monaco royal taken seriously ill". BBC News. London. 8 April 2005. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
↑ "The Dynastic Marriage". ieg-ego.eu (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
↑ "Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2025.
↑ Martin Mutschlechner. "Franz Stephan as the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty". The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 21 September 2025.
↑ Mutschlechner, Martin. "Maria Theresa as wife and mother". The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 2 November 2025.
↑ Mitchell, A. Wess (2019). The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-691-19644-2.
↑ Thomson, David (1961). "The Institutions of Monarchy". Europe Since Napoleon. New York: Knopf. pp. 79–80. The basic idea of monarchy was the idea that hereditary right gave the best title to political power...The dangers of disputed succession were best avoided by hereditary succession: ruling families had a natural interest in passing on to their descendants enhanced power and prestige...Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria were alike infatuated with the idea of strengthening their power, centralizing government in their own hands as against local and feudal privileges, and so acquiring more absolute authority in the state. Moreover, the very dynastic rivalries and conflicts between these eighteenth-century monarchs drove them to look for ever more efficient methods of government
↑ Brown, Delmer M. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–145. ISBN 978-0521223522.
↑ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1915). The Imperial House of Japan. Ponsonby Memorial Society. pp. 10–20.
↑ Seeley, Christopher (1991). A History of Writing in Japan. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 19–23. ISBN 90-04-09081-9.
↑ McCalman, Archibald Hamilton (1883). A Compact History of England from the Time of the Ancient Britons to the Reign of Queen Victoria (1880): With a Synopsis of England in the Nineteenth Century, Its Government, Institutions, Etc. R. Wrothington. p. 669.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 100–120. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Narayanan, M.G.S. (2013). Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-8188765072.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 100–120. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 130–140.
↑ Campbell, I.C. (2001). Island Kingdom: Tonga Ancient and Modern. Canterbury University Press. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0908812141.
↑ Wood, A.H. (1932). History of the Kingdom of Tonga. Methodist Mission Press. pp. 15–25.
↑ Shennan, J.H. (2007). The Bourbons: The History of a Dynasty. Hambledon Continuum. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-1852855239.
↑ Rayfield, Donald (2012). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. pp. 50–70. ISBN 978-1780230306.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 150–160. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–210.
↑ Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0674615762.
↑ Grayson, A.K. (1991). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Assyrian Periods. University of Toronto Press. pp. 10–20. ISBN 978-0802059659.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 120–130. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 180–190.
↑ Madelung, Wilferd (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–200. ISBN 978-0521200936.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 100–120. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–160.
↑ Li, Feng (2013). Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–130. ISBN 978-0521895521.
↑ Kennedy, Hugh (2016). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Routledge. pp. 150–170. ISBN 978-1138787612.
↑ Martin, Janet (2007). Medieval Russia, 980–1584. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–50. ISBN 978-0521859165.
↑ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2012) [1996]. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–129. ISBN 0-7486-2137-7.
↑ Byington, Mark E. (2016). The Ancient State of Goguryeo. Korea Institute, Harvard University. pp. 40–60. ISBN 978-0674737198.
↑ Marcus, Harold G. (2002). A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0520224797.
↑ Madelung, Wilferd (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–200. ISBN 978-0521200936.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 200–210. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–210.
↑ Saunders, Graham (2002). A History of Brunei. Routledge. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0700716982.
↑ Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0465023967.
↑ Geiger, Wilhelm (1912). Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Pali Text Society. pp. 50–60. OCLC 635511441.
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↑ Oakley, Stewart (1972). Scandinavian History, 1520–1970. University of Chicago Press. pp. 40–50. ISBN 978-0226613789.
↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 200–210. ISBN 978-1138961159.
↑ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–210.
↑ van Bruinessen, Martin (1992). Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. Zed Books. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-1856490184.
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↑ Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians: An Introduction. Routledge. pp. 90–100. ISBN 978-0415320894.
↑ Rentz, George (2001). Oman and the Persian Gulf. Stacey International. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0905743813.
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↑ Fisher, Greg (2011). Between Empires: Arabs, Romans, and Sasanians. Oxford University Press. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-0199599271.
↑ Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 1. Columbia University Press. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0231128179.
↑ Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man and God. Routledge. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-1405801621.
↑ Martin, Simon (2020). Ancient Maya Politics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–110. ISBN 978-1108483889.
↑ Geiger, Wilhelm (1912). Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Pali Text Society. pp. 200–210. OCLC 635511441.
↑ Kennedy, Hugh (2016). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Routledge. pp. 80–100. ISBN 978-1138787612.
↑ Rossabi, Morris (2012). The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-0199840892.
↑ Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium: A History. Tempus. pp. 100–110. ISBN 978-0752423432.
↑ Whitmore, John K. (1985). Vietnam, Ho Quy Ly, and the Ming. Yale University Press. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0300033687.
↑ Oakley, Stewart (1972). Scandinavian History, 1520–1970. University of Chicago Press. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0226613789.
↑ Geiger, Wilhelm (1912). Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Pali Text Society. pp. 220–230. OCLC 635511441.
↑ Fisher, Greg (2011). Between Empires: Arabs, Romans, and Sasanians. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–70. ISBN 978-0199599271.
↑ Wormald, Jenny (1981). Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0748602766.
↑ Sartore, Melissa. "The Largest Empires In History, By The Numbers". Ranker. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
↑ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Timurid Dynasty", Online Edition, last edited 2025-04-01, retrieved 2026-02-23. (Quotation: "Although the last Timurid of Herāt, Badīʿ al-Zamān, finally fell to the armies of the Uzbek Muḥammad Shaybānī in 1507, the Timurid ruler of Fergana, Ẓahīr al-Dīn Bābur, survived the collapse of the dynasty and established the line of Mughal emperors in India in 1526.")
↑ Weir, Alison (1995). The Wars of the Roses. Ballantine Books. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0345404336.
↑ Collins, Roger (1990). The Basques. Blackwell. pp. 100–110. ISBN 978-0631175650.
↑ Ahmad, A. Rahman (2003). History of the Malay Peninsula. Archipelago Press. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-9813018457.
↑ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–140. ISBN 978-0521124331.
↑ Hosking, Geoffrey (2001). Russia and the Russians: A History. Harvard University Press. pp. 200–210. ISBN 978-0674004733.
↑ Twitchett, Denis (1994). The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–50. ISBN 978-0521235419.
↑ Rowe, William T. (2009). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Harvard University Press. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0674036123.
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[16] Emperor Jimmu is said to have founded the kingdom of Yamato in the year 660 BCE, but this is a much later tradition. In fact, the first Japanese written records date to the 8th century CE, over a thousand years later (see Kojiki and Nihon Shoki). The first attested emperor is Yūryaku, who lived c. 500 CE. He is attested in the Inariyama and Eta Funayama Swords, both made during reign of "the Great king Waka Takiru" (Wakatakeru). The first sword is dated to the "Year of the Metal Pig", which could mean 471 or 534.^[15]

[18] Cerdic of Wessex is ultimately the ancestor of all English and British monarchs, since Henry I's wife, Margaret, was a grandaughter of Edward the Exile (see Family tree of English monarchs).^[16]

[Non-dynastic-97] Existing sovereign entities ruled by non-dynastic monarchs include:
Principality of Andorra

Holy See (ruling the File:Flag of Vatican City State - 2023 version.svg Vatican City State)

Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and Malta

[4] Principality of Andorra

[5] Holy See (ruling the File:Flag of Vatican City State - 2023 version.svg Vatican City State)

[6] Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and Malta

[Founder-98] The founder of a dynasty need not necessarily equate to the first monarch of a particular realm. For example, while William I was the dynastic founder of the House of Orange-Nassau, which currently rules over the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he was never a monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

[Origin-99] Not to be confused with dynastic seat.

[Windsor-100] The House of Windsor is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Windsor" in AD 1917.

[Commonwealth-101] A sovereign state with Charles III as its monarch and head of state is known as a Commonwealth realm.

[GeorgeVI-102] George V was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha before 1917.

[Australia-103] Including:
Australian Antarctic Territory

Coral Sea Islands Territory

Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands

Template:Country data Christmas Island

Template:Country data Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Territory of Heard and McDonald Islands

Template:Country data Norfolk Island

[13] Australian Antarctic Territory

[14] Coral Sea Islands Territory

[15] Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands

[16] Template:Country data Christmas Island

[17] Template:Country data Cocos (Keeling) Islands

[18] Territory of Heard and McDonald Islands

[19] Template:Country data Norfolk Island

[NewZealand-104] The Realm of New Zealand consists of:
Cook Islands

New Zealand

Niue

Ross Dependency

Template:Country data Tokelau

[21] Cook Islands

[22] New Zealand

[23] Niue

[24] Ross Dependency

[25] Template:Country data Tokelau

[United_Kingdom-105] Including:
Template:Country data Anguilla

Template:Country data Guernsey (Crown dependency)

Bailiwick of Jersey (Crown dependency)

Bermuda

Template:Country data British Antarctic Territory

Template:Country data British Indian Ocean Territory

Template:Country data Cayman Islands

Falkland Islands

Gibraltar

Template:Country data Isle of Man (Crown dependency)

Template:Country data Montserrat

Template:Country data Pitcairn Islands

File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Template:Country data South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Akrotiri and Dhekelia

Template:Country data Turks and Caicos Islands

Template:Country data British Virgin Islands
The crown dependencies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey, and the Isle of Man are neither part of the United Kingdom nor British overseas territories.

[27] Template:Country data Anguilla

[28] Template:Country data Guernsey (Crown dependency)

[29] Bailiwick of Jersey (Crown dependency)

[30] Bermuda

[31] Template:Country data British Antarctic Territory

[32] Template:Country data British Indian Ocean Territory

[33] Template:Country data Cayman Islands

[34] Falkland Islands

[35] Gibraltar

[36] Template:Country data Isle of Man (Crown dependency)

[37] Template:Country data Montserrat

[38] Template:Country data Pitcairn Islands

[39] File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

[40] Template:Country data South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

[41] File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Akrotiri and Dhekelia

[42] Template:Country data Turks and Caicos Islands

[43] Template:Country data British Virgin Islands

[Belgium-106] The House of Belgium is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Belgium" in AD 1920.

[AlbertI-107] Albert I was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha before AD 1920.

[Bolkiah-108] Claimed by the royal house, but the historicity is questionable.

[Norodom-109] The House of Norodom is a branch of the Varman dynasty.

[Glücksburg-110] The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is a branch of the House of Oldenburg.

[Denmark-111] The Danish Realm consists of:
Denmark

Faroe Islands

Greenland

[50] Denmark

[51] Faroe Islands

[52] Greenland

[Norway-112] Including:
Template:Country data Bouvet Island

Template:Country data Jan Mayen

Template:Country data Peter I Island

Template:Country data Queen Maud Land

Template:Country data Svalbard

[54] Template:Country data Bouvet Island

[55] Template:Country data Jan Mayen

[56] Template:Country data Peter I Island

[57] Template:Country data Queen Maud Land

[58] Template:Country data Svalbard

[Kōshitsu-113] The Imperial House of Japan, or Kōshitsu (皇室), is the world's oldest continuous dynasty. The dynasty has produced an unbroken succession of Japanese monarchs since the legendary founding year of 660 BC.

[Jimmu-114] Most historians regard Emperor Jimmu to have been a mythical ruler. Emperor Ōjin, traditionally considered the 15th emperor, is the first who is generally thought to have existed, while Emperor Kinmei, the 29th emperor according to traditional historiography, is the first monarch for whom verifiable regnal dates can be assigned.

[Hashim-115] The House of Hashim is descended from Banu Qatada, which was a branch of the House of Ali.

[Luxembourg-Nassau-116] The House of Luxembourg-Nassau is descended from the House of Nassau-Weilburg, which is a branch of the House of Nassau and the House of Bourbon-Parma.

[Temenggong-117] The Temenggong dynasty is the ruling dynasty of Johor and a cadet branch of the Bendahara dynasty. The Sultan of Johor is the reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.

[Malaysia-118] The throne of Malaysia rotates among the nine constituent monarchies of Malaysia, each ruled by a dynasty. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers.

[Orange-Nassau-119] The House of Orange-Nassau is a branch of the House of Nassau. Additionally, Willem-Alexander is also linked to the House of Lippe through Beatrix of the Netherlands.

[Netherlands-120] The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of:
Aruba

Curaçao

Netherlands

Sint Maarten

[67] Aruba

[68] Curaçao

[69] Netherlands

[70] Sint Maarten

[Bourbon-Anjou-121] The House of Bourbon-Anjou is a branch of the House of Bourbon.

[Nahyan-122] The House of Nahyan is the ruling dynasty of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the incumbent President of the United Arab Emirates.

[UAE-123] The President of the United Arab Emirates is elected by the Federal Supreme Council. The office has been held by the Emir of Abu Dhabi since the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971.

[127] Year authoritarian system began

[133] ternal cousin of Ali Bongo

[1] English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897.

[2] Harper, Douglas. "dynasty". Online Etymology Dictionary.

[OED-3] Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897.

[OED2-4] Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "house, n.¹ and int, 10. b." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2011.

[inforce-5] 5.0 ^5.1 Statement by Nick Clegg MP, UK parliament website Archived 5 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 26 March 2015 (retrieved on same date).

[bbc-6] "Monaco royal taken seriously ill". BBC News. London. 8 April 2005. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2013.

[7] "The Dynastic Marriage". ieg-ego.eu (in Deutsch). Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.

[8] "Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2025.

[9] Martin Mutschlechner. "Franz Stephan as the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty". The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 21 September 2025.

[10] Mutschlechner, Martin. "Maria Theresa as wife and mother". The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 2 November 2025.

[11] Mitchell, A. Wess (2019). The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-691-19644-2.

[:0-12] Thomson, David (1961). "The Institutions of Monarchy". Europe Since Napoleon. New York: Knopf. pp. 79–80. The basic idea of monarchy was the idea that hereditary right gave the best title to political power...The dangers of disputed succession were best avoided by hereditary succession: ruling families had a natural interest in passing on to their descendants enhanced power and prestige...Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria were alike infatuated with the idea of strengthening their power, centralizing government in their own hands as against local and feudal privileges, and so acquiring more absolute authority in the state. Moreover, the very dynastic rivalries and conflicts between these eighteenth-century monarchs drove them to look for ever more efficient methods of government

[13] Brown, Delmer M. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–145. ISBN 978-0521223522.

[14] Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1915). The Imperial House of Japan. Ponsonby Memorial Society. pp. 10–20.

[15] Seeley, Christopher (1991). A History of Writing in Japan. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 19–23. ISBN 90-04-09081-9.

[17] McCalman, Archibald Hamilton (1883). A Compact History of England from the Time of the Ancient Britons to the Reign of Queen Victoria (1880): With a Synopsis of England in the Nineteenth Century, Its Government, Institutions, Etc. R. Wrothington. p. 669.

[19] Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 100–120. ISBN 978-1138961159.

[20] Narayanan, M.G.S. (2013). Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-8188765072.

[21] Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 100–120. ISBN 978-1138961159.

[22] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 130–140.

[23] Campbell, I.C. (2001). Island Kingdom: Tonga Ancient and Modern. Canterbury University Press. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0908812141.

[24] Wood, A.H. (1932). History of the Kingdom of Tonga. Methodist Mission Press. pp. 15–25.

[25] Shennan, J.H. (2007). The Bourbons: The History of a Dynasty. Hambledon Continuum. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-1852855239.

[26] Rayfield, Donald (2012). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. pp. 50–70. ISBN 978-1780230306.

[27] Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 150–160. ISBN 978-1138961159.

[28] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–210.

[29] Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-0674615762.

[30] Grayson, A.K. (1991). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Assyrian Periods. University of Toronto Press. pp. 10–20. ISBN 978-0802059659.

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