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{{short description|Species of flowering plant in the family Anacardiaceae}}
{{Short description|Flowering plant in the family Anacardiaceae}}
{{about|the tree and its nut|the Singaporean rapid transit station|Cashew MRT station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
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|status = LC
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref=<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Barstow, M.|year=2021|title=''Anacardium occidentale''|article-number=e.T60761600A60761604|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T60761600A60761604.en|access-date=16 April 2025}}</ref>
|genus = Anacardium
|genus = Anacardium
|species = occidentale
|species = occidentale
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}}
}}


The '''cashew tree''' ('''''Anacardium occidentale''''') is a tropical [[Evergreen|evergreen tree]] native to [[South America]] in the genus ''[[Anacardium]]'' that produces the cashew seed and the cashew apple [[accessory fruit]].<ref name=morton>{{cite book|url=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cashew_apple.html|title=Cashew apple, ''Anacardium occidentale'' L.|publisher=Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN|work=Fruits of warm climates |isbn=978-0-9610184-1-2|year=1987|author=Morton, Julia F.|author-link=Julia Morton|pages=239–240|access-date=18 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315023810/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html|archive-date=15 March 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="cabi">{{cite web |title=''Anacardium occidentale'' (cashew nut) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/5064 |publisher=CABI |access-date=8 May 2021 |date=20 November 2019}}</ref> The tree can grow as tall as {{convert|14|m|ft|abbr=off}}, but the dwarf cultivars, growing up to {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}}, prove more profitable, with earlier maturity and greater yields. The cashew seed is commonly considered a [[snack]] [[Nut (fruit)|nut]] ('''cashew nut''') eaten on its own, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or [[cashew butter]].<ref name="duke">{{cite web |author1=James A Duke |title=''Anacardium occidentale'' L. |url=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Anacardium_occidentale.html |publisher=Handbook of Energy Crops. (unpublished); In: NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University |access-date=10 December 2019 |date=1983}}</ref>  Like the tree, the nut is often simply called a '''cashew'''. Cashew allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cashew - allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies - University of Manchester) |url=http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/informall/allergenic-food/index.aspx?FoodId=15 |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk}}</ref>
'''Cashew''' is the common name of a tropical [[Evergreen|evergreen tree]] '''''Anacardium occidentale''''', in the family [[Anacardiaceae]]. It is the source of the cashew [[Nut (fruit)|nut]] (often simply called a 'cashew') and the cashew apple. The tree can grow as tall as {{convert|14|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}}.


In 2019, four million [[tonne]]s of cashew nuts were produced globally, with [[Ivory Coast]] and [[India]] as the leading producers. As well as the nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. The shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications including lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and, starting in World War II, arms production.<ref>Jostock, "Cashew Industry", p. 5.</ref> The cashew apple is a light reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp and juice can be processed into a sweet, [[astringent]] fruit drink or fermented and distilled into liquor.<ref name=duke/>
The species is native to [[South America]]. The dwarf cultivars, growing up to {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}}, are the most profitable, maturing sooner and producing greater yields. In 2023, 3.9 million [[ton]]s of cashew nuts were harvested globally, led by the [[Ivory Coast]] and [[India]].
 
The nut is edible and is eaten on its own as a snack, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or [[cashew butter]]. The cashew apple, an [[accessory fruit]], is a light reddish to yellow fruit, the pulp and juice of which can be processed into a sweet, [[astringent]] fruit drink or fermented and distilled into liquor. Additionally, derivatives from the shell are used in products such as [[varnish]]es, [[lubricant]], and paints.


==Description==
==Description==


The cashew tree is large and [[evergreen]], growing to {{convert|14|m|ft|abbr=off}} tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk.<ref name="eb">{{cite web |date=7 April 2020 |title=Cashew |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/cashew |access-date=8 May 2021 |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The [[leaves]] are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, {{convert|4-22|cm|abbr=off|frac=4}} long and {{convert|2-15|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}}  broad, with smooth margins. The [[flower]]s are produced in a [[panicle]] or [[corymb]] up to {{convert|26|cm|abbr=on}} long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute [[petal]]s {{convert|7-15|mm|frac=8}} long. [[Cashew of Pirangi|The largest cashew tree in the world]] covers an area around {{convert|7500|m2|ft2|abbr=on}} and is located in [[Natal, Rio Grande do Norte|Natal]], [[Brazil]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}
The cashew tree is large and [[evergreen]], growing to {{convert|14|m|ft|abbr=off}} tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk.<ref name="eb">{{cite web |date=7 April 2020 |title=Cashew |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/cashew |access-date=8 May 2021 |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The [[leaves]] are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, {{convert|4-22|cm|abbr=off|frac=4}} long and {{convert|2-15|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}}  broad, with smooth margins. The [[flower]]s are produced in a [[panicle]] or [[corymb]] up to {{convert|26|cm|abbr=on}} long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute [[petal]]s {{convert|7-15|mm|sp=us|frac=8}} long. [[Cashew of Pirangi|The largest cashew tree in the world]] covers an area around {{convert|7500|m2|ft2|abbr=on}} and is located in [[Parnamirim, Rio Grande do Norte|Parnamirim]], [[Brazil]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}


The fruit of the cashew tree is an [[accessory fruit]] (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit).<ref name="morton" /> What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a [[hypocarpium]], that develops from the [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]] and the receptacle of the cashew flower.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varghese |first1=T. |last2=Pundir |first2=Y. |year=1964 |title=Anatomy of the pseudocarp in ''Anacardium occidentale'' L. |journal=Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=252–258 |doi=10.1007/BF03052341 |s2cid=83230755}}</ref><ref name="duke" /><ref name="eb" /> Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as {{lang|es|marañón}}, it ripens into a yellow or red structure about {{convert|5–11|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="duke" />
The fruit of the cashew tree is an [[accessory fruit]] (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit).<ref name=morton>{{cite book|url=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cashew_apple.html|title=Cashew apple, ''Anacardium occidentale'' L.; In: Fruits of Warm Climates|publisher=Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Indiana |isbn=978-0-9610184-1-2|year=1987|author=Morton, Julia F.|author-link=Julia Morton|pages=239–240|access-date=18 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315023810/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html|archive-date=15 March 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="cabi">{{cite web |title=''Anacardium occidentale'' (cashew nut) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/5064 |publisher=CABI |access-date=8 May 2021 |date=20 November 2019}}</ref> What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a [[hypocarpium]], that develops from the [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]] and the receptacle of the cashew flower.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varghese |first1=T. |last2=Pundir |first2=Y. |year=1964 |title=Anatomy of the pseudocarp in ''Anacardium occidentale'' L. |journal=Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=252–258 |doi=10.1007/BF03052341 |s2cid=83230755}}</ref><ref name="duke">{{cite web |author1=James A Duke |title=''Anacardium occidentale'' L. |url=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Anacardium_occidentale.html |publisher=Handbook of Energy Crops. (unpublished); In: NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University |access-date=10 December 2019 |date=1983}}</ref><ref name="eb" /> Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as {{lang|es|marañón}}, it ripens into a yellow or red structure about {{convert|5–11|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="duke" />


The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney– or boxing-glove–shaped [[drupe]] that grows at the end of the cashew apple.<ref name="morton" /> The drupe first develops on the tree and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple.<ref name="morton" /> The drupe becomes the true fruit, a single [[Nutshell|shell]]-encased [[seed]], which is often considered a [[Nut (fruit)|nut]] in the culinary sense.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="duke" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kapinga |first1=F. A. |last2=Kasuga |first2=L. J. F. |last3=Kafiriti |first3=E. M. |title=Growth and production of cashew nut |url=https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C10/E1-05A-45.pdf |access-date=9 April 2021 |website=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production |publisher=Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems}}</ref> The seed is surrounded by a double shell that contains an allergenic [[natural phenol|phenolic]] resin,<ref name="duke" /> [[anacardic acid]]—which is a potent skin [[Irritation|irritant]]<ref name="eb" /> chemically related to the better-known and also [[toxin|toxic]] allergenic oil [[urushiol]], which is found in the related [[poison ivy (plant)|poison ivy]] and [[lacquer tree]].
The true fruit of the cashew tree is a [[kidney]]-shaped or [[boxing glove]]-shaped [[drupe]] that grows at the end of the cashew apple.<ref name="morton" /> The drupe first develops on the tree and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple.<ref name="morton" /> The drupe becomes the true fruit, a single [[Nutshell|shell]]-encased [[seed]], which is often considered a [[Nut (fruit)|nut]] in the culinary sense.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="duke" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kapinga |first1=F. A. |last2=Kasuga |first2=L. J. F. |last3=Kafiriti |first3=E. M. |title=Growth and production of cashew nut |url=https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C10/E1-05A-45.pdf |access-date=9 April 2021 |website=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production |publisher=Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems}}</ref> The seed is surrounded by a double-shell that contains an allergenic [[natural phenol|phenolic]] resin,<ref name="duke" /> [[anacardic acid]] - which is a potent skin [[Irritation|irritant]]<ref name="eb" /> chemically related to the better-known and also [[toxin|toxic]] allergenic oil [[urushiol]], which is found in the related [[poison ivy (plant)|poison ivy]] and [[lacquer tree]].


{{gallery|mode=packed
{{gallery|mode=packed
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|Cajueiro Meconta.jpg|Tree in [[Mozambique]], southeastern Africa
|Cajueiro Meconta.jpg|Tree in [[Mozambique]], southeastern Africa
|Anacardium occidental (Bangla - কাজুবাদাম).jpg|Trunk in [[Bangladesh]]
|Anacardium occidental (Bangla - কাজুবাদাম).jpg|Trunk in [[Bangladesh]]
|Cashew Flower.JPG|Flowers
|Cashew Flower.JPG|Flowers|
Pollen grains of Cashew tree.jpg|Pollen grains of Cashew tree
|Young cashew nuts.jpg|Young fruits
|Young cashew nuts.jpg|Young fruits
|Cashew fruit.jpg|Fruits sold as produce
|Cashew fruit.jpg|Fruits sold as produce
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==Etymology==
==Etymology==


The English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree: {{wikt-lang|pt|caju}} ({{IPA-pt|kaˈʒu}}), also known as {{wikt-lang|pt|acaju}}, which itself is from the [[Tupian]] word {{lang|tup|acajú}}, literally meaning "nut that produces itself".<ref name=morton /><ref name=cabi/>
The English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree: {{wikt-lang|pt|Caju}} ({{IPA|pt|kaˈʒu}}), also known as {{wikt-lang|pt|acaju}}, which itself is from the [[Tupi language|Tupi]] word {{lang|tup|acajú}}, literally meaning "nut that produces itself".<ref name=morton /><ref name=cabi/>


The [[generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Anacardium'' is composed of the Greek prefix ''ana-'' ({{lang-grc|[[wikt:c-|ἀνά-]]|aná|up, upward|label=none}}), the Greek ''cardia'' ({{lang-grc|καρδία|kardía|heart|label=none}}), and the [[Neo-Latin]] suffix {{wikt-lang|la|-ium}}. It possibly refers to the heart shape of the fruit,<ref>{{cite book|last=Quattrocchi|first=Umberto|title=World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-37OBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|year=2016|publisher=CRC|isbn=978-1-4822-5064-0|page=266|quote= referring to the shape of the fruit}}</ref> to "the top of the fruit stem"<ref>''Merriam-Webster'': "from the heartlike shape of the top of the fruit stem"</ref> or to the seed.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Milbry Gould|title=An Illustrated Dictionary of Medicine, Biology and Allied Sciences: Including the Pronunciation, Accentuation, Derivation, and Definition of the Terms Used in Medicine, Anatomy, Surgery ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vlZQAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA73|year=1898|publisher=P. Blakiston|page=73|quote= {{lang|grc|ἀνά}}, up; {{lang|grc|καρδία}}, the heart, from its heart-shaped seeds}}</ref>  The word ''anacardium'' was earlier used to refer to ''[[Semecarpus anacardium]]'' (the marking nut tree) before [[Carl Linnaeus]] transferred it to the cashew; both plants are in the same family.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hugh F. Glen|title=What's in a Name|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eMgaXGsBEWIC&pg=PA3|year=2004|publisher=Jacana|isbn=978-1-77009-040-8|page=3|quote= (Greek ana = upwards + kardia = heart); applied by 16th century apothecaries to the fruit of the marking nut, ''Semecarpus anacardium'', and later used by Linnaeus as a generic name for the cashew.}}</ref> The [[epithet]] ''occidentale'' derives from the Western (or Occidental) world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/occidental|publisher=The Free Dictionary|title=Occidental|access-date=6 March 2020|date=2020}}</ref>
The [[generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Anacardium'' is composed of the Greek prefix ''ana-'' ({{langx|grc|[[wikt:c-|ἀνά-]]|aná|up, upward|label=none}}), the Greek ''cardia'' ({{langx|grc|καρδία|kardía|heart|label=none}}), and the [[Neo-Latin]] suffix {{wikt-lang|la|-ium}}. It possibly refers to the heart shape of the fruit,<ref>{{cite book|last=Quattrocchi|first=Umberto|title=World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-37OBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|year=2016|publisher=CRC|isbn=978-1-4822-5064-0|page=266|quote= referring to the shape of the fruit}}</ref> to "the top of the fruit stem"<ref>''Merriam-Webster'': "from the heartlike shape of the top of the fruit stem"</ref> or to the seed.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Milbry Gould|title=An Illustrated Dictionary of Medicine, Biology and Allied Sciences: Including the Pronunciation, Accentuation, Derivation, and Definition of the Terms Used in Medicine, Anatomy, Surgery ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vlZQAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA73|year=1898|publisher=P. Blakiston|page=73|quote= {{lang|grc|ἀνά}}, up; {{lang|grc|καρδία}}, the heart, from its heart-shaped seeds}}</ref>  The word ''anacardium'' was earlier used to refer to ''[[Semecarpus anacardium]]'' (the marking nut tree) before [[Carl Linnaeus]] transferred it to the cashew; both plants are in the same family.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hugh F. Glen|title=What's in a Name|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eMgaXGsBEWIC&pg=PA3|year=2004|publisher=Jacana|isbn=978-1-77009-040-8|page=3|quote= (Greek ana = upwards + kardia = heart); applied by 16th-century apothecaries to the fruit of the marking nut, ''Semecarpus anacardium'', and later used by Linnaeus as a generic name for the cashew.}}</ref> The [[epithet]] ''occidentale'' derives from the Western (or Occidental) world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/occidental|publisher=The Free Dictionary|title=Occidental|access-date=6 March 2020|date=2020}}</ref>
 
The plant has diverse [[common name]]s in various languages among its wide distribution range,<ref name=cabi/> including {{Lang|fr|anacardier}} ([[French language|French]]) with the fruit referred to as ''{{Lang|fr|pomme de Cajou}}'',<ref name="dyphon" /> ''{{wikt-lang|pt|caju}}'' ({{IPA-pt|kaˈʒu}}), or ''{{wikt-lang|pt|acaju}}'' (Portuguese).<ref name=morton /><ref name=cabi/>


== Distribution and habitat ==
== Distribution and habitat ==
The species is native to Northeastern Brazil and Southeastern [[Venezuela]], and later was distributed around the world in the 1500s by [[Portuguese explorers]].<ref name=morton/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.cornell.edu/4hplants/Fruits/Cashew.html|title=Cashew|publisher=Department of Horticulture, Cornell University|date=20 October 2015|access-date=16 March 2019}}</ref><ref name=duke/> Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s.<ref>Carolyn Joystick, "Cashew Industry" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 2, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> The Portuguese took it to [[Goa]], India between 1560 and 1565. From there, it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
The species is native to tropical South America<ref name=powo>{{cite web|title=Anacardium occidentale L. |work=Plants of the Word Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:319068-2 |access-date=31 March 2024 }}</ref> and later was distributed around the world in the 1500s by [[Portuguese explorers]].<ref name=morton/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hort.cornell.edu/4hplants/Fruits/Cashew.html|title=Cashew|publisher=Department of Horticulture, Cornell University|date=20 October 2015|access-date=16 March 2019}}</ref><ref name=duke/> Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s.<ref>Carolyn Joystick, "Cashew Industry" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 2, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> The Portuguese took it to [[Goa]], formerly [[Estado da Índia Portuguesa]] in India, between 1560 and 1565. From there, it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.{{cn|date=June 2023}}


==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
{{owidslider
|start        = 2023
|list        = Template:OWID/cashew nut production#gallery
|location      = commons
|caption      =
|title        =
|language    =
|file        = [[File:cashew nut production, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Cashew nut production]]
|startingView = World
}}
 
{| class="wikitable floatright"  style="width:16em; text-align:left;"
|-
|-
! colspan=2|Cashew production<br>(with shell) 2021
! colspan=2|Cashew production<br />(with shell) 2023<br/>
|-
|-
| Country ||Production<br /><small>(tonnes)</small>
| Country ||Tonnes
|-
|-
| {{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}} ||837,850
| {{CIV}} || {{right|1,044,450}}
|-
|-
| {{flag|India}} ||738,000
| {{IND}} || {{right|782,000}}
|-
|-
| {{flag|Vietnam}} ||348,504
| {{VNM}} || {{right|347,634}}
|-
|-
| {{flag|Philippines}} ||255,931
| {{IDN}} || {{right|164,152}}
|-
|-
| {{TAN}} ||210,786
| {{PHL}} || {{right|136,264}}
|-
|-
!'''World''' !!'''3,708,153'''
!'''World''' !! {{right|'''3,934,839'''
|-
|-
|colspan=2 |Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|title=Cashew production in 2021; pick lists from world regions/production quantity|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|publisher=[[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations|UN]]|access-date=29 April 2023|date=2023}}</ref>
|colspan=2 |{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|title=Cashew production in 2023; pick lists from world regions/production quantity/year|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|publisher=[[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations|UN]]|access-date=6 February 2025|date=2025}}</ref>}}
|}
|}


The cashew tree is cultivated in the tropics between 25°N and 25°S, and is well-adapted to hot lowland areas with a pronounced dry season, where the mango and tamarind trees also thrive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Infopaks/cashew.htm|title=Cultivating Cashew Nuts|publisher=ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, South Africa|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221195301/http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Infopaks/cashew.htm|archive-date=21 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The traditional cashew tree is tall (up to 14&nbsp;m) and takes three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests can begin. More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to {{Cvt|6|m}} tall, and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 metric tons per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies are used to further improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
The cashew tree is cultivated in the tropics between 25°N and 25°S, and is well-adapted to hot lowland areas with a pronounced dry season, where the mango and tamarind trees also thrive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Infopaks/cashew.htm|title=Cultivating Cashew Nuts|publisher=ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, South Africa|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221195301/http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Infopaks/cashew.htm|archive-date=21 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The traditional cashew tree is tall, up to {{cvt|14|m}}, requiring three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests.<ref name=PNACR262>{{cite web|author=Ian Duncan|title=Growers Manual for Production of Cashew: Nursery and Plantation|series=Nicaragua Agriculture Reconstruction Assistance Program |publisher=United States Agency for International Development|location=Managua, Nicaragua|url=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACR262.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007214448/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACR262.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2006}}</ref><ref name=mekarsari>{{cite book |editor-last1= Davison |editor-first1= Julian |date= 1995 |title= Fruit of Indonesia |location= Jakarta |publisher= PT Mekar Unggul Sari |page=47 |isbn= 981-3018-11-9}}</ref>
 
More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to {{cvt|6|m}} tall and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about {{cvt|0.25|MT}} per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards.<ref name=PNACR262/><ref>{{cite web|author=Desai A.R.|author2= S.P. Singh|author3= J.R. Faleiro|author4= M. Thangam|author5= S. Priya Devi|author6= S.A. Safeena|author7= N.P. Singh|display-authors=3|year=2010|title=Techniques And Practices For Cashew Production|series=Technical Bulletin No. 21|publisher=ICAR Research Complex for Goa |location=Goa, India |url=https://ccari.icar.gov.in/TB%20No.21.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240607044215/https://ccari.icar.gov.in/TB%20No.21.pdf|archive-date= 7 June 2024}}</ref>


===Production===
===Production===
In 2021, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 3.7 million [[tonne]]s, led by Ivory Coast and India with a combined 43% of the world total (table).{{cn|date=June 2023}}
In 2023, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 3.9 million [[tonne]]s, led by Ivory Coast and India with a combined 46% of the world total (table).


=== Trade ===
=== Trade ===
The top ten exporters of cashew nuts (in-shell; HS Code 080131) in value (USD) in 2021 were Ghana, Tanzania, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Indonesia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Guinea.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
Almost all cashews produced in Africa between 2000 and 2019 were exported as raw nuts which are much less profitable than shelled nuts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelle |first=Patrick |date=2022-02-28 |title=Can Africa cash in on its cashew nut domination? |url=https://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/can-africa-cash-in-on-its-cashew-nut-domination/140693/ |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=How we made it in Africa |language=en-US}}</ref> One of the goals of the [[African Cashew Alliance]] is to promote Africa's cashew processing capabilities to improve the profitability of Africa's cashew industry.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2023-09-29 |title=ACA seeks creation of cashew development fund to enhance raw nuts processing in Africa |url=https://guardian.ng/features/agro-care/aca-seeks-creation-of-cashew-development-fund-to-enhance-raw-nuts-processing-in-africa/ |location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2023-11-27 |newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Half of the world's cashews were sold by American retailer [[Costco]], as of 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Howe |first=Ben Ryder |date=2024-08-20 |title=How Costco Hacked the American Shopping Psyche |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/20/dining/costco.html |access-date=2025-06-03 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+Top Cashew Nut (in-shell) Exporters, 2017–2021 (USD)
!
!2017
!2018
!2019
!2020
!2021
|-
|World
|2.8B
|2.8B
|1.9B
|2.0B
|1.3B
|-
|Ghana
|253.2M
|455.7M
|222.6M
|340.7M
|172.7M
|-
|Tanzania
|530.0M
|426.8M
|221.4M
|362.0M
|159.0M
|-
|Guinea-Bissau
|318.0M
|129.0M
|122.8M
|128.5M
|143.6M
|-
|Nigeria
|69.3M
|191.1M
|74.5M
|94.4M
|138.8M
|-
|Ivory Coast
|1.0B
|1.1B
|730.8M
|612.0M
|129.7M
|-
|Burkina Faso
|144.8M
|198.9M
|81.0M
|53.3M
|96.0M
|-
|Senegal
|3.4M
|33.2M
|60.5M
|38.6M
|92.3M
|-
|Indonesia
|112.7M
|84.4M
|121.0M
|102.4M
|70.7M
|-
|UAE
|103.1K
|74.5M
|586.3K
|3.4M
|55.2M
|-
|Guinea
|161.6M
|41.2M
|45.2M
|35.7M
|53.1M
|-
| colspan="6" |'''Source:'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Raw Cashew Nut global market overview today |url=https://www.tridge.com/intelligences/raw-cashew-nut |publisher=Tridge |access-date=}}</ref>
|}


From 2017 to 2021, the top ten exporters of cashew nuts (shelled; HS Code 080132) were Vietnam, India, the Netherlands, Germany, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Indonesia, Burkina Faso, and the United States.
==Toxicity==
 
Some people are [[allergic]] to cashews, but they are a less frequent [[allergen]] than other tree nuts or [[peanut]]s.<ref name="Rosen">{{cite journal |last=Rosen |first=T. |author2=Fordice, D. B. |date=April 1994 |title=Cashew Nut Dermatitis |journal=Southern Medical Journal |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=543–546 |doi=10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026 |pmid=8153790}}</ref> For up to 6% of children and 3% of adults, consuming cashews may cause [[food allergy|allergic reactions]], ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening [[anaphylaxis]].<ref name="Weinberger">{{cite journal |last1=Weinberger |first1=Tamar |last2=Sicherer |first2=Scott |year=2018 |title=Current perspectives on tree nut allergy: a review |journal=Journal of Asthma and Allergy |volume=11 |pages=41–51 |doi=10.2147/jaa.s141636 |issn=1178-6965 |pmc=5875412 |pmid=29618933 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="allen">{{cite journal |author=McWilliam V. |author2=Koplin J. |author3=Lodge C. |author4=Tang M. |author5=Dharmage S. |author6=Allen K. |year=2015 |title=The prevalence of tree nut allergy: a systematic review |journal=Current Allergy and Asthma Reports |volume=15 |issue=9 |page=555 |doi=10.1007/s11882-015-0555-8 |pmid=26233427 |s2cid=36209553}}</ref><ref name="eu">{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Cashew Allergies |url=http://foodallergens.ifr.ac.uk/food.lasso?selected_food=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029202125/http://foodallergens.ifr.ac.uk/food.lasso?selected_food=15 |archive-date=29 October 2010 |publisher=Informall Database – funded by European Union}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Food allergies |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/fs_management/No_03_allergy_June06_en.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization, International Food Safety Authorities Network}}</ref> These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cashew - allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies - University of Manchester) |url=http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/informall/allergenic-food/index.aspx?FoodId=15 |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk}}</ref> Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing.<ref name="allen" /><ref name="eu" /><!--
In 2014, rapid growth of cashew cultivation in Ivory Coast made this country the top African exporter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ivorycoast-cashews-insight-idUSKBN0II0Y620141029|title=War-scarred Ivory Coast aims to conquer the world of cashews|first=Joe|last=Bavier|work=[[Reuters]]|date=29 October 2014|access-date=9 February 2015|archive-date=23 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123171601/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/29/us-ivorycoast-cashews-insight-idUSKBN0II0Y620141029|url-status=live}}</ref> Fluctuations in world market prices, poor working conditions, and low pay for local harvesting have caused discontent in the cashew nut industry.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22282599|title=Tanzania riots over cashew nut payments|publisher=BBC|date=24 April 2013|access-date=14 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521090400/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22282599|archive-date=21 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/nov/02/cashew-nut-workers-pay-conditions-profits|title=Cashew nut workers suffer 'appalling' conditions as global slump dents profits|author=Lamble L.|work=The Guardian|date=2 November 2013|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Blood cashews': the toxic truth about your favourite nut|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/11577928/Blood-cashews-the-toxic-truth-about-your-favourite-nut.html|work=The Telegraph|author=Wilson B.|date=4 May 2015|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>
An estimated 1.8 million Americans (between 0.4%–0.6% of the population) have an [[Tree nut allergy|allergy to tree nuts]]. Young children are most affected; and tree nut allergies tend to last for a lifetime. Some regions of the world have higher incidence rates than others.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tree nuts – allergy education|url=http://www.foodallergy.org/page/tree-nut-allergy|publisher=The Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network|year=2012}}</ref><ref>[//web.archive.org/web/20100628153155/http://www.foodallergy.org/files/FoodAllergyFactsandStatistics.pdf Food Allergy Facts and Statistics for the United States]</ref>
 
-->
{| class="wikitable"
|+Top Cashew Nut (shelled) Exporters, 2017–2021 (USD)
!
!2017
!2018
!2019
!2020
!2021
|-
|World
|5.5B
|5.1B
|4.7B
|4.5B
|4.2B
|-
|Vietnam
|3.4B
|3.2B
|3.0B
|2.9B
|2.7B
|-
|India
|959.9M
|673.6M
|569.6M
|407.9M
|437.8M
|-
|Netherlands
|302.8M
|304.3M
|248.3M
|266.0M
|281.8M
|-
|Germany
|168.1M
|179.8M
|174.5M
|202.3M
|183.2M
|-
|Brazil
|114.2M
|117.0M
|121.3M
|91.0M
|96.8M
|-
|Ivory Coast
|73.2M
|97.1M
|68.4M
|110.4M
|81.8M
|-
|Nigeria
|12.0M
|20.2M
|37.3M
|20.1M
|45.0M
|-
|Indonesia
|60.2M
|55.6M
|57.0M
|45.7M
|40.7M
|-
|Burkina Faso
|12.1M
|13.8M
|18.9M
|16.3M
|21.6M
|-
|United States
|33.5M
|26.3M
|22.7M
|21.1M
|19.8M
|-
| colspan="6" |'''Source:'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Cashew Nut Kernel global market overview today |url=https://www.tridge.com/intelligences/cashew-nut |publisher=Tridge |access-date=}}</ref>
|}


==Toxicity==
The [[nutshell|shell]] of the cashew nut contains oil compounds that can cause [[contact dermatitis]] similar to [[poison ivy]], primarily resulting from the [[phenolic lipid]]s, [[anacardic acid]], and [[cardanol]].<ref name="duke" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosen T. |author2=Fordice, D. B. |year=1994 |title=Cashew nut dermatitis |journal=South Med J |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=543–46 |doi=10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026 |pmid=8153790}}</ref> Because it can cause dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 September 2013 |title=Why Cashews Aren't Sold In The Shell |url=http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/why-cashews-arent-sold-in-the-shell/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220000210/http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/why-cashews-arent-sold-in-the-shell/ |archive-date=20 February 2016 |access-date=22 February 2016 |publisher=Moment of Science, Indiana Public Media}}</ref> [[Cardanol]], which can be readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, is under research for its potential applications in [[nanomaterials]] and [[biotechnology]].<ref name="hamad">{{cite journal |author=Hamad F. B. |author2=Mubofu E. B. |year=2015 |title=Potential biological applications of bio-based anacardic acids and their derivatives |journal=Int J Mol Sci |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=8569–90 |doi=10.3390/ijms16048569 |pmc=4425097 |pmid=25894225 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Some people are [[allergic]] to cashews, but they are a less frequent [[allergen]] than tree nuts or peanuts.<ref name="Rosen">{{cite journal |last=Rosen |first=T. |author2=Fordice, D. B. |date=April 1994 |title=Cashew Nut Dermatitis |journal=Southern Medical Journal |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=543–546 |doi=10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026 |pmid=8153790}}</ref> For up to 6% of children and 3% of adults, consuming cashews may cause [[food allergy|allergic reactions]], ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening [[anaphylaxis]].<ref name="Weinberger">{{cite journal |last1=Weinberger |first1=Tamar |last2=Sicherer |first2=Scott |year=2018 |title=Current perspectives on tree nut allergy: a review |journal=Journal of Asthma and Allergy |volume=11 |pages=41–51 |doi=10.2147/jaa.s141636 |issn=1178-6965 |pmc=5875412 |pmid=29618933 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="allen">{{cite journal |author=McWilliam V. |author2=Koplin J. |author3=Lodge C. |author4=Tang M. |author5=Dharmage S. |author6=Allen K. |year=2015 |title=The prevalence of tree nut allergy: a systematic review |journal=Current Allergy and Asthma Reports |volume=15 |issue=9 |page=555 |doi=10.1007/s11882-015-0555-8 |pmid=26233427 |s2cid=36209553}}</ref><ref name="eu">{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Cashew Allergies |url=http://foodallergens.ifr.ac.uk/food.lasso?selected_food=15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029202125/http://foodallergens.ifr.ac.uk/food.lasso?selected_food=15 |archive-date=29 October 2010 |publisher=Informall Database – funded by European Union}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Food allergies |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/fs_management/No_03_allergy_June06_en.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization, International Food Safety Authorities Network}}</ref> These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins. Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing.<ref name="allen" /><ref name="eu" /><!--
An estimated 1.8 million Americans (between 0.4%–0.6% of the population) have an [[Tree nut allergy|allergy to tree nuts]]. Young children are most affected; and tree nuts allergies tend to last lifelong. Some regions of the world have higher incidence rates than others.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tree nuts – allergy education|url=http://www.foodallergy.org/page/tree-nut-allergy|publisher=The Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network|year=2012}}</ref><ref>[//web.archive.org/web/20100628153155/http://www.foodallergy.org/files/FoodAllergyFactsandStatistics.pdf Food Allergy Facts and Statistics for the United States]</ref>
-->The [[nutshell|shell]] of the cashew nut contains oil compounds that can cause [[contact dermatitis]] similar to [[poison ivy]], primarily resulting from the [[phenolic lipid]]s, [[anacardic acid]], and [[cardanol]].<ref name="duke" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosen T. |author2=Fordice, D. B. |year=1994 |title=Cashew nut dermatitis |journal=South Med J |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=543–46 |doi=10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026 |pmid=8153790}}</ref> Due to the possible dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 September 2013 |title=Why Cashews Aren't Sold In The Shell |url=http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/why-cashews-arent-sold-in-the-shell/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220000210/http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/why-cashews-arent-sold-in-the-shell/ |archive-date=20 February 2016 |access-date=22 February 2016 |publisher=Moment of Science, Indiana Public Media}}</ref> Readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, cardanol is under research for its potential applications in [[nanomaterials]] and [[biotechnology]].<ref name="hamad">{{cite journal |author=Hamad F. B. |author2=Mubofu E. B. |year=2015 |title=Potential biological applications of bio-based anacardic acids and their derivatives |journal=Int J Mol Sci |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=8569–90 |doi=10.3390/ijms16048569 |pmc=4425097 |pmid=25894225 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


==Uses==
==Uses==
Line 321: Line 156:
| serine =
| serine =
| source_usda = 1
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170162/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170162/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
}}
Raw cashews are 5%&nbsp;water, 30%&nbsp;[[carbohydrate]]s, 44%&nbsp;[[fat]], and 18%&nbsp;[[protein]] (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw cashews provide 553&nbsp;[[kilocalories]], 67% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) in total fats, 36%&nbsp;DV of [[protein]], 13%&nbsp;DV of [[dietary fiber]] and 11%&nbsp;DV of [[carbohydrate]]s.<ref name="USDA">{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Full Report (All Nutrients): 12087, Nuts, cashew nuts, raw, database version SR 27 |url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3677?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818022119/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3677?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= |archive-date=18 August 2015 |access-date=6 August 2015 |publisher=Agricultural Research Service – United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> Cashews are rich sources (20% or more of the DV) of [[dietary minerals]], including particularly [[copper]], [[manganese]], [[phosphorus]], and [[magnesium]] (79–110% DV), and of [[thiamin]], [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]] and [[vitamin K]] (32–37% DV).<ref name="USDA" /> [[iron]], [[potassium]], [[zinc]], and [[selenium]] are present in significant content (14–61% DV) (table).<ref name="USDA" /> Cashews (100&nbsp;g, raw) contain {{convert|113|mg}} of [[beta-sitosterol]].<ref name="USDA" />
Raw cashew nuts are 5% water, 30% [[carbohydrate]]s, 44% [[fat]], and 18% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]] (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw cashews provide 553 [[kilocalories]], 67% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) in total fats, 36% DV of [[protein]], 13% DV of [[dietary fiber]], and 11% DV of [[carbohydrate]]s.<ref name="USDA">{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Full Report (All Nutrients): 12087, Nuts, cashew nuts, raw, database version SR 27 |url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3677?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818022119/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3677?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= |archive-date=18 August 2015 |access-date=6 August 2015 |publisher=Agricultural Research Service – United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> Cashew nuts are rich sources (20% or more of the DV) of [[dietary minerals]], including particularly [[copper]], [[manganese]], [[phosphorus]], and [[magnesium]] (79-110% DV), and of [[thiamin]], [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]], and [[vitamin K]] (32-37% DV).<ref name="USDA" /> [[Iron]], [[potassium]], [[zinc]], and [[selenium]] are present in significant content (14-61% DV) (table).<ref name="USDA" /> Cashews (100g, raw) contain {{convert|113|mg}} of [[beta-sitosterol]].<ref name="USDA" />


=== Nut and shell ===
=== Nut and shell ===
{{See also|Cashew pie}}
Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="duke" />
Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="duke" />


Cashews are commonly used in [[Cuisine of the Indian subcontinent|South Asian cuisine]], whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., ''[[korma]]''), or some sweets (e.g., ''[[kaju barfi]]''). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In [[Goan cuisine]], both roasted and raw kernels are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashews are also used in [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] and [[Chinese cuisine]]s, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of [[Antipolo]], and is eaten with [[suman (food)|''suman'']]. The province of [[Pampanga]] also has a sweet dessert called [[Turrón#Philippines|''turrones de casuy'']], which is cashew [[marzipan]] wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashews are called ''kacang mete'' or ''kacang mede'', while the cashew apple is called ''jambu monyet'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} ‘monkey rose apple’).{{cn|date=June 2023}}
Cashews are commonly used in [[Cuisine of the Indian subcontinent|Indian cuisine]], whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste<ref name="duke"/> that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., ''[[korma]]''), or some sweets (e.g., ''[[kaju barfi]]''). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In [[Goan cuisine]], both roasted and raw kernels of [[Goa Cashew (Kaju or Caju)|Goa Kaju]] are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashews are also used in [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] and [[Chinese cuisine]]s, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of [[Antipolo]] and is eaten with [[suman (food)|''suman'']]. The province of [[Pampanga]] also has a sweet dessert called [[Turrón#Philippines|''turrones de casuy'']], which is cashew [[marzipan]] wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashews are called ''kacang mete'' or ''kacang mede'', while the cashew apple is called ''jambu monyet'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} 'monkey rose apple').{{cn|date=June 2023}}


In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the demands for manufacturing [[cashew milk]], a [[plant milk]] alternative to [[dairy milk]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Osborn M |date=26 August 2015 |title=Access to Market Data and Supply Chain Visibility offer Economic Boost to Ghana Cashew Farmers |url=http://consumergoods.edgl.com/column/Access-to-Market-Data-and-Supply-Chain-Visibility-offer-Economic-Boost-to-Ghana-Cashew-Farmers101911 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604004917/http://consumergoods.edgl.com/column/Access-to-Market-Data-and-Supply-Chain-Visibility-offer-Economic-Boost-to-Ghana-Cashew-Farmers101911 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |access-date=11 May 2016 |publisher=Consumer Goods Technology}}</ref> In Mozambique, ''bolo polana'' is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is popular in South Africa.<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillippa Cheifitz |title=South Africa Eats |year=2009 |isbn=9780981428727 |oclc=519442115}}</ref>
In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the manufacturing demands for [[cashew milk]], a [[plant milk]] alternative to [[dairy milk]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Osborn M |date=26 August 2015 |title=Access to Market Data and Supply Chain Visibility offer Economic Boost to Ghana Cashew Farmers |url=http://consumergoods.edgl.com/column/Access-to-Market-Data-and-Supply-Chain-Visibility-offer-Economic-Boost-to-Ghana-Cashew-Farmers101911 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604004917/http://consumergoods.edgl.com/column/Access-to-Market-Data-and-Supply-Chain-Visibility-offer-Economic-Boost-to-Ghana-Cashew-Farmers101911 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |access-date=11 May 2016 |publisher=Consumer Goods Technology}}</ref> In Mozambique, ''bolo polana'' is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is common in South Africa.<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillippa Cheifitz |title=South Africa Eats |year=2009 |publisher=Quivertree Publications |isbn=978-0-9814287-2-7 |oclc=519442115}}</ref>


{{gallery|mode=packed
{{gallery|mode=packed
|Women preparing cashew, Burkina Faso.jpg|Women shelling cashews in [[Burkina Faso]], West Africa
|Women preparing cashew, Burkina Faso.jpg|Women shelling cashews in [[Burkina Faso]], West Africa
|Shelling cashews.jpg|A woman using a machine to shell cashews in Thailand, wearing gloves to protect against [[contact dermatitis]]
|Shelling cashews.jpg|A woman using a machine to shell cashews in Thailand
|CashewSnack.jpg|Cashews as a snack
|CashewSnack.jpg|Salted, roasted cashew nuts
|Cashew - sprout.jpg|Cashew sprouts are eaten raw or cooked.
|Cashew - sprout.jpg|Cashew sprouts are eaten raw or cooked.}}
}}
 
===Husk===
The cashew nut kernel has a slight curvature and two [[cotyledon]]s, each representing around 20-25% of the weight of the nut. It is encased in a reddish-brown membrane called a husk, which accounts for approximately 5% of the total nut. Cashew nut husk is used in emerging industrial applications, such as an [[Adsorption|adsorbent]], [[Composite material|composites]], [[biopolymer]]s, [[dye]]s, and enzyme synthesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khalid Zafeer |first1=Mohd. |last2=Subrahmanya Bhat |first2=K. |date=2023-01-01 |title=Valorisation of agro-waste cashew nut husk (Testa) for different value-added products |journal=Sustainable Chemistry for Climate Action |volume=2 |article-number=100014 |doi=10.1016/j.scca.2023.100014 |issn=2772-8269|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023SCCA....200014K }}</ref>


=== Apple ===
=== Apple ===
{{See also|Cajuína}}
The mature cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, citric acid,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Africa |first=Nigeria |date=2022-07-17 |title=How Nigeria can turn its huge cashew waste into valuable citric acid |url=https://www.moneyweb.co.za/news/international/how-nigeria-can-turn-its-huge-cashew-waste-into-valuable-citric-acid/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=Moneyweb}}</ref> or an alcoholic drink.<ref name="duke" /> It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries, such as India and Brazil.<ref name="duke" /> In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="eb" />


The mature cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, citric acid<ref>{{Cite web |last=Africa |first=Nigeria |date=2022-07-17 |title=How Nigeria can turn its huge cashew waste into valuable citric acid |url=https://www.moneyweb.co.za/news/international/how-nigeria-can-turn-its-huge-cashew-waste-into-valuable-citric-acid/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=Moneyweb}}</ref> or an alcoholic drink.<ref name="duke" /> It is also used to make preserves, chutneys and jams in some countries such as India and Brazil.<ref name="duke" /> In many countries, particularly within South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic.<ref name="morton" /><ref name="eb" />
In Brazil, cashew fruit juice and fruit pulp are used to make sweets, and juice mixed with alcoholic beverages such as ''[[cachaça]]'', and as flour, milk, or cheese.<ref name="Edi Souza">{{cite web |author=Edi Souza |date=28 July 2018 |title=It's cashew time at the fair and on the plate (translated) |url=https://www.folhape.com.br/diversao/diversao/sabores/2018/07/28/NWS,76213,71,513,DIVERSAO,2330-E-TEMPO-CAJU-FEIRA-PRATO.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821223527/https://www.folhape.com.br/diversao/diversao/sabores/2018/07/28/NWS,76213,71,513,DIVERSAO,2330-E-TEMPO-CAJU-FEIRA-PRATO.aspx |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=21 August 2018 |publisher=Folha de Pernambuco |language=pt}}</ref> In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called {{lang|es|dulce de marañón}} ({{lang|es|marañón}} being a Spanish name for cashew).<ref>{{Cite web |last=O |first=Odalys |date=2011-10-15 |title=Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá: Dulce de Marañón |url=https://chefodys3.blogspot.com/2011/10/dulce-de-maranon.html |access-date=2021-09-22 |website=Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá}}</ref>


In Brazil, cashew fruit juice and the fruit pulp are used in the production of sweets, juice, mixed with alcoholic beverages such as ''[[cachaça]]'', and as a flour, milk, or cheese.<ref name="Edi Souza">{{cite web |author=Edi Souza |date=28 July 2018 |title=It's cashew time at the fair and on the plate (translated) |url=https://www.folhape.com.br/diversao/diversao/sabores/2018/07/28/NWS,76213,71,513,DIVERSAO,2330-E-TEMPO-CAJU-FEIRA-PRATO.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821223527/https://www.folhape.com.br/diversao/diversao/sabores/2018/07/28/NWS,76213,71,513,DIVERSAO,2330-E-TEMPO-CAJU-FEIRA-PRATO.aspx |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=21 August 2018 |publisher=Folha de Pernambuco |language=pt}}</ref> In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called {{lang|es|dulce de marañón}} ({{lang|es|marañón}} being a Spanish name for cashew).<ref>{{Cite web |last=O |first=Odalys |date=2011-10-15 |title=Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá: Dulce de Marañón |url=https://chefodys3.blogspot.com/2011/10/dulce-de-maranon.html |access-date=2021-09-22 |website=Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá}}</ref>
Cashew nuts are more widely traded than cashew apples, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is easily bruised and has a very limited shelf life.<ref name="Strom-2014">{{cite news |last=Strom |first=Stephanie |date=8 August 2014 |title=Cashew Juice, the Apple of Pepsi's Eye |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/09/business/international/cashew-juice-the-apple-of-pepsis-eye.html |access-date=24 November 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices such as [[cajuína]].<ref name="Strom-2014" />


Cashew nuts are more widely traded than cashew apples, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is easily bruised and has a very limited shelf life.<ref name="Strom-2014">{{cite news |last=Strom |first=Stephanie |date=8 August 2014 |title=Cashew Juice, the Apple of Pepsi's Eye |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/09/business/international/cashew-juice-the-apple-of-pepsis-eye.html |access-date=24 November 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices.<ref name="Strom-2014" />
When the apple is consumed, its [[astringency]] is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water. [[Steeping]] the fruit in boiling salt water for five minutes reduces the astringency.<ref>{{cite book |author=Azam-Ali and Judge |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac306e.pdf |title=Small-scale cashew nut processing |publisher=FAO, United Nations |year=2004 |access-date=3 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215021318/http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac306e.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>


When consumed, the apple's [[astringency]] is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water. [[Steeping]] the fruit in boiling salt water for five minutes also reduces the astringency.<ref>{{cite book |author=Azam-Ali and Judge |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac306e.pdf |title=Small-scale cashew nut processing |publisher=FAO, United Nations |year=2004 |access-date=3 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215021318/http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac306e.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In [[Cambodia]], where the plant is usually grown as an ornamental rather than an economic tree, the fruit is a delicacy and is eaten with salt.<ref name="dyphon" />
 
In Cambodia, where the plant is usually grown as an ornamental rather than an economic tree, the fruit is a delicacy and is eaten with salt.<ref name="dyphon" />


===Alcohol===
===Alcohol===
In the Indian state of [[Goa]], the ripened cashew apples are mashed and the juice is extracted and kept for fermentation<ref name="duke" /> for a few days which is called ''Neero''. Fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called [[Feni (liquor)|''feni'' or fenny]]. ''Feni'' is about 40–42% alcohol (80–84 proof). The single-distilled version is called ''[[urrak]]'', which is about 15% alcohol (30 proof).<ref name="how-kaju-feni-is-made">{{cite web |title=Cashew Drink Stages |url=https://www.goaonline.in/about/tourism/how-kaju-feni-is-made |access-date=7 April 2021 |website=www.goaonline.in}}</ref> In Tanzania, the cashew apple (''bibo'' in [[Swahili language|Swahili]]) is dried and reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor called ''gongo''.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Eating in Tanzania |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tanzania/in-location/eating/a/nar/0ea61029-2f97-4a70-b083-95460b55cf05/355640 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815074019/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tanzania/in-location/eating/a/nar/0ea61029-2f97-4a70-b083-95460b55cf05/355640 |archive-date=15 August 2019 |access-date=2021-10-08 |website=Lonely Planet |language=en}}</ref>
In the Indian state of [[Goa]], the ripened cashew apples are mashed, and the juice, called "neero", is extracted and kept for fermentation<ref name="duke" /> for a few days. This fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called ''[[Feni (liquor)|feni]]'' or fenny. ''Feni'' is about 40–42% alcohol (80–84 proof). The single-distilled version is called ''[[urrak]]'', which is about 15% alcohol (30 proof).<ref name="how-kaju-feni-is-made">{{cite web |title=Cashew Drink Stages |url=https://www.goaonline.in/about/tourism/how-kaju-feni-is-made |access-date=7 April 2021 |website=www.goaonline.in}}</ref> In Tanzania, the cashew apple (''bibo'' in [[Swahili language|Swahili]]) is dried and reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor called ''gongo''.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Eating in Tanzania |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tanzania/in-location/eating/a/nar/0ea61029-2f97-4a70-b083-95460b55cf05/355640 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815074019/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tanzania/in-location/eating/a/nar/0ea61029-2f97-4a70-b083-95460b55cf05/355640 |archive-date=15 August 2019 |access-date=2021-10-08 |website=Lonely Planet |language=en}}</ref>


{{gallery|mode=packed
{{gallery|mode=packed
|Distilling caju apple liquor in Mogovolas.jpg|Distilling cashew apple liquor (''muchekele'') in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
|Distilling caju apple liquor in Mogovolas.jpg|Distilling cashew apple liquor (''muchekele'') in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
|Shrivelled and fermented cashew apples ready for distillation.jpg|Shriveled, fermented cashew apples ready for distillation, Mozambique
|Shrivelled and fermented cashew apples ready for distillation.jpg|Cashew apples spread for drying and subsequent storage before reconstitution in water and later fermentation, Mozambique
}}
}}


=== Nut oil ===
=== Nut oil ===
Cashew nut oil is a dark yellow oil derived from pressing the cashew nuts (typically from lower value broken chunks created accidentally during processing), and is used for cooking or as a salad dressing. The highest quality oil is produced from a single cold pressing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smartkitchen.com/resources/cashew-oil|title=Cashew Oil|publisher=Smart Kitchen|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref>
Cashew nut oil is a dark yellow oil derived from pressing the cashew nuts (typically from lower-value broken chunks created accidentally during processing) and used for cooking or salad dressing. The highest quality oil is produced from a single cold pressing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smartkitchen.com/resources/cashew-oil|title=Cashew Oil|publisher=Smart Kitchen|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006080124/http://www.smartkitchen.com/resources/cashew-oil}}</ref>


=== Shell oil ===
=== Shell oil ===
{{See also|Urushiol}}
{{See also|Urushiol}}


Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil ([[CAS registry number]] 8007-24-7) is a natural [[resin]] with a yellowish [[Paint sheen|sheen]] found in the [[honeycomb structure]] of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. It should not be confused with the edible cashew nut oil, as it is a strong irritant. It is therefore a danger in small-scale processing of the shells, but is a raw material having multiple possible uses.<ref name=hamad/> It is used in tropical [[folk medicine]] and for anti-[[termite]] treatment of timber.<ref name=clay />  Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.
Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil ([[CAS registry number]] 8007-24-7) is a natural [[resin]] with a yellowish [[Paint sheen|sheen]] found in the [[honeycomb structure]] of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. Since it is a strong irritant, it should not be confused with edible cashew nut oil. It is dangerous to handle in small-scale processing of the shells, but is itself a raw material with multiple uses.<ref name=hamad/> It is used in tropical [[folk medicine]] and for anti-[[termite]] treatment of timber.<ref name=clay />  Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.
* Cold, [[Liquid–liquid extraction|solvent-extracted]] CNSL is mostly composed of [[anacardic acids]] (70%),<ref name=cen/> [[cardol]] (18%) and [[cardanol]] (5%).<ref name=hamad/><ref name=epa>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/hpv/pubs/summaries/casntliq/c13793rr3.pdf|title=Exposure and Use Data for Cashew Nut Shell Liquid|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]|access-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512194341/http://www.epa.gov/hpv/pubs/summaries/casntliq/c13793rr3.pdf|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Cold, [[Liquid–liquid extraction|solvent-extracted]] CNSL is mostly composed of [[anacardic acids]] (70%),<ref name=cen/> [[cardol]] (18%), and [[cardanol]] (5%).<ref name=hamad/><ref name=epa>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/hpv/pubs/summaries/casntliq/c13793rr3.pdf|title=Exposure and Use Data for Cashew Nut Shell Liquid|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]|access-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512194341/http://www.epa.gov/hpv/pubs/summaries/casntliq/c13793rr3.pdf|archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref>
* Heating CNSL [[decarboxylation|decarboxylates]] the anacardic acids, producing a technical grade of CNSL that is rich in cardanol. [[Distillation]] of this material gives distilled, technical CNSL containing 78% cardanol and 8% cardol (cardol has one more [[hydroxyl]] group than cardanol).<ref name=epa/> This process also reduces the degree of thermal [[polymerization]] of the unsaturated alkyl-phenols present in CNSL.
* Heating CNSL [[decarboxylation|decarboxylates]] the anacardic acids, producing a technical grade of CNSL that is rich in cardanol. [[Distillation]] of this material gives distilled, technical CNSL containing 78% cardanol and 8% cardol (cardol has one more [[hydroxyl]] group than cardanol).<ref name=epa/> This process also reduces the degree of thermal [[polymerization]] of the unsaturated alkyl-phenols present in CNSL.
* Anacardic acid is also used in the chemical industry for the production of cardanol, which is used for resins, coatings, and frictional materials.<ref name=cen>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/cen-v086n033.p026|title=A Nutty Chemical|date=8 September 2008 |volume=86|issue=36|pages=26–27|author=Alexander H. Tullo|journal=[[Chemical and Engineering News]]}}</ref><ref name=epa />
* Anacardic acid is also used in the chemical industry for the production of cardanol, which is used for resins, coatings, and frictional materials.<ref name=cen>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/cen-v086n033.p026|title=A Nutty Chemical|date=8 September 2008 |volume=86|issue=36|pages=26–27|author=Alexander H. Tullo|journal=[[Chemical and Engineering News]]}}</ref><ref name=epa />
Line 375: Line 208:
These substances are skin allergens, like [[Toxicodendron vernicifluum#Lacquer|lacquer]] and the oils of poison ivy, and they present a danger during manual cashew processing.<ref name=clay>{{Cite book|last=Clay|first=Jason|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RU8D9kB714C&q=nutshell+liquid&pg=PA268|title=World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-By-Commodity Guide To Impacts And Practices|date=March 2004|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-55963-370-3|language=en |page=268}}</ref>
These substances are skin allergens, like [[Toxicodendron vernicifluum#Lacquer|lacquer]] and the oils of poison ivy, and they present a danger during manual cashew processing.<ref name=clay>{{Cite book|last=Clay|first=Jason|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RU8D9kB714C&q=nutshell+liquid&pg=PA268|title=World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-By-Commodity Guide To Impacts And Practices|date=March 2004|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-55963-370-3|language=en |page=268}}</ref>


This natural oil phenol has interesting chemical structural features that can be modified to create a wide spectrum of biobased [[monomer]]s. These capitalize on the chemically versatile construct, which contains three [[functional group]]s: the [[aromatic ring]], the [[hydroxyl group]], and the [[double bond]]s in the flanking [[alkyl]] chain. These include [[polyols]], which have recently seen increased demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of rigid polyurethanes, aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass.<ref name=hamad/>
This natural oil phenol has interesting chemical structural features that can be modified to create a wide spectrum of biobased [[monomer]]s. These capitalize on the chemically-versatile construct, which contains three [[functional group]]s: The [[aromatic ring]], the [[hydroxyl group]], and the [[double bond]]s in the flanking [[alkyl]] chain. These include [[polyols]], which have recently seen increased demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of rigid polyurethanes, aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass.<ref name=hamad/>


CNSL may be used as a resin for [[carbon composite]] products.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ferri|first=Enrico|title=Bioresins Derived from Cashew Nutshell Oil|url=http://www.materialstoday.com/composite-processing/features/bio-resins-derived-from-cashew-nutshell-oil/|publisher=MaterialsToday|access-date=7 September 2011|date=22 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171651/http://www.materialstoday.com/composite-processing/features/bio-resins-derived-from-cashew-nutshell-oil/|archive-date=10 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>  CNSL-based [[novolac]] is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a [[cross-link|reticulating]] agent for [[epoxy]] matrices in [[Composite material|composite]] applications providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
CNSL may be used as a resin for [[carbon composite]] products.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ferri|first=Enrico|title=Bioresins Derived from Cashew Nutshell Oil|url=http://www.materialstoday.com/composite-processing/features/bio-resins-derived-from-cashew-nutshell-oil/|publisher=MaterialsToday|access-date=7 September 2011|date=22 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171651/http://www.materialstoday.com/composite-processing/features/bio-resins-derived-from-cashew-nutshell-oil/|archive-date=10 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>  CNSL-based [[novolac]] is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a [[cross-link|reticulating]] agent (hardener) for [[epoxy]] matrices in [[Composite material|composite]] applications<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=da Silva |first1=Kássia Teixeira |last2=Oliveira |first2=Beatriz S. |last3=da Silva |first3=Lucas R. R. |last4=Mattos |first4=Adriano L. A. |last5=Mazzetto |first5=Selma E. |last6=Lomonaco |first6=Diego |date=2023-01-27 |title=<scp>Bio-based</scp> novolac resins from cashew nut processing waste: Alternative resource for the development of <scp>high-value</scp> sustainable products |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |volume=140 |issue=13 |doi=10.1002/app.53661 |issn=0021-8995}}</ref> providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferri |first1=Enrico |last2=Talentino |first2=Debi |date=May 2011 |title=Bio-resins from cashew nutshell oil |journal=Reinforced Plastics |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=29–31 |doi=10.1016/s0034-3617(11)70074-1 |issn=0034-3617}}</ref>


=== Animal feed ===
=== Animal feed ===
Discarded cashew nuts unfit for human consumption, alongside the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels, can be used to feed livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Tran |first2=G. |last3=Hassoun |first3=P. |last4=Bastianelli |first4=D. |last5=Lebas |first5=F. |year=2017 |title=Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nuts and by-products |website=Feedipedia|url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/56|access-date=2023-01-16|language=en}}</ref>
Discarded cashew nuts are unfit for human consumption and the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels can be fed to livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Tran |first2=G. |last3=Hassoun |first3=P. |last4=Bastianelli |first4=D. |last5=Lebas |first5=F. |year=2017 |title=Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nuts and by-products |website=Feedipedia|url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/56|access-date=2023-01-16|language=en}}</ref>


=== Other uses ===
=== Other uses ===
As well as the nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. In Cambodia, the bark gives a yellow dye, the timber is used in boat-making, and for house-boards, and the wood makes excellent charcoal.<ref name="dyphon">{{cite book |last1=Pauline Dy Phon |title=Plants Utilised In Cambodia/Plantes utilisées au Cambodge |date=2000 |publisher=Imprimerie Olympic |location=Phnom Penh |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InD2RAAACAAJ|author1-link=Pauline Dy Phon }}</ref> The shells yield a black oil used as a preservative and water-proofing agent in [[varnish]]es, cements, and as a [[lubricant]] or timber seal.<ref name=duke/> Timber is used to manufacture furniture, boats, packing crates, and [[charcoal]].<ref name=duke/> Its juice turns black on exposure to air, providing an indelible ink.<ref name=duke/>
In addition to its nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. In Cambodia, the bark gives a yellow dye, the timber is used in boat-making, and for house-boards, and the wood makes excellent charcoal.<ref name="dyphon">{{cite book |last1=Pauline Dy Phon |title=Plants Utilised In Cambodia/Plantes utilisées au Cambodge |date=2000 |publisher=Imprimerie Olympic |location=Phnom Penh |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InD2RAAACAAJ|author1-link=Pauline Dy Phon }}</ref> The shells yield a black oil used as a preservative and waterproofing agent in [[varnish]]es, cement, and as a [[lubricant]] or timber seal.<ref name=duke/> Derivatives of the shell are also used in paints.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jostock |first=Carolyn |title=Encyclopedia of Latin American history and culture |date=2008 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |isbn=978-0-684-31590-4 |editor-last=Kinsbruner |editor-first=Jay |edition=2nd |series=Gale eBooks |location=Detroit, Mich |page=176 |editor-last2=Langer |editor-first2=Erick Detlef |editor-last3=Gale (Firm)}}</ref>
 
Timber is used to manufacture furniture, boats, packing crates, and [[charcoal]].<ref name="duke" /> Its juice turns black on exposure to air, providing an indelible ink.<ref name="duke" />


==See also==
==See also==
Line 393: Line 228:


== External links ==
== External links ==
{{Cookbook}}
* {{Commons category inline|Anacardium occidentale}}
* {{Commons category inline|Anacardium occidentale}}


Latest revision as of 22:41, 22 February 2026


Cashew
Ripe fruit and attached drupe, which contains the edible seed
Scientific classification edit
: [[Template:Taxonomy/Anacardium]]
Species:
Template:Taxonomy/AnacardiumA. occidentale
Binomial name
Template:Taxonomy/AnacardiumAnacardium occidentale

Cashew is the common name of a tropical evergreen tree Anacardium occidentale, in the family Anacardiaceae. It is the source of the cashew nut (often simply called a 'cashew') and the cashew apple. The tree can grow as tall as 14 meters (46 feet).

The species is native to South America. The dwarf cultivars, growing up to 6 m (20 ft), are the most profitable, maturing sooner and producing greater yields. In 2023, 3.9 million tons of cashew nuts were harvested globally, led by the Ivory Coast and India.

The nut is edible and is eaten on its own as a snack, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter. The cashew apple, an accessory fruit, is a light reddish to yellow fruit, the pulp and juice of which can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or fermented and distilled into liquor. Additionally, derivatives from the shell are used in products such as varnishes, lubricant, and paints.

Description[edit | edit source]

The cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 metres (46 feet) tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk.[2] The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 centimetres (1+1⁄2–8+3⁄4 inches) long and 2–15 cm (3⁄4–6 in) broad, with smooth margins. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm (10 in) long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 millimeters (1⁄4–5⁄8 in) long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area around 7,500 m2 (81,000 sq ft) and is located in Parnamirim, Brazil.[citation needed]

The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit).[3][4] What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower.[5][6][2] Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow or red structure about 5–11 cm (2–4+1⁄4 in) long.[3][6]

The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney-shaped or boxing glove-shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple.[3] The drupe first develops on the tree and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple.[3] The drupe becomes the true fruit, a single shell-encased seed, which is often considered a nut in the culinary sense.[3][6][7] The seed is surrounded by a double-shell that contains an allergenic phenolic resin,[6] anacardic acid - which is a potent skin irritant[2] chemically related to the better-known and also toxic allergenic oil urushiol, which is found in the related poison ivy and lacquer tree.

  • Botanical illustration
    Botanical illustration
  • Tree in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
    Tree in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
  • Trunk in Bangladesh
    Trunk in Bangladesh
  • Flowers
    Flowers
  • Pollen grains of Cashew tree
    Pollen grains of Cashew tree
  • Young fruits
    Young fruits
  • Fruits sold as produce
    Fruits sold as produce

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree: Caju (pt), also known as acaju, which itself is from the Tupi word acajú, literally meaning "nut that produces itself".[3][4]

The generic name Anacardium is composed of the Greek prefix ana- (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.), the Greek cardia (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.), and the Neo-Latin suffix -ium. It possibly refers to the heart shape of the fruit,[8] to "the top of the fruit stem"[9] or to the seed.[10] The word anacardium was earlier used to refer to Semecarpus anacardium (the marking nut tree) before Carl Linnaeus transferred it to the cashew; both plants are in the same family.[11] The epithet occidentale derives from the Western (or Occidental) world.[12]

Distribution and habitat[edit | edit source]

The species is native to tropical South America[13] and later was distributed around the world in the 1500s by Portuguese explorers.[3][14][6] Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s.[15] The Portuguese took it to Goa, formerly Estado da Índia Portuguesa in India, between 1560 and 1565. From there, it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.[citation needed]

Cultivation[edit | edit source]

Template:Owidslider

Cashew production
(with shell) 2023
Country Tonnes
 Ivory Coast 1,044,450
 India 782,000
 Vietnam 347,634
 Indonesia 164,152
 Philippines 136,264
World 3,934,839
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[16]

The cashew tree is cultivated in the tropics between 25°N and 25°S, and is well-adapted to hot lowland areas with a pronounced dry season, where the mango and tamarind trees also thrive.[17] The traditional cashew tree is tall, up to 14 m (46 ft), requiring three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests.[18][19]

More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to 6 m (20 ft) tall and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 t (0.25 long tons; 0.28 short tons) per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards.[18][20]

Production[edit | edit source]

In 2023, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 3.9 million tonnes, led by Ivory Coast and India with a combined 46% of the world total (table).

Trade[edit | edit source]

Almost all cashews produced in Africa between 2000 and 2019 were exported as raw nuts which are much less profitable than shelled nuts.[21] One of the goals of the African Cashew Alliance is to promote Africa's cashew processing capabilities to improve the profitability of Africa's cashew industry.[22] Half of the world's cashews were sold by American retailer Costco, as of 2025.[23]

Toxicity[edit | edit source]

Some people are allergic to cashews, but they are a less frequent allergen than other tree nuts or peanuts.[24] For up to 6% of children and 3% of adults, consuming cashews may cause allergic reactions, ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening anaphylaxis.[25][26][27][28] These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins.[29] Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing.[26][27]

The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds that can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy, primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol.[6][30] Because it can cause dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers.[31] Cardanol, which can be readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, is under research for its potential applications in nanomaterials and biotechnology.[32]

Uses[edit | edit source]

Nutrition[edit | edit source]

Template:Nutritional value Raw cashew nuts are 5% water, 30% carbohydrates, 44% fat, and 18% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw cashews provide 553 kilocalories, 67% of the Daily Value (DV) in total fats, 36% DV of protein, 13% DV of dietary fiber, and 11% DV of carbohydrates.[33] Cashew nuts are rich sources (20% or more of the DV) of dietary minerals, including particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79-110% DV), and of thiamin, vitamin B6, and vitamin K (32-37% DV).[33] Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14-61% DV) (table).[33] Cashews (100g, raw) contain 113 milligrams (1.74 gr) of beta-sitosterol.[33]

Nut and shell[edit | edit source]

Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.[3][6]

Cashews are commonly used in Indian cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste[6] that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., korma), or some sweets (e.g., kaju barfi). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In Goan cuisine, both roasted and raw kernels of Goa Kaju are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashews are also used in Thai and Chinese cuisines, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of Antipolo and is eaten with suman. The province of Pampanga also has a sweet dessert called turrones de casuy, which is cashew marzipan wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashews are called kacang mete or kacang mede, while the cashew apple is called jambu monyet (lit. 'monkey rose apple').[citation needed]

In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the manufacturing demands for cashew milk, a plant milk alternative to dairy milk.[34] In Mozambique, bolo polana is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is common in South Africa.[35]

  • Women shelling cashews in Burkina Faso, West Africa
    Women shelling cashews in Burkina Faso, West Africa
  • A woman using a machine to shell cashews in Thailand
    A woman using a machine to shell cashews in Thailand
  • Salted, roasted cashew nuts
    Salted, roasted cashew nuts
  • Cashew sprouts are eaten raw or cooked.
    Cashew sprouts are eaten raw or cooked.

Husk[edit | edit source]

The cashew nut kernel has a slight curvature and two cotyledons, each representing around 20-25% of the weight of the nut. It is encased in a reddish-brown membrane called a husk, which accounts for approximately 5% of the total nut. Cashew nut husk is used in emerging industrial applications, such as an adsorbent, composites, biopolymers, dyes, and enzyme synthesis.[36]

Apple[edit | edit source]

The mature cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, citric acid,[37] or an alcoholic drink.[6] It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries, such as India and Brazil.[6] In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic.[3][2]

In Brazil, cashew fruit juice and fruit pulp are used to make sweets, and juice mixed with alcoholic beverages such as cachaça, and as flour, milk, or cheese.[38] In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called dulce de marañón (marañón being a Spanish name for cashew).[39]

Cashew nuts are more widely traded than cashew apples, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is easily bruised and has a very limited shelf life.[40] Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices such as cajuína.[40]

When the apple is consumed, its astringency is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water. Steeping the fruit in boiling salt water for five minutes reduces the astringency.[41]

In Cambodia, where the plant is usually grown as an ornamental rather than an economic tree, the fruit is a delicacy and is eaten with salt.[42]

Alcohol[edit | edit source]

In the Indian state of Goa, the ripened cashew apples are mashed, and the juice, called "neero", is extracted and kept for fermentation[6] for a few days. This fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called feni or fenny. Feni is about 40–42% alcohol (80–84 proof). The single-distilled version is called urrak, which is about 15% alcohol (30 proof).[43] In Tanzania, the cashew apple (bibo in Swahili) is dried and reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor called gongo.[44]

  • Distilling cashew apple liquor (muchekele) in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
    Distilling cashew apple liquor (muchekele) in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
  • Cashew apples spread for drying and subsequent storage before reconstitution in water and later fermentation, Mozambique
    Cashew apples spread for drying and subsequent storage before reconstitution in water and later fermentation, Mozambique

Nut oil[edit | edit source]

Cashew nut oil is a dark yellow oil derived from pressing the cashew nuts (typically from lower-value broken chunks created accidentally during processing) and used for cooking or salad dressing. The highest quality oil is produced from a single cold pressing.[45]

Shell oil[edit | edit source]

See also: Urushiol

Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil (CAS registry number 8007-24-7) is a natural resin with a yellowish sheen found in the honeycomb structure of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. Since it is a strong irritant, it should not be confused with edible cashew nut oil. It is dangerous to handle in small-scale processing of the shells, but is itself a raw material with multiple uses.[32] It is used in tropical folk medicine and for anti-termite treatment of timber.[46] Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.

  • Cold, solvent-extracted CNSL is mostly composed of anacardic acids (70%),[47] cardol (18%), and cardanol (5%).[32][48]
  • Heating CNSL decarboxylates the anacardic acids, producing a technical grade of CNSL that is rich in cardanol. Distillation of this material gives distilled, technical CNSL containing 78% cardanol and 8% cardol (cardol has one more hydroxyl group than cardanol).[48] This process also reduces the degree of thermal polymerization of the unsaturated alkyl-phenols present in CNSL.
  • Anacardic acid is also used in the chemical industry for the production of cardanol, which is used for resins, coatings, and frictional materials.[47][48]

These substances are skin allergens, like lacquer and the oils of poison ivy, and they present a danger during manual cashew processing.[46]

This natural oil phenol has interesting chemical structural features that can be modified to create a wide spectrum of biobased monomers. These capitalize on the chemically-versatile construct, which contains three functional groups: The aromatic ring, the hydroxyl group, and the double bonds in the flanking alkyl chain. These include polyols, which have recently seen increased demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of rigid polyurethanes, aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass.[32]

CNSL may be used as a resin for carbon composite products.[49] CNSL-based novolac is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a reticulating agent (hardener) for epoxy matrices in composite applications[50] providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material.[51]

Animal feed[edit | edit source]

Discarded cashew nuts are unfit for human consumption and the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels can be fed to livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees.[52]

Other uses[edit | edit source]

In addition to its nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. In Cambodia, the bark gives a yellow dye, the timber is used in boat-making, and for house-boards, and the wood makes excellent charcoal.[42] The shells yield a black oil used as a preservative and waterproofing agent in varnishes, cement, and as a lubricant or timber seal.[6] Derivatives of the shell are also used in paints.[53]

Timber is used to manufacture furniture, boats, packing crates, and charcoal.[6] Its juice turns black on exposure to air, providing an indelible ink.[6]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Barstow, M. (2021). "Anacardium occidentale". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021 e.T60761600A60761604. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T60761600A60761604.en. Retrieved 16 April 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Cashew". Encyclopedia Britannica. 7 April 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Morton, Julia F. (1987). Cashew apple, Anacardium occidentale L.; In: Fruits of Warm Climates. Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Indiana. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-0-9610184-1-2. Archived from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved 18 March 2007.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut)". CABI. 20 November 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  5. ↑ Varghese, T.; Pundir, Y. (1964). "Anatomy of the pseudocarp in Anacardium occidentale L.". Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B. 59 (5): 252–258. doi:10.1007/BF03052341. S2CID 83230755.
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 James A Duke (1983). "Anacardium occidentale L." Handbook of Energy Crops. (unpublished); In: NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
  7. ↑ Kapinga, F. A.; Kasuga, L. J. F.; Kafiriti, E. M. "Growth and production of cashew nut" (PDF). Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  8. ↑ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2016). World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. CRC. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-4822-5064-0. referring to the shape of the fruit
  9. ↑ Merriam-Webster: "from the heartlike shape of the top of the fruit stem"
  10. ↑ George Milbry Gould (1898). An Illustrated Dictionary of Medicine, Biology and Allied Sciences: Including the Pronunciation, Accentuation, Derivation, and Definition of the Terms Used in Medicine, Anatomy, Surgery ... P. Blakiston. p. 73. ἀνά, up; καρδία, the heart, from its heart-shaped seeds
  11. ↑ Hugh F. Glen (2004). What's in a Name. Jacana. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-77009-040-8. (Greek ana = upwards + kardia = heart); applied by 16th-century apothecaries to the fruit of the marking nut, Semecarpus anacardium, and later used by Linnaeus as a generic name for the cashew.
  12. ↑ "Occidental". The Free Dictionary. 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  13. ↑ "Anacardium occidentale L." Plants of the Word Online. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  14. ↑ "Cashew". Department of Horticulture, Cornell University. 20 October 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
  15. ↑ Carolyn Joystick, "Cashew Industry" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, p. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
  16. ↑ "Cashew production in 2023; pick lists from world regions/production quantity/year". FAOSTAT of the UN. 2025. Retrieved 6 February 2025.
  17. ↑ "Cultivating Cashew Nuts". ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops, South Africa. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Ian Duncan. "Growers Manual for Production of Cashew: Nursery and Plantation" (PDF). Nicaragua Agriculture Reconstruction Assistance Program. Managua, Nicaragua: United States Agency for International Development. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2006.
  19. ↑ Davison, Julian, ed. (1995). Fruit of Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Mekar Unggul Sari. p. 47. ISBN 981-3018-11-9.
  20. ↑ Desai A.R.; S.P. Singh; J.R. Faleiro; et al. (2010). "Techniques And Practices For Cashew Production" (PDF). Technical Bulletin No. 21. Goa, India: ICAR Research Complex for Goa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2024.
  21. ↑ Nelle, Patrick (28 February 2022). "Can Africa cash in on its cashew nut domination?". How we made it in Africa. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  22. ↑ "ACA seeks creation of cashew development fund to enhance raw nuts processing in Africa". The Guardian. Lagos, Nigeria. 29 September 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  23. ↑ Howe, Ben Ryder (20 August 2024). "How Costco Hacked the American Shopping Psyche". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  24. ↑ Rosen, T.; Fordice, D. B. (April 1994). "Cashew Nut Dermatitis". Southern Medical Journal. 87 (4): 543–546. doi:10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026. PMID 8153790.
  25. ↑ Weinberger, Tamar; Sicherer, Scott (2018). "Current perspectives on tree nut allergy: a review". Journal of Asthma and Allergy. 11: 41–51. doi:10.2147/jaa.s141636. ISSN 1178-6965. PMC 5875412. PMID 29618933.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 McWilliam V.; Koplin J.; Lodge C.; Tang M.; Dharmage S.; Allen K. (2015). "The prevalence of tree nut allergy: a systematic review". Current Allergy and Asthma Reports. 15 (9): 555. doi:10.1007/s11882-015-0555-8. PMID 26233427. S2CID 36209553.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Cashew Allergies". Informall Database – funded by European Union. 2010. Archived from the original on 29 October 2010.
  28. ↑ "Food allergies" (PDF). World Health Organization, International Food Safety Authorities Network. 2006.
  29. ↑ "Cashew - allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies - University of Manchester)". research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  30. ↑ Rosen T.; Fordice, D. B. (1994). "Cashew nut dermatitis". South Med J. 87 (4): 543–46. doi:10.1097/00007611-199404000-00026. PMID 8153790.
  31. ↑ "Why Cashews Aren't Sold In The Shell". Moment of Science, Indiana Public Media. 6 September 2013. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Hamad F. B.; Mubofu E. B. (2015). "Potential biological applications of bio-based anacardic acids and their derivatives". Int J Mol Sci. 16 (4): 8569–90. doi:10.3390/ijms16048569. PMC 4425097. PMID 25894225.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 "Full Report (All Nutrients): 12087, Nuts, cashew nuts, raw, database version SR 27". Agricultural Research Service – United States Department of Agriculture. 2015. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
  34. ↑ Osborn M (26 August 2015). "Access to Market Data and Supply Chain Visibility offer Economic Boost to Ghana Cashew Farmers". Consumer Goods Technology. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  35. ↑ Phillippa Cheifitz (2009). South Africa Eats. Quivertree Publications. ISBN 978-0-9814287-2-7. OCLC 519442115.
  36. ↑ Khalid Zafeer, Mohd.; Subrahmanya Bhat, K. (1 January 2023). "Valorisation of agro-waste cashew nut husk (Testa) for different value-added products". Sustainable Chemistry for Climate Action. 2 100014. Bibcode:2023SCCA....200014K. doi:10.1016/j.scca.2023.100014. ISSN 2772-8269.
  37. ↑ Africa, Nigeria (17 July 2022). "How Nigeria can turn its huge cashew waste into valuable citric acid". Moneyweb. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  38. ↑ Edi Souza (28 July 2018). "It's cashew time at the fair and on the plate (translated)" (in português). Folha de Pernambuco. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  39. ↑ O, Odalys (15 October 2011). "Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá: Dulce de Marañón". Dulces de mi campiña, Panamá. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Strom, Stephanie (8 August 2014). "Cashew Juice, the Apple of Pepsi's Eye". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  41. ↑ Azam-Ali and Judge (2004). Small-scale cashew nut processing (PDF). FAO, United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Pauline Dy Phon (2000). Plants Utilised In Cambodia/Plantes utilisées au Cambodge. Phnom Penh: Imprimerie Olympic. p. 34.
  43. ↑ "Cashew Drink Stages". www.goaonline.in. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  44. ↑ "Eating in Tanzania". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  45. ↑ "Cashew Oil". Smart Kitchen. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Clay, Jason (March 2004). World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-By-Commodity Guide To Impacts And Practices. Island Press. p. 268. ISBN 978-1-55963-370-3.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Alexander H. Tullo (8 September 2008). "A Nutty Chemical". Chemical and Engineering News. 86 (36): 26–27. doi:10.1021/cen-v086n033.p026.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 "Exposure and Use Data for Cashew Nut Shell Liquid" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  49. ↑ Ferri, Enrico (22 May 2011). "Bioresins Derived from Cashew Nutshell Oil". MaterialsToday. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  50. ↑ da Silva, Kássia Teixeira; Oliveira, Beatriz S.; da Silva, Lucas R. R.; Mattos, Adriano L. A.; Mazzetto, Selma E.; Lomonaco, Diego (27 January 2023). "<scp>Bio-based</scp> novolac resins from cashew nut processing waste: Alternative resource for the development of <scp>high-value</scp> sustainable products". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 140 (13). doi:10.1002/app.53661. ISSN 0021-8995.
  51. ↑ Ferri, Enrico; Talentino, Debi (May 2011). "Bio-resins from cashew nutshell oil". Reinforced Plastics. 55 (3): 29–31. doi:10.1016/s0034-3617(11)70074-1. ISSN 0034-3617.
  52. ↑ Heuzé, V.; Tran, G.; Hassoun, P.; Bastianelli, D.; Lebas, F. (2017). "Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nuts and by-products". Feedipedia. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
  53. ↑ Jostock, Carolyn (2008). Kinsbruner, Jay; Langer, Erick Detlef; Gale (Firm) (eds.). Encyclopedia of Latin American history and culture. Gale eBooks (2nd ed.). Detroit, Mich: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-684-31590-4.

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