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-{{short description|Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere}}
+#REDIRECT [[Particulate matter]]
-{{About|particles suspended in air|general discussion of particulate types|Particle#Distribution of particles}}
-{{Other uses}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
-{{Pollution sidebar|Air|image=[[File:Airborne-particulate-size-chart.svg|upright=1.75|frameless]]|caption=This diagram shows types, and size distribution in micrometres (μm), of atmospheric particulate matter.}}
-'''Particulates''' or '''atmospheric particulate matter''' (see [[#Other names|below]] for other names) are [[microscopic]] [[particle]]s of [[solid]] or [[liquid]] [[matter]] [[suspension (chemistry)|suspended]] in the [[atmosphere of Earth|air]]. The term ''[[aerosol]]'' commonly refers to the particulate/air [[mixture]], as opposed to the particulate matter alone.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Seinfeld J, Pandis S |title=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change |edition=2nd |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=1998 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-471-17816-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/atmosphericchemi0000sein/page/97 97] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/atmosphericchemi0000sein/page/97 }}</ref> Sources of particulate matter can be natural or [[anthropogenic hazard|anthropogenic]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Plainiotis S, Pericleous KA, Fisher BE, Shier L |date=January 2010 |title=Application of Lagrangian particle dispersion models to air quality assessment in the Trans-Manche region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais (France) and Kent (Great Britain) |journal=International Journal of Environment and Pollution |volume=40 |issue=1/2/3 |pages=160–74 |doi=10.1504/IJEP.2010.030891 |url=http://www.harmo.org/Conferences/Proceedings/_Crete/publishedSections/p398.pdf }}</ref> They have impacts on climate and [[precipitation]] that adversely affect human [[health]], in ways additional to direct inhalation.
+{{Redirect category shell|
+{{R from move}}
-[[File:PM and a human hair.jpg|alt=A computer graphic showing how many PM10 particles can be wrapped around a human hair and how several PM2.5 particles can be wrapped around PM10|thumb|PM{{sub|2.5}} and PM{{sub|10}} compared with a [[human hair]] in a graphic from the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]]]
-Types of [[atmosphere|atmospheric]] particles include suspended particulate matter; thoracic and respirable particles;<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown JS, Gordon T, Price O, Asgharian B | title = Thoracic and respirable particle definitions for human health risk assessment | journal = Particle and Fibre Toxicology | volume = 10 | pages = 12 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23575443 | pmc = 3640939 | doi = 10.1186/1743-8977-10-12 | doi-access = free }}</ref> inhalable coarse particles, designated PM{{sub|10}}, which are [[granularity|coarse]] [[particle]]s with a [[particle size|diameter]] of 10 [[micrometre|micrometers]] (μm) or less; fine particles, designated '''PM{{sub|2.5}}''', with a diameter of 2.5&nbsp;μm or less;<ref name="US EPA">{{cite web |last1=US EPA |first1=OAR |title=Particulate Matter (PM) Basics |url=https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#PM |website=US EPA |access-date=5 October 2019 |date=19 April 2016}}</ref> [[ultrafine particle]]s, with a diameter of 100&nbsp;nm or less; and [[soot]].
-The [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]] and [[World Health Organization|WHO]] designate airborne particulates as a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1 carcinogen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1408092/|title=EHP – Outdoor Particulate Matter Exposure and Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|website=ehp.niehs.nih.gov|access-date=2016-12-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529064001/http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1408092/|archive-date=29 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Particulates are the most harmful form (other than [[Ultrafine particle|ultra-fines]]) of [[air pollution]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wasley |first1=Andrew |last2=Heal |first2=Alexandra |last3=Harvey |first3=Fiona |last4=Lainio |first4=Mie |title=Revealed: UK government failing to tackle rise of serious air pollutant |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/13/revealed-uk-government-failing-to-tackle-rise-of-ammonia-serious-air-pollutant |work=The Guardian |date=13 June 2019 }}</ref> due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and brain from blood streams, causing health problems such as [[cardiovascular disease|heart disease]], [[respiratory disease|lung disease]], and [[death|premature death]].<ref name="EPA">{{cite web |last1=US EPA |first1=OAR |title=Health and Environmental Effects of Particulate Matter (PM) |url=https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/health-and-environmental-effects-particulate-matter-pm |website=US EPA |access-date=5 October 2019 |date=26 April 2016}}</ref> In 2013, a study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10&nbsp;[[Microgram|μg/m{{sup|3}}]] in PM{{sub|10}}, the [[lung cancer]] rate rose 22% (95% CI [1.03–1.45]). The smaller PM{{sub|2.5}}, which can penetrate deeper into the lungs, were associated with an 18% increase in lung cancer per 5&nbsp;μg/m{{sup|3}}; however, this study did not show statistical significance for this association (95% CI [0.96–1.46]).<ref name=Lancet71013/> Worldwide, exposure to PM{{sub|2.5}} contributed to 4.1 million deaths from heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, chronic lung disease, and respiratory infections in 2016.<ref name="State of Global Air 2018">{{cite web| title=STATE OF GLOBAL AIR/2018 A SPECIAL REPORT ON GLOBAL EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION AND ITS DISEASE BURDEN| publisher=Health Effects Institute| year=2018| url=https://www.stateofglobalair.org/sites/default/files/soga-2018-report.pdf}}</ref> Overall, ambient particulate matter ranks as the sixth leading risk factor for premature death globally.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://undark.org/breathtaking|title=The Weight of Numbers: Air Pollution and PM2.5|work=Undark|access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref>
-==Atmospheric sources==
-[[File:Dust emission when using electrical power tools.webm|thumb|upright|Particulate emission when using modern electrical [[power tool]] during home broadband installation, Tai Po, Hong Kong]]
-[[File:Warsaw_Excavator_006.jpg|thumb|[[Excavator]] (a type of heavy equipment commonly used at construction sites and roadworks) demolishing the remnants of the pre-war Postal Train Station (Dworzec Pocztowy) at Jerozolimskie Avenue, Poland]]Some particulates occur naturally, originating from [[volcano]]es, [[dust storm]]s, [[forest fire|forest]] and [[grassland]] fires, living vegetation and [[sea spray]]. Human activities also generate significant amounts of particulates. For example,
-* Burning of [[fossil fuel]]s (e.g., aircraft),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Omidvarborna |title=Recent studies on soot modeling for diesel combustion |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=48 |pages=635–647 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.019 |display-authors=etal|year=2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.easa.europa.eu/eco/eaer/topics/adapting-changing-climate/air-quality | title=Air quality, EASA Eco}}</ref> [[joss paper]],<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026974912200121X |title=Large contribution from worship activities to the atmospheric soot particles in northwest China|year=2022 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118907 |last1=Lin |first1=Chunshui |last2=Huang |first2=Ru-Jin |last3=Duan |first3=Jing |last4=Zhong |first4=Haobin |last5=Xu |first5=Wei |last6=Wu |first6=Yunfei |last7=Zhang |first7=Renjian |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=299 |page=118907 |pmid=35091017 |s2cid=246355499 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214785320365688 |title=Heavy metals emissions from joss paper burning rituals and the air quality around a specific incinerator|year=2021 |doi=10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.686 |last1=Giang |first1=Lam Van |last2=Thanh |first2=Tran |last3=Hien |first3=Truong Thanh |last4=Tan |first4=Lam Van |last5=Thi Bich Phuong |first5=Tran |last6=Huu Loc |first6=Ho |journal=Materials Today: Proceedings |volume=38 |pages=2751–2757 |s2cid=226353498 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653516313716 |title=How incense and joss paper burning during the worship activities influences ambient mercury concentrations in indoor and outdoor environments of an Asian temple?|year=2017 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.159 |last1=Shen |first1=Huazhen |last2=Tsai |first2=Cheng-Mou |last3=Yuan |first3=Chung-Shin |last4=Jen |first4=Yi-Hsiu |last5=Ie |first5=Iau-Ren |journal=Chemosphere |volume=167 |pages=530–540 |pmid=27764746 |bibcode=2017Chmsp.167..530S }}</ref> waste,<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://aaqr.org/articles/aaqr-22-11-aac22-0412 | last1=Ramadan | first1=Bimastyaji Surya | last2=Rosmalina | first2=Raden Tina | last3=Syafrudin | last4=Munawir | last5=Khair | first5=Hafizhul | last6=Rachman | first6=Indriyani | last7=Matsumoto | first7=Toru | title=Potential Risks of Open Waste Burning at the Household Level: A Case Study of Semarang, Indonesia | journal=Aerosol and Air Quality Research | publisher=Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research | volume=23 | issue=5 | year=2023 | issn=1680-8584 | doi=10.4209/aaqr.220412 | page=220412| s2cid=257202752 }}</ref> [[firecrackers]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Personal exposures to particulate matter <2.5 μm in mass median aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) pollution during the burning of six most commonly used firecrackers in India|year=2019 |pmc=6625239 |last1=Shah |first1=R. |last2=Limaye |first2=S. |last3=Ujagare |first3=D. |last4=Madas |first4=S. |last5=Salvi |first5=S. |journal=Lung India |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=324–329 |doi=10.4103/lungindia.lungindia_440_18 |pmid=31290418 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[biomass]] including [[wood]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Rajarshi |last2=Schooff |first2=Brian |last3=Li |first3=Xiaolong |last4=Montgomery |first4=Scott |last5=Tuttle |first5=Jacob |last6=Wendt |first6=Jost O. L. |last7=Dickson |first7=Kingsley |last8=Iverson |first8=Brian |last9=Fry |first9=Andrew |title=Ash aerosol particle size distribution, composition, and deposition behavior while co-firing coal and steam-exploded biomass in a 1.5 MWth combustor |journal=Fuel Processing Technology |date=1 May 2023 |volume=243 |pages=107674 |doi=10.1016/j.fuproc.2023.107674|s2cid=256529257 }}</ref> and [[stubble burning|stubble]].
-* [[Construction]]<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1352231016303120 | title=Ambient exposure to coarse and fine particle emissions from building demolition| year=2016| doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.04.029| last1=Azarmi| first1=Farhad| last2=Kumar| first2=Prashant| journal=Atmospheric Environment| volume=137| pages=62–79| bibcode=2016AtmEn.137...62A}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emissions-of-air-pollutants/emissions-of-air-pollutants-in-the-uk-particulate-matter-pm10-and-pm25#major-emission-sources-for-pm10-and-pm25-in-the-uk |title=Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2022/oct/21/building-works-responsible-for-18-of-uk-large-particle-pollution |title=Building works responsible for 18% of UK large particle pollution}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://amp.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/15/delhi-deadly-dust-how-construction-sites-choking-city |title=Delhi's deadly dust: how construction sites are choking the city}}</ref> (activities of building refurbishment or demolition,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280568056 |title=Particulate matter emissions from activities of building refurbishment}}</ref> [[roadwork]]s, [[diesel exhaust]]s of the [[heavy equipment]]s used, emission from the production of building materials,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.nbcbayarea.com/investigations/sf-concrete-plant-that-was-focus-of-nbc-bay-area-investigative-report-ordered-to-shut-down/2834839/?amp=1 | title=SF Concrete Plant That Was Focus of NBC Bay Area Investigative Report, Ordered to Shut Down| date=11 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media| title =Scoop, pollution at Yau Tong Cement batching plant| url =https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aUweQiD4IVQ| location =HK| publisher =TVB
-}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media| title =Orirental Daily News once again revealed that the Yau Tong Concrete Plant violated regulations and emitted a large amount of smoke and dust, up to 40 meters | url =https://hk.news.yahoo.com/%E6%9D%B1%E7%B6%B2%E5%86%8D%E6%8F%AD%E6%B2%B9%E5%A1%98%E6%B7%B7%E5%87%9D%E5%9C%9F%E5%BB%A0%E9%81%95%E8%A6%8F-%E6%8E%92%E5%87%BA%E5%A4%A7%E9%87%8F%E7%85%99%E5%A1%B5-%E9%AB%98%E9%81%9440%E7%B1%B3-142209204.html| location =HK| publisher =Oriental Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | title=Identification of cement in atmospheric particulate matter using the hybrid method of laser diffraction analysis and Raman spectroscopy| year=2020| pmc=7042420| last1=Kholodov| first1=A.| last2=Zakharenko| first2=A.| last3=Drozd| first3=V.| last4=Chernyshev| first4=V.| last5=Kirichenko| first5=K.| last6=Seryodkin| first6=I.| last7=Karabtsov| first7=A.| last8=Olesik| first8=S.| last9=Khvost| first9=E.| last10=Vakhnyuk| first10=I.| last11=Chaika| first11=V.| last12=Stratidakis| first12=A.| last13=Vinceti| first13=M.| last14=Sarigiannis| first14=D.| last15=Hayes| first15=A. W.| last16=Tsatsakis| first16=A.| last17=Golokhvast| first17=K.| journal=Heliyon| volume=6| issue=2| pages=e03299| doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03299| pmid=32128461| bibcode=2020Heliy...603299K}}</ref> etc).
-* Dusty materials that are not properly covered (e.g., in construction sites, landfills and ceramics production facilities).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/sites/default/files/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/guide_ref/files/construction_dust.pdf|title=Cut down construction dust}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/misc/popup/greenexample/A_TS_C4_folder/a_ts_c4.html|title=Proper Covering of Dusty Material on Dump Trucks}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/dusty-material |title=Dusty Material - an overview &#124; ScienceDirect Topics}}</ref>
-* [[Metalworking]] (e.g., [[welding]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Exposure to welding fumes is associated with acute systemic inflammatory responses| year=2005 | pmid=15723880 | last1=Kim | first1=J. Y. | last2=Chen | first2=J. C. | last3=Boyce | first3=P. D. | last4=Christiani | first4=D. C. | journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine | volume=62 | issue=3 | pages=157–163 | doi=10.1136/oem.2004.014795 | pmc=1740976 }}</ref>
-* [[Woodworking]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=Generation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during woodworking operations| year=2012| pmid=23087908| last1=Bruschweiler| first1=E. D.| last2=Danuser| first2=B.| last3=Huynh| first3=C. K.| last4=Wild| first4=P.| last5=Schupfer| first5=P.| last6=Vernez| first6=D.| last7=Boiteux| first7=P.| last8=Hopf| first8=N. B.| journal=Frontiers in Oncology| volume=2| page=148| doi=10.3389/fonc.2012.00148| pmc=3475003| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/woodworking/wooddust.htm | title=Woodworking health topics - Inhaling wood dust}}</ref>
-* Glass reprocessing.
-* Agricultural activities (e.g., ploughing and soil tilling).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-business/find-a-topic/dust/advice-for-businesses | title=Dust advice for businesses - EPA Victoria}}</ref>
-* [[Power station|Power plants]].
-* Waste [[incineration]].<ref name="yl">{{cite journal | title=A Review of Recent Advances in Research on PM2.5 in China| year=2018| pmc=5876983| last1=Lin| first1=Y.| last2=Zou| first2=J.| last3=Yang| first3=W.| last4=Li| first4=C. Q.| journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health| volume=15| issue=3| page=438| doi=10.3390/ijerph15030438| pmid=29498704| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23612530/ | title=The impact of incinerators on human health and environment| year=2013| pmid=23612530| last1=Sharma| first1=R.| last2=Sharma| first2=M.| last3=Sharma| first3=R.| last4=Sharma| first4=V.| journal=Reviews on Environmental Health| volume=28| issue=1| pages=67–72| doi=10.1515/reveh-2012-0035| s2cid=21271240}}</ref>
-* [[Road dust]] from tyre and road wear<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1787/4a4dc6ca-en |title=Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport |year=2020 |publisher=OECD |isbn=978-92-64-88885-2 |s2cid=136987659 }}</ref> and road dust from unpaved road.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan RK, Strand MA |title=Road dust and its effect on human health: a literature review |journal=Epidemiol Health |volume=40 |issue= |pages=e2018013 |date=2018 |pmid=29642653 |pmc=5968206 |doi=10.4178/epih.e2018013 |url=}}</ref>
-* Wet [[cooling tower]]s in cooling systems.
-* Various industrial processes such as [[mining]],<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40789-021-00412-w | title=Respirable nano-particulate generations and their pathogenesis in mining workplaces: a review| year=2021| doi=10.1007/s40789-021-00412-w| last1=Fan| first1=Long| last2=Liu| first2=Shimin| journal=International Journal of Coal Science & Technology| volume=8| issue=2| pages=179–198| s2cid=233890096}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0892687505002050 | title=Particulates from mining operations: A review of sources, effects and regulations| year=2005| doi=10.1016/j.mineng.2005.06.017| last1=Petavratzi| first1=E.| last2=Kingman| first2=S.| last3=Lowndes| first3=I.| journal=Minerals Engineering| volume=18| issue=12| pages=1183–1199| bibcode=2005MiEng..18.1183P}}</ref> [[smelting]]<ref>{{cite journal | title=Potentially toxic elements pollution in road deposited sediments around the active smelting industry of Korea| year=2021| pmc=8012626| last1=Jeong| first1=H.| last2=Choi| first2=J. Y.| last3=Ra| first3=K.| journal=Scientific Reports| volume=11| issue=1| page=7238| doi=10.1038/s41598-021-86698-x| pmid=33790361}}</ref> and [[oil refinery|oil refining]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/harmful-soot-unchecked-big-oil-battles-epa-over-testing-2022-01-06/ | title=Harmful soot unchecked as Big Oil battles EPA over testing| website=[[Reuters]]| date=6 January 2022| last1=McLaughlin| first1=Tim}}</ref>
-* Disasters<ref>{{cite book | pmc=7121041| last1=Chandrappa| first1=R.| last2=Chandra Kulshrestha| first2=U.| title=Sustainable Air Pollution Management| chapter=Air Pollution and Disasters| series=Environmental Science and Engineering| date=2016| pages=325–343| doi=10.1007/978-3-319-21596-9_8| isbn=978-3-319-21595-2}}</ref> (both natural or caused by humans, e.g, [[wildfires]], [[earthquakes]], wars,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/sand-dust-particulates/index.asp | title=Sand, Dust and Particulates Public Health}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=WarImpact on Air Quality in Ukraine| year=2022| doi=10.3390/su142113832| doi-access=free| last1=Zalakeviciute| first1=Rasa| last2=Mejia| first2=Danilo| last3=Alvarez| first3=Hermel| last4=Bermeo| first4=Xavier| last5=Bonilla-Bedoya| first5=Santiago| last6=Rybarczyk| first6=Yves| last7=Lamb| first7=Brian| journal=Sustainability| volume=14| issue=21| page=13832}}</ref> and September 11 attacks, etc).
-* [[Microplastics]] (gaining attention as a type of airborne PM).<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022000770 | title=Inhalable microplastics prevails in air: Exploring the size detection limit| year=2022| doi=10.1016/j.envint.2022.107151| last1=Xie| first1=Yichun| last2=Li| first2=Yan| last3=Feng| first3=Yan| last4=Cheng| first4=Wei| last5=Wang| first5=Yan| journal=Environment International| volume=162| page=107151| pmid=35228011| s2cid=247131516}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019301850 | title=Widespread distribution of PET and PC microplastics in dust in urban China and their estimated human exposure| year=2019| doi=10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.024| last1=Liu| first1=Chunguang| last2=Li| first2=Jia| last3=Zhang| first3=Yilei| last4=Wang| first4=Lei| last5=Deng| first5=Jie| last6=Gao| first6=Yuan| last7=Yu| first7=Lu| last8=Zhang| first8=Junjie| last9=Sun| first9=Hongwen| journal=Environment International| volume=128| pages=116–124| pmid=31039519| s2cid=141467685}}</ref>
-In 2010 it was estimated that human-made (anthropogenic) aerosols account for about 10 percent of the total mass of aerosols in the atmosphere.<ref name=nasaaeros>{{cite web |url= http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Aerosols/ |title=Aerosols and Climate Change | vauthors = Hardin M, Kahn R |date=2 November 2010 }}</ref>
-=== Domestic combustion and wood smoke ===
-{{Main|Health effects of wood smoke}}
-In the [[United Kingdom]] domestic combustion is the largest single source of [[PM2.5]] and [[PM10]] annually, with domestic wood burning in both closed stoves and open fires responsible for 38% of PM2.5 in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/emissions-of-air-pollutants/emissions-of-air-pollutants-in-the-uk-1970-to-2018-particulate-matter-pm10-and-pm25|title = Emissions of air pollutants| date=22 February 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkes |first1=N. |title=Air pollution in UK: the public health problem that won't go away |journal=BMJ |date=22 May 2015 |volume=350 |issue=may22 1 |pages=h2757 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h2757 |pmid=26001592 |s2cid=40717317 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2021-02-16|title=Wood burning at home now biggest cause of UK particle pollution|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/16/home-wood-burning-biggest-cause-particle-pollution-fires|access-date=2022-02-13|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> To tackle the problem [[#United_Kingdom|some new laws]] were introduced since 2021.
-In some towns and cities in [[New South Wales]] wood smoke may be responsible for 60% of fine particle air pollution in the winter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/wood-smoke.aspx|title = Wood burning heaters and your health - Fact sheets}}</ref>
-There are a few ways to reduce wood smoke, e.g, buying the right wood heater and maintaining it well,<ref>{{cite web | url=
-https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/air-quality/smoke-from-wood-heaters/how-to-choose-and-maintain-a-wood-heater | title=How to choose and maintain a wood heater - EPA Victoria}}</ref> choosing the right firewood<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/air-quality/smoke-from-wood-heaters/how-to-choose-the-right-wood-for-your-wood-heater | title=How to choose the right wood for your wood heater - EPA Victoria}}</ref> and burning it the right way.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/air-quality/smoke-from-wood-heaters/how-to-light-and-maintain-your-wood-heater-fire | title=How to light and maintain your wood heater fire - EPA Victoria}}</ref> There are also regulations in some countries where people can report smoke pollution to the local council.
-<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/air-quality/smoke/smoke-law | title=Smoke and the law - EPA Victoria}}</ref>
-== Composition ==
-[[File:Atmospheric Aerosol Eddies and Flows - NASA GSFC S.ogv|thumb|Global aerosols portrait produced by a GEOS-5 simulation at a 10-km resolution, August 2006 - April 2007.
-<br>Red/orange: desert (mineral) dust
-<br>Blue: sea salt
-<br>Green: smoke
-<br>White: sulfate particles<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov/research/aerosol/modeling/nr1_movie/ | title=
-Simulating the Transport of Aerosols with GEOS-5, GMAO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov/research/aerosol/ |title=AEROSOL TRANSPORT AND ASSIMILATION, GMAO}}</ref>]]
-{{further|Particulate organic matter}}
-The composition and toxicity of [[aerosol]]s, including particles, depends on their source and atmospheric chemistry and varies widely.
-Wind-blown [[mineral dust]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/168.htm#5221 |title=Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Soil dust |website=Climate Change 2001: Working Group 1 |publisher=UNEP |year=2001 |access-date=6 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228174319/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/168.htm#5221 |archive-date=28 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> tends to be made of mineral [[oxide]]s and other material blown from the [[Earth's crust]]; this particulate is [[absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|light-absorbing]].<ref name=SOA>{{cite journal | vauthors = Perraud V, Bruns EA, Ezell MJ, Johnson SN, Yu Y, Alexander ML, Zelenyuk A, Imre D, Chang WL, Dabdub D, Pankow JF, Finlayson-Pitts BJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Nonequilibrium atmospheric secondary organic aerosol formation and growth | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 | issue = 8 | pages = 2836–41 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22308444 | pmc = 3286997 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1119909109 | bibcode = 2012PNAS..109.2836P | doi-access = free }}</ref> Sea salt<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/169.htm#5222 |title=Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Sea salt |website=Climate Change 2001: Working Group 1 |publisher=UNEP |year=2001 |access-date=6 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228174324/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/169.htm#5222 |archive-date=28 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is considered the second-largest contributor in the global aerosol budget, and consists mainly of [[sodium chloride]] originated from [[sea spray]]; other constituents of atmospheric sea salt reflect the composition of [[sea water]], and thus include [[magnesium]], [[sulfate]], [[calcium]], [[potassium]], and others. In addition, [[sea salt aerosol|sea spray aerosols]] may contain organic compounds like [[fatty acids]] and sugars, which influence their chemistry.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Sea Spray Aerosol: Where Marine Biology Meets Atmospheric Chemistry| year=2018| pmc=6311946| last1=Schiffer| first1=J. M.| last2=Mael| first2=L. E.| last3=Prather| first3=K. A.| last4=Amaro| first4=R. E.| last5=Grassian| first5=V. H.| journal=ACS Central Science| volume=4| issue=12| pages=1617–1623| doi=10.1021/acscentsci.8b00674| pmid=30648145}}</ref>
-Some secondary particles derive from the [[oxidation]] of primary gases such as [[sulfur oxide|sulfur]] and [[nitrogen oxide]]s into [[sulfuric acid]] (liquid) and [[nitric acid]] (gaseous) or from biogenic emissions. The precursors for these aerosols—i.e. the gases from which they originate—may have an anthropogenic origin (from [[biomass]] and [[fossil fuel]] [[combustion]]) as well as a natural [[biogenic]] origin. In the presence of [[ammonia]], secondary aerosols often take the form of [[ammonium]] salts; i.e. [[ammonium sulfate]] and [[ammonium nitrate]] (both can be dry or in [[aqueous solution]]); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take an [[acid]]ic form as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas), all of which probably contribute to the health effects of particulates.<ref name="Int Panis">{{cite journal | vauthors = Int Panis LL |title=The Effect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates |journal=Open Environmental Sciences |volume=2 |pages=47–53 |year=2008 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250144316 |doi=10.2174/1876325100802010047|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are strong [[scattering|light-scatterers]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/172.htm#5226 |title=Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Primary biogenic aerosols |website=Climate Change 2001: Working Group 1 |publisher=UNEP |year=2001 |access-date=6 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228174330/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/172.htm#5226 |archive-date=28 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This is mainly because the presence of sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a size that scatters light effectively.
-[[Organic compound|Organic matter]] (OM) found in aerosols can be either primary or secondary, the latter part deriving from the oxidation of [[volatile organic compound]]s (VOCs); organic material in the atmosphere may either be biogenic or [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]]. Organic matter influences the atmospheric [[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]] field by both scattering and absorption. Some aerosols are predicted to include strongly light-absorbing material and are thought to yield large positive [[radiative forcing]]. Some secondary organic aerosols (SOAs) resulting from combustion products of internal combustion engines, have been identified as a danger to health.<ref name="NYTSOA">{{cite news |title=Scientists Find New Dangers in Tiny but Pervasive Particles in Air Pollution |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/science/earth/scientists-find-new-dangers-in-tiny-but-pervasive-particles-in-air-pollution.html |access-date=19 February 2012 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=18 February 2012 |first=Felicity |last=Barringer}}</ref> Particulate toxicity has been found to vary by region and source contribution which affects the particles chemical composition.
-The chemical composition of the aerosol directly affects how it interacts with solar radiation. The chemical constituents within the aerosol change the overall [[refractive index]]. The refractive index will determine how much light is scattered and absorbed.
-The composition of particulate matter that generally causes visual effects, [[haze]], consists of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, mineral dust, and organic matter. The particles are hygroscopic due to the presence of sulfur, and SO{{sub|2}} is converted to sulfate when high humidity and low temperatures are present. This causes reduced visibility and yellow color.<ref name="Mongolia">{{cite web| title=Mongolia: Air Pollution in Ulaanbaatar – Initial Assessment of Current Situations and Effects of Abatement Measures| publisher=The World Bank| year=2010| url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/866561468274261208/pdf/529700REPLACEM1paper0FINAL002110110.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919230954/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/866561468274261208/pdf/529700REPLACEM1paper0FINAL002110110.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=2016-09-19}}</ref>
-==Size distribution==
-[[File:MODAL2 M AER RA.ogv|thumb|False-color maps are based on data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite. Green: aerosol plumes dominated by larger particles. Red: aerosol plumes dominated by small particles. Yellow: plumes in which large and small aerosol particles are intermingling. Gray: the sensor did not collect data.<ref name=modis>{{cite web | url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/global-maps/MODAL2_M_AER_RA | title=Aerosol Size, Earth Observatory | date=31 August 2016 |publisher=NASA }}{{PD-notice}}</ref>]]
-{{further|#Size, shape, and solubility matter}}
-Human-produced aerosols such as particle pollution tend to have a smaller radius than aerosol particles of natural origin (such as windblown dust). The false-color maps in the map of distribution of [[aerosol]] particles on the right show where there are natural aerosols, human pollution, or a mixture of both, monthly. Among the most obvious patterns that the size distribution time series shows is that in the planet's most southerly latitudes, nearly all the aerosols are large, but in the high northern latitudes, smaller aerosols are very abundant. Most of the Southern Hemisphere is covered by the ocean, where the largest source of aerosols is natural sea salt from dried sea spray. Because the land is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, the amount of small aerosols from fires and human activities is greater there than in the Southern Hemisphere. Overland, patches of large-radius aerosols appear over deserts and arid regions, most prominently, the [[Sahara Desert]] in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, where dust storms are common. Places where human-triggered or natural fire activity is common (land-clearing fires in the Amazon from August–October, for example, or lightning-triggered fires in the forests of northern Canada in Northern Hemisphere summer) are dominated by smaller aerosols. Human-produced (fossil fuel) pollution is largely responsible for the areas of small aerosols over developed areas such as the eastern United States and Europe, especially in their summer.<ref name=modis />{{better source needed|date=December 2014}}
-Satellite measurements of aerosols, called aerosol optical thickness, are based on the fact that the particles change the way the atmosphere reflects and absorbs visible and infrared light. As shown in [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=MODAL2_M_AER_OD this page], an optical thickness of less than 0.1 (palest yellow) indicates a crystal clear sky with maximum visibility, whereas a value of 1 (reddish-brown) indicates very hazy conditions.{{better source needed|date=December 2014}}
-== Deposition processes ==
-{{Main|Deposition (aerosol physics)}}
-In general, the smaller and lighter a particle is, the longer it will stay in the air. Larger particles (greater than 10 micrometers in diameter) tend to settle to the ground by gravity in a matter of hours whereas the smallest particles (less than 1 micrometer) can stay in the atmosphere for weeks and are mostly removed by [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. There are also evidence that it is not uncommon for aerosols to "travel across the ocean". For example, in September 2017 wildfires burning across the western United States and Canada, and the smoke was found to have arrived over the United Kingdom and northern France in three days, as shown by satellite images.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/90980/an-american-aerosol-in-paris | title=An American Aerosol in Paris| date=15 September 2017}}</ref> [[Diesel particulate matter]] is highest near the source of emission.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/2013-01-2741/|chapter=Behaviour Study of Particulate Matter and Chemical Composition with Different Combustion Strategies|access-date=2016-06-17|doi=10.4271/2013-01-2741|title=SAE Technical Paper Series|volume=1|year=2013| vauthors = Goswami A, Barman J, Rajput K, Lakhlani HN }}</ref> Any information regarding DPM and the atmosphere, flora, height, and distance from major sources is useful to determine health effects.
-== Controlling technologies and measures ==
-[[File:Display VSON WP6910 (air detector) - pm2,5 at Verona (Borgo Milano) Italy - (particulate pollution, polveri sottili) - 2020 01 15 (hour 22.35) OUTdoor & INdoor (HEPA H13) - first publication commons.wikimedia.org.webm|thumb|[[Dust collector|Fabric filters]] [[Hepa]] effect: without (outdoor) and with filter (indoor)]]
-{{Main|Dust collector}}{{See also|Dust collection system}}
-Particulate matter emissions are highly regulated in most industrialized countries. Due to [[Environmental issue|environmental concerns]], most industries are required to operate some kind of dust collection system.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://ijates.com/images/short_pdf/1404370755_P118-129.pdf|title = Effect Of Particulate Matter On Plants Climate, Ecosystem and Human Health|date = April 2014|access-date = 3 February 2016|publisher = www.ijates.com }}</ref> These systems include inertial collectors ([[cyclonic separator]]s), fabric filter collectors [[baghouse|(baghouses)]], [[Electrostatic precipitator|electrostatic filters]] used in facemasks,<ref>{{cite web |title=What are PM2.5 filters and why are they effective? |url=https://www.purakamasks.com/pm25-filters |website=Puraka Masks }}</ref> [[wet scrubber]]s, and [[electrostatic precipitators]].
-Cyclonic separators are useful for removing large, coarse particles and are often employed as a first step or "pre-cleaner" to other more efficient collectors. Well-designed cyclonic separators can be very efficient in removing even fine particulates,<ref>{{cite journal | title=Effect of Inlet Air Volumetric Flow Rate on the Performance of a Two-Stage Cyclone Separator| year=2018| pmc=6644756| last1=Chen| first1=J.| last2=Jiang| first2=Z. A.| last3=Chen| first3=J.| journal=ACS Omega| volume=3| issue=10| pages=13219–13226| doi=10.1021/acsomega.8b02043| pmid=31458040}}</ref> and may be operated continuously without requiring frequent shutdowns for maintenance.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
-[[Dust collector|Fabric filters]] or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.baghouse.com/2011/02/01/the-encyclopedia-of-filters-dust-collection-systems/ | title = The Encyclopedia of Dust Collection | author = Dominick DalSanto| date = February 2011 }}</ref> They work by forcing dust-laden air through a bag-shaped fabric filter leaving the particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester and fiberglass and common fabric coatings include [[PTFE]] (commonly known as Teflon). The excess dust buildup is then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector.
-[[File:Construction dust emitted and rising up during the building rehabilitation of Treasure Garden, Tai Po, Hong Kong.webm|thumb|upright=0.85|Substantial amount of [[construction dust]] emitted and rising up from a building under rehabilitation on a Saturday afternoon, Treasure Garden, Tai Po, Hong Kong. The rehabilitation scheme is subsidised by the government<ref>{{cite web | url=https://brplatform.org.hk/en/subsidy-and-assistance/integrated-building-rehabilitation-assistance-scheme | title=Integrated Building Rehabilitation Assistance Scheme}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://brplatform.org.hk/en/subsidy-and-assistance/operation-building-bright-2-0 | title=Operation Building Bright 2.0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.devb.gov.hk/en/publications_and_press_releases/press/index_id_5376.html | title=DEVB - Press Releases: Operation Building Bright launched (with photos, 2009)}}</ref> and contract like this can worth up to a hundred million.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://amp.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3205841/hong-kong-watchdog-arrests-49-suspects-housing-renovation-scam-involving-contracts-worth-hk500 | title=Hong Kong watchdog arrests 49 suspects in housing renovation scam involving contracts worth HK$500 million| date=6 January 2023}}</ref> People are living inside the building throughout the whole period of the [[renovation]] work, which usually lasts for over a year,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www-baby--kingdom-com.translate.goog/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=3830940&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en | title=大廈外牆維修,你地會搬走嗎? | trans-title=Will you move out because there is building exterior wall repair work? | language=Chinese}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www-baby--kingdom-com.translate.goog/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=20450481&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en | title=買樓難題：大廈維修，住得難頂嗎？ | trans-title=The problem of buying a house: Is it difficult to live in a building under rehabilitation? | language=Chinese}}</ref> and it can be foretold that the residents' exposure to construction dust is even more serious than the occupational exposure of the workers. The possible presence of [[asbestos]] and [[lead paint]] dust is also worth worrying. This type of rehabilitation works are very common (over 3000 buildings in the first 6 years of the scheme<ref>{{cite web | url=
-https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201511/20/P201511200594.htm | title=Operation Building Bright improves living environment of residents (with photos/video)}}</ref>), especially in some older districts. With such a large amount of dust emitted, it was obvious that neither water was being sprayed nor dust extraction device was in use, which was a violation of the local law.<ref name="hk law">{{cite web | url = https://www.elegislation.gov.hk/hk/cap311R!en?INDEX_CS=N | title = Hong Kong eLegislation, AIR POLLUTION CONTROL (CONSTRUCTION DUST) REGULATION (Cap.311 section 43) 16 June 1997, L.N. 304 of 1997}}</ref>]]
-Wet scrubbers pass the dirty air through a scrubbing solution (usually a mixture of water and other compounds) allowing the particulate to attach to the liquid molecules.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-monitoring-knowledge-base/monitoring-control-technique-wet-scrubber-particulate-0 | title=Monitoring by Control Technique - Wet Scrubber For Particulate Matter| date=25 May 2016}}</ref> Electrostatic precipitators electrically charge the dirty air as it passes through. The now charged air then passes through large electrostatic plates which attract the charged particle in the airstream collecting them and leaving the now clean air to be exhausted or recirculated.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-monitoring-knowledge-base/monitoring-control-technique-electrostatic-precipitators | title=Monitoring by Control Technique - Electrostatic Precipitators| date=24 May 2016}}</ref>
-For general building construction, some places that have acknowledged the possible health risks of construction dust for decades legally require the relevant contractor to adopt effective dust control measures, although inspections, fines and imprisonments are rare in recent years (for example, two prosecutions with a total fines of HKD$6000 in Hong Kong in the year 2021).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/laws_regulations/enforcement/resource_enfor3.html | title = Enforcement Activities and Statistics under the Air Pollution Control Ordinance and the Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201710/30/P2017103000435.htm | title = Construction contractor fined for carrying out building demolition work in Shek O without appropriate dust control measures}}</ref>
-Some of the mandatory dust control measures include<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/greenconstruction/poll_pro/g_building.html | title = Pollution Problems & Practical Solutions}}</ref><ref name="hk law" /><ref>{{cite web | url =https://newindian.in/delhi-govt-to-impose-fines-on-violation-of-anti-dust-norms/ | title = Delhi Govt To Impose Fines On Violation Of Anti-Dust Norms| date = 6 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=O0020058 |title=Management Regulations for Construction Project Air Pollution Control Facilities}}</ref> load, unload, handle, transfer, store or dispose of cement or dry pulverized fuel ash in a completely enclosed system or facility, and fit any vent or exhaust with an effective fabric filter or equivalent air pollution control system or equipment, enclose the scaffolding of the building with dust screens, use impervious sheeting to enclose both material hoist and debris chute, wet debris with water before it is dumped into a debris chute, have water sprayed on the facade surface before and during grinding work, use grinder equipped with vacuum cleaner for facade grinding work, spray water continuously on the surface for any pneumatic or power-driven drilling, cutting, polishing or other mechanical breaking operation that causes dust emission, unless there is the operation of an effective dust extraction and filtering device, provide hoarding of not less than 2.4 m in height along the whole length of the site boundary, have hard paving on open area and wash every vehicle that leaves the construction sites. Use of automatic sprinkler equipment, automatic carwash equipment and installation of video surveillance system for the pollution control facilities and retain the videos for one month for future inspections.
-Besides removing particulates from the source of pollution, it may also be cleaned in the open air (e.g. [[smog tower]], [[Green wall|moss wall]]
-<!--<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.google.com/amp/s/amp.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/design-interiors/article/2015971/architect-denes-honus-tree-eats-pollution | title=Vertical gardens that 'eat' air pollution and how Hong Kong could use them}}</ref>--><ref>{{cite web | url=https://tripeanddrisheen.substack.com/p/everything-you-wanted-to-know-about | title=Everything you wanted to know about Cork's new Robo-trees but were afraid to ask| date=11 August 2021}}</ref> and anti-smog gun<ref>{{cite web | url =https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1874314 |title =Revised GRAP to deal with adverse air quality scenario}}</ref>), while other control measures employ the use of barriers.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/news_events/current_issue/a_ts_c4.html |title =Achievements in environmental pollution control on construction activities, 2004}}</ref>
-== Measurement ==
-{{Main|Air pollution measurement}}
-Particulates have been measured in increasingly sophisticated ways since air pollution was first systematically studied in the early 20th century. The earliest methods included relatively crude [[Ringelmann scale|Ringelmann charts]], which were grey-shaded cards against which emissions from smokestacks could be visually compared, and [[deposit gauge]]s, which collected the soot deposited in a particular location so it could be weighed. Automated, modern methods of measuring particulates include optical [[photodetectors]], [[tapered element oscillating microbalance]]s, and [[Aethalometer]]s.<ref name="aqeg-particulates">{{cite web |title=Particulate Matter in the United Kingdom Summary |url=https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/aqeg/pm-summary.pdf |website=Air Quality Expert Group |publisher=Defra |access-date=28 June 2023 |date=2005}}</ref> Besides measuring the total mass of particles per unit volume of air (particle mass concentration), sometimes it is more useful to measure the total number of particles per unit volume of air (particle number concentration). This can be done by using a [[condensation particle counter]] (CPC).<ref name=cpc-manch>{{cite web |title=Condensation particle counters |url=http://www.cas.manchester.ac.uk/restools/instruments/aerosol/cpc/ |website=Center for Atmospheric Science |publisher=University of Manchester |access-date=5 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/networks/network-info?view=particle|title=Particle Numbers and Concentrations Network, Gov.uk}}</ref>
-To measure the atomic composition of particulate samples, techniques such as [[X-ray spectrometry]] can be used.<ref name="pmid4762375">{{cite journal| author1-last=Gilfrich|author1-first=J|author2-last=Burkhalter|author2-first=P|author3-last=Birks|author3-first=L|title=X-ray spectrometry for particulate air pollution—a quantitative comparison of techniques. | journal=Anal Chem | year= 1973 | volume= 45 | issue= 12 | pages= 2002–9 | pmid=4762375 | doi=10.1021/ac60334a033 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4762375 }} </ref>
-==Climate effects==
-[[File:Radiative-forcings.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|2005 radiative forcings and uncertainties as estimated by the IPCC]]
-Atmospheric aerosols affect the climate of the earth by changing the amount of incoming [[solar radiation]] and outgoing terrestrial longwave radiation retained in the earth's system. This occurs through several distinct mechanisms which are split into direct, indirect<ref name="Haywood2000">{{cite journal |last1=Haywood |first1=James |last2=Boucher |first2=Olivier |title=Estimates of the direct and indirect radiative forcing due to tropospheric aerosols: A review |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |date=November 2000 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=513–543 |doi=10.1029/1999RG000078 |bibcode=2000RvGeo..38..513H |s2cid=129107853 }}</ref><ref name="Twomey1977">{{cite journal| vauthors = Twomey S |year=1977|title=The influence of pollution on the shortwave albedo of clouds|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|volume= 34| issue=7| pages=1149–1152| doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 1977JAtS...34.1149T |doi-access=free}}</ref> and semi-direct aerosol effects. The aerosol climate effects are the biggest source of uncertainty in future climate predictions.<ref name="Forster2007"/> The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), Third Assessment Report, says:<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/237.htm#678| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20020228024246/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/237.htm#678| url-status =dead| archive-date =28 February 2002| title =6.7.8 Discussion of Uncertainties| website =IPCC Third Assessment Report – Climate Change 2001| access-date =14 July 2012}}</ref><blockquote>While the radiative forcing due to [[greenhouse gas]]es may be determined to a reasonably high degree of accuracy... the uncertainties relating to aerosol radiative forcings remain large, and rely to a large extent on the estimates from global modeling studies that are difficult to verify at the present time.</blockquote>
-===Aerosol radiative===
-[[File:Modis aerosol optical depth.png|thumb|Global aerosol [[optical thickness]]. The aerosol scale (yellow to dark reddish-brown) indicates the relative amount of particles that absorb sunlight.]]
-[[File: MODAL2 M AER OD.ogv|thumb|These maps show average monthly aerosol amounts around the world based on observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite.]]
-====Direct====
-[[File:Cloud 3.JPG|thumb|Particulates in the air causing shades of orange, yellow, pink, and grey in [[Mumbai]] during sunset]]
-[[File:Display VSON WP6910 (air detector) -Location 45.44234 10.96862 Verona (Borgo Milano) Italy, strong burnt smell -pm2,5 OUTdoor particulate pollution, polveri sottili, smog (smoke heating systems???) -2020 04 02 (hour20 15).webm|thumb|Italian city polluted by particulates and optic air detector (laser)]]
-The direct aerosol effect consists of any direct interaction of radiation with atmospheric aerosols, such as absorption or scattering. It affects both short and longwave radiation to produce a net negative radiative forcing.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Charlson RJ, Schwartz SE, Hales JM, Cess RD, Coakley JA, Hansen JE, Hofmann DJ | title = Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols | journal = Science | volume = 255 | issue = 5043 | pages = 423–30 | date = January 1992 | pmid = 17842894 | doi = 10.1126/science.255.5043.423 | s2cid = 26740611 | bibcode = 1992Sci...255..423C }}</ref> The magnitude of the resultant radiative forcing due to the direct effect of an aerosol is dependent on the [[albedo]] of the underlying surface, as this affects the net amount of radiation absorbed or scattered to space. For example, if a highly scattering aerosol is above a surface of low albedo it has a greater radiative forcing than if it was above a surface of high albedo. The converse is true of absorbing aerosol, with the greatest radiative forcing arising from a highly absorbing aerosol over a surface of high albedo.<ref name="Haywood2000" /> The direct aerosol effect is a first-order effect and is therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the [[IPCC]].<ref name="Forster2007">{{cite book| vauthors = Forster P, Ramaswamy V, Artaxo P, Berntsen T, Betts R, Fahey DW, Haywood J |chapter=Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis | veditors = Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL |pages=129–234|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US| chapter-url=http://elib.dlr.de/51416/ | title=Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing |display-authors=etal|date=October 2007}}</ref> The interaction of an aerosol with radiation is quantified by the [[single-scattering albedo]] (SSA), the ratio of scattering alone to scattering plus absorption (''extinction'') of radiation by a particle. The SSA tends to unity if scattering dominates, with relatively little absorption, and decreases as absorption increases, becoming zero for infinite absorption. For example, the sea-salt aerosol has an SSA of 1, as a sea-salt particle only scatters, whereas soot has an SSA of 0.23, showing that it is a major atmospheric aerosol absorber.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
-==== Indirect ====
-The Indirect aerosol effect consists of any change to the earth's radiative budget due to the modification of clouds by atmospheric aerosols and consists of several distinct effects. [[Cloud]] droplets form onto pre-existing aerosol particles, known as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] (CCN). Droplets condensing around human-produced aerosols such as found in [[particulate pollution]] tend to be smaller and more numerous than those forming around aerosol particles of natural origin (such as windblown [[dust]]).<ref name=nasaaeros/>
-For any given meteorological conditions, an increase in CCN leads to an increase in the number of cloud droplets. This leads to more scattering of shortwave radiation i.e. an increase in the albedo of the cloud, known as the [[cloud albedo]] effect, First indirect effect or [[Twomey effect]].<ref name="Twomey1977" /> Evidence supporting the cloud albedo effect has been observed from the effects of ship exhaust plumes<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Ackerman AS, Toon OB, Taylor JP, Johnson DW, Hobbs PV, Ferek RJ |year=2000|title= Effects of Aerosols on Cloud Albedo: Evaluation of Twomey's Parameterization of Cloud Susceptibility Using Measurements of Ship Tracks|journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences| volume=57| issue=16 | pages= 2684–2695 | doi=10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<2684:EOAOCA>2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 2000JAtS...57.2684A | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1234697 }}</ref> and [[biomass burning]]<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Kaufman YJ, Fraser RS |year=1997|title=The Effect of Smoke Particles on Clouds and Climate Forcing|journal=Science| volume=277 |issue=5332 | pages=1636–1639 | doi=10.1126/science.277.5332.1636|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1231122}}</ref> on cloud albedo compared to ambient clouds. The Cloud albedo aerosol effect is a first order effect and therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the [[IPCC]].<ref name="Forster2007" />
-An increase in cloud droplet number due to the introduction of aerosol acts to reduce the cloud droplet size, as the same amount of water is divided into more droplets. This has the effect of suppressing precipitation, increasing the cloud lifetime, known as the cloud lifetime aerosol effect, second indirect effect or Albrecht effect.<ref name="Forster2007" /> This has been observed as the suppression of drizzle in ship exhaust plume compared to ambient clouds,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferek RJ, Garrett T, Hobbs PV, Strader S, Johnson D, Taylor JP, Nielsen K, Ackerman AS, Kogan Y, Liu Q, Albrecht BA | year = 2000 | title = Drizzle Suppression in Ship Tracks | journal = Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences | volume = 57 | issue = 16 | pages = 2707–2728 | doi = 10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<2707:DSIST>2.0.CO;2 | bibcode = 2000JAtS...57.2707F | display-authors = etal | hdl = 10945/46780 | s2cid = 40273867 }}</ref> and inhibited precipitation in biomass burning plumes.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Rosenfeld D | year= 1999| title=TRMM observed first direct evidence of smoke from forest fires inhibiting rainfall|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=26 |issue=20 |pages= 3105–3108|doi=10.1029/1999GL006066 |bibcode=1999GeoRL..26.3105R|doi-access=free}}</ref> This cloud lifetime effect is classified as a climate feedback (rather than a radiative forcing) by the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and the hydrological cycle.<ref name="Forster2007" /> However, it has previously been classified as a negative radiative forcing.<ref name="Hansen1997">{{cite journal| vauthors = Hansen J, Sato M, Ruedy R | year = 1997|title=Radiative forcing and climate response|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=102 |issue=D6 | pages= 6831–6864 | doi=10.1029/96JD03436 | bibcode=1997JGR...102.6831H| doi-access=free }}</ref>
-====Semi-direct====
-The Semi-direct effect concerns any radiative effect caused by absorbing atmospheric aerosol such as soot, apart from direct scattering and absorption, which is classified as the direct effect. It encompasses many individual mechanisms, and in general is more poorly defined and understood than the direct and indirect aerosol effects. For instance, if absorbing aerosols are present in a layer aloft in the atmosphere, they can heat surrounding air which inhibits the condensation of water vapour, resulting in less cloud formation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ackerman AS, Toon OB, Stevens DE, Heymsfield AJ, Ramanathan V, Welton EJ | title = Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot | journal = Science | volume = 288 | issue = 5468 | pages = 1042–7 | date = May 2000 | pmid = 10807573 | doi = 10.1126/science.288.5468.1042 | url = https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc734475/ | bibcode = 2000Sci...288.1042A }}</ref> Additionally, heating a layer of the atmosphere relative to the surface results in a more stable atmosphere due to the inhibition of atmospheric [[convection]]. This inhibits the convective uplift of moisture,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Koren I, Kaufman YJ, Remer LA, Martins JV | title = Measurement of the effect of Amazon smoke on inhibition of cloud formation | journal = Science | volume = 303 | issue = 5662 | pages = 1342–5 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14988557 | doi = 10.1126/science.1089424 | s2cid = 37347993 | bibcode = 2004Sci...303.1342K }}</ref> which in turn reduces cloud formation. The heating of the atmosphere aloft also leads to a cooling of the surface, resulting in less evaporation of surface water. The effects described here all lead to a reduction in cloud cover i.e. an increase in planetary albedo. The semi-direct effect classified as a climate feedback) by the [[IPCC]] due to the interdependence between it and the hydrological cycle.<ref name="Forster2007" /> However, it has previously been classified as a negative radiative forcing.<ref name="Hansen1997"/>
-===Specific aerosol roles===
-==== Sulfate ====
-{{See also|Global dimming|Stratospheric aerosol injection}}
-Sulfate [[aerosol]]s are mostly [[inorganic]] [[Sulfur|sulfur compounds]] like (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>),HSO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup> and H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup>,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Riva |first1=Matthieu |last2=Chen |first2=Yuzhi |last3=Zhang |first3=Yue |last4=Lei |first4=Ziying |last5=Olson |first5=Nicole E. |last6=Boyer |first6=Hallie C. |last7=Narayan |first7=Shweta |last8=Yee |first8=Lindsay D. |last9=Green |first9=Hilary S. |last10=Cui |first10=Tianqu |last11=Zhang |first11=Zhenfa |last12=Baumann |first12=Karsten |last13=Fort |first13=Mike |last14=Edgerton |first14=Eric |last15=Budisulistiorini |first15=Sri H. |date=2019-08-06 |title=Increasing Isoprene Epoxydiol-to-Inorganic Sulfate Aerosol Ratio Results in Extensive Conversion of Inorganic Sulfate to Organosulfur Forms: Implications for Aerosol Physicochemical Properties |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=15 |pages=8682–8694 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b01019 |issn=0013-936X |pmc=6823602 |pmid=31335134}}</ref> which are mainly produced when [[sulfur dioxide]] reacts with [[water vapor]] to form gaseous [[sulfuric acid]] and various [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]] (often through an [[Redox|oxidation]] reaction in the [[cloud]]s), which are then thought to experience [[Hygroscopy|hygroscopic]] growth and coagulation and then shrink through [[evaporation]].<ref name="Seinfeld 1998">Seinfeld, John H.; Pandis, Spyros N (1998). [https://openlibrary.org/works/OL2640020W/Atmospheric_chemistry_and_physics Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics&nbsp;— From Air Pollution to Climate Change.] John Wiley and Sons, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-471-17816-3}}</ref><ref name=":0222" /> Some of them are [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] (typically produced via atmospheric [[chemical reactions]] with [[dimethyl sulfide]] from mostly marine [[plankton]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charlson |first1=Robert J. |last2=Wigley |first2=Tom M. L. |date=1994 |title=Sulfate Aerosol and Climatic Change |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24942590 |journal=Scientific American |volume=270 |issue=2 |pages=48–57 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0294-48 |jstor=24942590 |issn=0036-8733}}</ref>) or geological via [[volcano]]es or weather-driven from [[wildfire]]s and other natural combustion events,<ref name=":0222">{{Cite journal |last1=Legras |first1=Bernard |last2=Duchamp |first2=Clair |last3=Sellitto |first3=Pasquale |last4=Podglajen |first4=Aurélien |last5=Carboni |first5=Elisa |last6=Siddans |first6=Richard |last7=Grooß |first7=Jens-Uwe |last8=Khaykin |first8=Sergey |last9=Ploeger |first9=Felix |date=23 November 2022 |title=The evolution and dynamics of the Hunga Tonga plume in the stratosphere |url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/22/14957/2022/ |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |language=English |volume=22 |issue=22 |pages=14957–14970 |doi=10.5194/acp-22-14957-2022|s2cid=253875202 |doi-access=free }}</ref> but in the recent decades [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] [[sulfate]] aerosols produced through [[combustion]] of [[fossil fuel]]s with a high sulfur content, primarily [[coal]] and certain less-refined fuels, like [[aviation fuel|aviation]] and [[bunker fuel]], had dominated.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Allen |first=Bob |date=2015-04-06 |title=Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important? |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Aerosols.html |access-date=2023-04-17 |website=NASA}}</ref> By 1990, global human-caused emissions of sulfur into the atmosphere became "at least as large" as ''all'' natural emissions of sulfur-containing compounds '''combined''', and were at least 10 times more numerous than the natural aerosols in the most polluted regions of [[Europe]] and [[North America]],<ref name="IPCC_FAR">IPCC, 1990: [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/ipcc_far_wg_I_chapter_01.pdf Chapter 1: Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols] [R.T. Watson, H. Rodhe, H. Oeschger and U. Siegenthaler]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/ipcc_far_wg_I_full_report.pdf Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment] [J.T.Houghton, G.J.Jenkins and J.J.Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 31–34,</ref> where they accounted for 25% or more of all air pollution.<ref name="EPAHealth" /> This led to [[acid rain]],<ref name="EPASurface">{{Cite web|title=Effects of Acid Rain - Surface Waters and Aquatic Animals|url=http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/surface_water.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514121649/http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/surface_water.html|archive-date=14 May 2009|website=US EPA}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.272.5259.244|url=http://www.esf.edu/efb/mitchell/Class%20Readings/Sci.272.244.246.pdf|title=Long-Term Effects of Acid Rain: Response and Recovery of a Forest Ecosystem|year=1996|last1=Likens|first1=G. E.|last2=Driscoll|first2=C. T.|last3=Buso|first3=D. C.|journal=Science|volume=272|issue=5259|page=244|bibcode=1996Sci...272..244L |s2cid=178546205|access-date=February 9, 2013|archive-date=December 24, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224203613/http://www.esf.edu/efb/mitchell/Class%20Readings/Sci.272.244.246.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and also contributed to [[heart]] and [[lung]] conditions <ref name="EPAHealth">[http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/health.html Effects of Acid Rain – Human Health] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118120242/http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/health.html |date=January 18, 2008 }}. Epa.gov (June 2, 2006). Retrieved on 2013-02-09.</ref> and even the risk of [[preterm birth]] and [[low birth weight]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=X. |last2=Ding |first2=H. |last3=Ryan |first3=L. |last4=Xu |first4=X. |s2cid=2707126 |date=1 May 1997 |title=Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=105 |issue=5 |pages=514–20 |issn=0091-6765 |pmc=1469882 |pmid=9222137 |doi=10.1289/ehp.97105514}}</ref> Sulfate pollution also has a complex relationship with [[NOx]] pollution and ozone, reducing the also harmful [[ground-level ozone]], yet capable of damaging the stratospheric [[ozone layer]] as well.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effect of sulfate aerosol on tropospheric NOx and ozone budgets: Model simulations and TOPSE evidence |last=Tie |first=X. |year=2003 |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=108 |issue=D4 |pages=8364 |doi=10.1029/2001JD001508 |bibcode=2003JGRD..108.8364T |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-[[File:Climate Change Attribution.png|thumb|left|Stratospheric sulfates from volcanic emissions cause transient cooling; the purple line showing sustained cooling is from tropospheric sulfate pollution.]]
-Once the problem became clear, the efforts to remove this pollution through [[flue-gas desulfurization]] measures and other pollution controls were largely successful, <ref name="CAA01">[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/09/980928072644.htm Clean Air Act Reduces Acid Rain In Eastern United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808140131/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/09/980928072644.htm |date=August 8, 2018 }}, ''ScienceDaily'', September 28, 1998</ref> reducing their prevalence by 53% and causing [[healthcare]] savings valued at $50 billion annually in the [[United States]] alone.<ref>{{cite web | access-date=2007-03-17 | archive-date=2007-03-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317212933/http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/econ-emissions.html | url=http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/econ-emissions.html | title=Air Emissions Trends – Continued Progress Through 2005 | publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] | date=8 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="EPAHealth" /><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Moses|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Cardenas |first2=Beatriz|last3=Seddon|first3=Jessica|date=25 February 2020|title=The Most Successful Air Pollution Treaty You've Never Heard Of |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/most-successful-air-pollution-treaty-youve-never-heard|language=en}}</ref> Yet, around the same time, research had shown that sulfate aerosols were affecting both the [[visible light]] received by the Earth and its [[surface temperature]],<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Stanhill, G. |author2=S. Cohen|title=Global dimming: a review of the evidence for a widespread and significant reduction in global radiation with discussion of its probable causes and possible agricultural consequences | journal=[[Agricultural and Forest Meteorology]]|volume=107|year=2001|issue=4 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1923(00)00241-0|pages=255–278 |bibcode=2001AgFM..107..255S}}</ref> and as the so-called [[global dimming]]) began to reverse in the [[1990]]s in line with the reduced anthropogenic sulfate pollution,<ref>{{Citation |last1=Cohen |first1=Shabtai |title=Chapter 32 – Changes in the Sun's radiation: the role of widespread surface solar radiation trends in climate change: dimming and brightening |date=1 January 2021 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128215753000323 |work=Climate Change (Third Edition) |pages=687–709 |editor-last=Letcher |editor-first=Trevor M. |access-date=2023-04-26 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-821575-3.00032-3 |isbn=978-0-12-821575-3 |last2=Stanhill |first2=Gerald|s2cid=234180702 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/aerosol_dimming.html|title=Global 'Sunscreen' Has Likely Thinned, Report NASA Scientists|publisher=[[NASA]]|date=15 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|year=2017|title=A bright sun today? It's down to the atmosphere|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/mar/21/a-bright-sun-today-its-down-to-the-atmosphere|access-date=2017-05-19|archive-date=2017-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520010323/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/mar/21/a-bright-sun-today-its-down-to-the-atmosphere|url-status=live}}</ref> climate change accelerated.<ref name="IPCC_WGI_Ch11">{{Cite journal |last1=Seneviratne |first1=S.I. |last2=Zhang |first2=X. |last3=Adnan |first3=M. |last4=Badi |first4=W. |last5=Dereczynski |first5=C. |last6=Di Luca |first6=A. |last7=Ghosh |first7=S. |last8=Iskandar |first8=I. |last9=Kossin |first9=J. |last10=Lewis |first10=S. |last11=Otto |first11=F. |last12=Pinto |first12=I. |last13=Satoh |first13=M. |last14=Vicente-Serrano |first14=S. M. |last15=Wehner |first15=M. |last16=Zhou |first16=B. |editor-last=Masson-Delmotte |editor-first=V. |editor2-last=Zhai |editor2-first=P. |editor3-last=Piran |editor3-first=A. |editor4-last=Connors |editor4-first=S.L. |editor5-last=Péan |editor5-first=C. |editor6-last=Berger |editor6-first=S. |editor7-last=Caud |editor7-first=N. |editor8-last=Chen |editor8-first=Y. |editor9-last=Goldfarb |editor9-first=L. |title=Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter11.pdf |journal=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. 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In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–32, {{doi|10.1017/9781009157896.001}}.</ref> with the uncertainty mainly caused by contradictory research on the impacts of aerosols of [[clouds]].<ref name="Andrew">{{cite news |last1=Andrew |first1=Tawana |title=Behind the Forecast: How clouds affect temperatures |url=https://www.wave3.com/2019/09/27/behind-forecast-how-clouds-affect-temperatures/ |access-date=4 January 2023 |work=Science Behind the Forecast |publisher=LOUISVILLE, Ky. (WAVE) |date=27 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 =McCoy |first1=Daniel T. |last2=Field |first2=Paul |last3=Gordon |first3=Hamish |last4=Elsaesser |first4=Gregory S. |last5=Grosvenor |first5=Daniel P. | date=6 April 2020 | title=Untangling causality in midlatitude aerosol–cloud adjustments | url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/20/4085/2020/ |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics | volume=20 |issue=7 | pages=4085–4103 |doi=10.5194/acp-20-4085-2020 |doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rosenfeld | first1 = Daniel | last2 = Zhu | first2 = Yannian | last3 = Wang | first3 = Minghuai | last4 = Zheng | first4 = Youtong | last5 = Goren | first5 = Tom | last6 = Yu | first6 = Shaocai | year = 2019 | title = Aerosol-driven droplet concentrations dominate coverage and water of oceanic low level clouds | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/92390/2/aav0566_Rosenfeld_SM.pdf| journal = Science | volume = 363| issue = 6427| page = eaav0566| doi = 10.1126/science.aav0566 | pmid = 30655446 | s2cid = 58612273 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Glassmeier |first1=Franziska |last2=Hoffmann |first2=Fabian |last3=Johnson |first3=Jill S. |last4=Yamaguchi |first4=Takanobu |last5=Carslaw |first5=Ken S. |last6=Feingold |first6=Graham | date=29 January 2021 |title=Aerosol-cloud-climate cooling overestimated by ship-track data | journal=Science |volume =371 |issue=6528 |pages=485–489 |doi=10.1126/science.abd3980 |pmid=33510021 |doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manshausen |first1=Peter |last2=Watson-Parris |first2=Duncan |last3=Christensen |first3=Matthew W. |last4=Jalkanen |first4=Jukka-Pekka |last5=Stier |first5=Philip Stier |date=7 March 2018 |title=Invisible ship tracks show large cloud sensitivity to aerosol |journal=Nature |volume=610 |issue=7930 |pages=101–106 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05122-0 |pmid=36198778 |pmc=9534750 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jongebloed |first1=U. A. |last2=Schauer |first2=A. J. |last3=Cole-Dai |first3=J. |last4=Larrick |first4=C. G. |last5=Wood |first5=R. |last6=Fischer |first6=T. P. |last7=Carn |first7=S. A. |last8=Salimi |first8=S. |last9=Edouard |first9=S. R. |last10=Zhai |first10=S. |last11=Geng |first11=L. |last12=Alexander |first12=B. |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GL102061 |title=Underestimated Passive Volcanic Sulfur Degassing Implies Overestimated Anthropogenic Aerosol Forcing | date=2 January 2023 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters | volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=e2022GL102061 |doi=10.1029/2022GL102061 |s2cid=255571342 }}</ref> Some are certain that they cool the planet, though, and this led to [[solar geoengineering]] proposals known as [[stratospheric aerosol injection]], which seeks to replicate and enhance the cooling from sulfate pollution while minimizing the negative effects on health through deploying in the [[stratosphere]], where only a fraction of the current sulfur pollution would be needed to avoid multiple degrees of warming,<ref name="Visioni2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Visioni|first1=Daniele|last2=Slessarev|first2=Eric |last3=MacMartin|first3=Douglas G|last4=Mahowald|first4=Natalie M|last5=Goodale|first5=Christine L|last6=Xia|first6=Lili|date=1 September 2020|title=What goes up must come down: impacts of deposition in a sulfate geoengineering scenario|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=15|issue=9|pages=094063|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab94eb|bibcode=2020ERL....15i4063V|issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free}}</ref> but the assessment of costs and benefits remains incomplete,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.met.reading.ac.uk/pg-research/downloads/2009/pgr-charlton.pdf |title=Costs and benefits of geo-engineering in the Stratosphere |author1=Andrew Charlton-Perez |author2=Eleanor Highwood |name-list-style=amp |access-date=17 February 2009 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114032949/http://www.met.reading.ac.uk/pg-research/downloads/2009/pgr-charlton.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> even with hundreds of studies into the subject completed by the early 2020s.<ref name="IPCC_WGI_SRM" >{{Cite journal |last1=Trisos |first1=Christopher H. |last2=Geden |first2=Oliver |last3=Seneviratne |first3=Sonia I. |last4=Sugiyama |first4=Masahiro |last5=van Aalst |first5=Maarten |last6=Bala |first6=Govindasamy |last7=Mach |first7=Katharine J. |last8=Ginzburg |first8=Veronika |last9=de Coninck |first9=Heleen |last10=Patt |first10=Anthony |title=Cross-Working Group Box SRM: Solar Radiation Modification |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter16.pdf |journal=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |year=2021 |volume=2021 |pages=1238 |doi=10.1017/9781009157896.007|bibcode=2021AGUFM.U13B..05K }}</ref>
-==== Black carbon ====
-[[Black carbon]] (BC), or carbon black, or elemental carbon (EC), often called soot, is composed of pure carbon clusters, skeleton balls and [[fullerene]]s, and is one of the most important absorbing aerosol species in the atmosphere. It should be distinguished from organic carbon (OC): clustered or aggregated organic molecules on their own or permeating an EC buckyball. Black carbon from [[fossil fuel]]s is estimated by the IPCC in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, 4AR, to contribute a global mean radiative forcing of +0.2 W/m<sup>2</sup> (was +0.1&nbsp;W/m<sup>2</sup> in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, SAR), with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W/m<sup>2</sup>. A study published in 2013 however, states that "the best estimate for the industrial-era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W/m<sup>2</sup> with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W/m<sup>2</sup>" with "total direct forcing by all-black carbon sources, without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W/m<sup>2</sup>".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bond |first=T. C. |title=Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment |doi=10.1002/jgrd.50171 |volume=118 |issue=11 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |pages=5380–5552|year=2013 |bibcode=2013JGRD..118.5380B|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-===Instances===
-{{See also|Haze}}
-[[File:Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions]]
-Volcanoes are a large natural source of aerosol and have been linked to changes in the earth's climate often with consequences for the human population. Eruptions linked to changes in climate include the 1600 eruption of [[Huaynaputina]] which was linked to the [[Russian famine of 1601–1603]],<ref name="Geology">[http://www.geologytimes.com/Research/1600_Eruption_Caused_Global_Disruption.asp "1600 Eruption Caused Global Disruption"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215095449/http://www.geologytimes.com/Research/1600_Eruption_Caused_Global_Disruption.asp |date=15 February 2011 }}, ''Geology Times'', 25 April 2008, accessed 13 November 2010</ref><ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/24467948 Andrea Thompson, "Volcano in 1600 caused global disruption"], NBC News, 5 May 2008, accessed 13 November 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencecentric.com/news/article.php?q=08042402 "The 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina in Peru caused global disruption"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428052829/http://www.sciencecentric.com/news/article.php?q=08042402 |date=28 April 2010 }}, ''Science Centric''</ref> leading to the deaths of two million, and the 1991 eruption of [[Mount Pinatubo]] which caused a global cooling of approximately 0.5&nbsp;°C lasting several years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCormick |first1=M. Patrick |last2=Thomason |first2=Larry W. |last3=Trepte |first3=Charles R. |title=Atmospheric effects of the Mt Pinatubo eruption |journal=Nature |date=February 1995 |volume=373 |issue=6513 |pages=399–404 |doi=10.1038/373399a0 |bibcode=1995Natur.373..399M |s2cid=46437912 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stowe LL, Carey RM, Pellegrino PP | year = 1992 | title = Monitoring the Mt. Pinatubo aerosol layer with NOAA/11 AVHRR data | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 159–162 | doi = 10.1029/91GL02958 | bibcode=1992GeoRL..19..159S| type = Submitted manuscript | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1231307 }}</ref> Research tracking the effect of light-scattering aerosols in the stratosphere during 2000 and 2010 and comparing its pattern to volcanic activity show a close correlation. Simulations of the effect of anthropogenic particles showed little influence at present levels.<ref name=SN03413>{{cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=Sid |title=Earth Not So Hot Thanks to Volcanoes |journal=Science |date=4 March 2013 |doi=10.1126/article.26322 |doi-broken-date=1 August 2023 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/earth-not-so-hot-thanks-volcanoes }}</ref><ref name=grl.50263>{{cite journal| vauthors = Neely III RR, Toon OB, Solomon S, Vernier JP, Alvarez C, English JM, Rosenlof KH, Mills MJ, Bardeen CG, Daniel JS, Thayer JP |title=Recent anthropogenic increases in SO2 from Asia have minimal impact on stratospheric aerosol|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=40|issue=5|pages=999–1004|doi=10.1002/grl.50263|quote=moderate volcanic eruptions, rather than anthropogenic influences, are the primary source of the observed increases in stratospheric aerosol.|bibcode = 2013GeoRL..40..999N |year=2013|hdl=1721.1/85851|s2cid=54922537|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
-Aerosols are also thought to affect weather and climate on a regional scale. The failure of the [[Indian monsoon]] has been linked to the suppression of evaporation of water from the [[Indian Ocean]] due to the semi-direct effect of anthropogenic aerosol.<ref name="Chung2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chung CE, Ramanathan V | year = 2006 | title = Weakening of North Indian SST Gradients and the Monsoon Rainfall in India and the Sahel | journal = Journal of Climate | volume = 19 | issue = 10| pages = 2036–2045 | doi = 10.1175/JCLI3820.1 |bibcode = 2006JCli...19.2036C | s2cid = 10435613 }}</ref>
-Recent studies of the [[Sahel drought]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://apollo.eas.gatech.edu/EAS6792/presentations/aerosol_effects.ppt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216221948/http://apollo.eas.gatech.edu/EAS6792/presentations/aerosol_effects.ppt|url-status=dead|title=Pollutants and Their Effect on the Water and Radiation Budgets|archive-date=16 December 2008}}</ref> and major increases since 1967 in rainfall in [[Australia]] over the [[Northern Territory]], [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]], [[Pilbara]] and around the [[Nullarbor Plain]] have led some scientists to conclude that the aerosol [[haze]] over [[South Asia|South]] and [[East Asia]] has been steadily shifting tropical rainfall in both hemispheres southward.<ref name="Chung2006" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.csiro.au/files/files/pbg2.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616044758/http://www.csiro.au/files/files/pbg2.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Australian rainfall and Asian aerosols|archive-date=16 June 2012}}</ref>
-==Health effects==<!-- This section is linked from [[Acid rain]] -->
-{{anchor|Health effects}}
-[[File:Luftguete messstation.jpg|thumb|upright|Air pollution measurement station in [[Emden]], Germany]]
-{{See also|Health and environmental impact of the coal industry}}
-===Size, shape, and solubility matter===
-====Size====
-Particle size is the main determinant of where in the [[respiratory tract]] it will come to rest when inhaled. Larger particles are generally filtered in the [[human nose|nose]] and [[throat]] via cilia and mucus, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers can settle in the bronchi and [[lung]]s and cause health problems. The 10-micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles but has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne PM by most regulatory agencies. Because of their small size, particles on the order of 10 micrometers or less ('''coarse particulate matter''', '''PM{{sub|10}}''') can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the [[bronchiole]]s or [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]].<ref>Region 4: Laboratory and Field Operations – PM 2.5 (2008).''PM 2.5 Objectives and History.'' U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.</ref> When asthmatics are exposed to these conditions it can trigger bronchoconstriction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balmes |first1=John R. |last2=Fine |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Sheppard |first3=Dean |title=Symptomatic Bronchoconstriction after Short-Term Inhalation of Sulfur Dioxide |journal=American Review of Respiratory Disease |date=November 1987 |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1117–1121 |doi=10.1164/ajrccm/136.5.1117 |pmid=3674573 }}</ref>
-{{Anchor|PM2.5}}Similarly, '''fine particulate matter''' ('''PM{{sub|2.5}}''') tends to penetrate into the [[gas exchange]] regions of the lung (alveoli), and very small particles ([[Ultrafine particle|ultrafine particulate matter]] '''PM{{sub|0.1}}''') may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Penetration of particles is not wholly dependent on their size; shape and chemical composition also play a part. To avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to indicate the different degrees of relative penetration of a PM particle into the [[cardiovascular]] system. ''Inhalable particles'' penetrate no further than the [[bronchi]] as they are filtered out by the [[cilia]]. ''Thoracic particles'' can penetrate right into [[terminal bronchioles]] whereas PM{{sub|0.1}}, which can penetrate to alveoli, the gas exchange area, and hence the [[circulatory system]], are termed ''respirable particles''.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}
-In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust entering the nose and mouth which may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).<ref>Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. (2003). Exposure Assessment in Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology. London: Oxford University Press.{{page needed|date=January 2022}}</ref>
-The smallest particles, [[nanoparticle]]s, which are less than 180 nanometers in size, may be even more damaging to the cardiovascular system.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=washingtonstory&sid=aBt.yLf.YfOo |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |title=Pollution Particles Lead to Higher Heart Attack Risk |date=17 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629014447/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=washingtonstory&sid=aBt.yLf.YfOo |archive-date=29 June 2011 |quote=The pollutants, abundant in urban areas, are less than 0.18 micrometers in size and cause four times more artery buildup than particles four times larger, said Jesus Araujo, director of environmental cardiology at University of California, Los Angeles.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Araujo |first1=Jesus A. |display-authors=etal |title=Ambient Particulate Pollutants in the Ultrafine Range Promote Early Atherosclerosis and Systemic Oxidative Stress |journal=Circulation Research |date=January 17, 2008 |volume=102 |issue=5 |pages=589–596 |doi=10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.107.164970 |pmid=18202315 |pmc=3014059 }}</ref> Nanoparticles can pass through cell membranes and migrate into other organs, including the brain. Particles emitted from modern [[diesel engine]]s (commonly referred to as [[Diesel Particulate Matter]], or DPM) are typically in the size range of 100 nanometers (0.1 micrometers). These [[soot]] particles also carry [[carcinogen]]s like [[benzopyrene]]s adsorbed on their surface.
-Particulate mass is not a proper measure of the health hazard. A particle of 10 μm diameter has approximately the same mass as 1 million particles of 100&nbsp;nm diameter, but is much less hazardous, as it is unlikely to enter the alveoli. Legislative limits for engine emissions based on mass are therefore not protective. Proposals for new regulations exist in some countries,{{which|date=September 2014}} with suggestions to limit the particle ''surface area'' or the ''particle count'' (numerical quantity) / particle number concentration (PNC) instead.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hennig |first1=Frauke |last2=Quass |first2=Ulrich |last3=Hellack |first3=Bryan |last4=Küpper |first4=Miriam |last5=Kuhlbusch |first5=Thomas A. J. |last6=Stafoggia |first6=Massimo |last7=Hoffmann |first7=Barbara |date=February 2018 |title=Ultrafine and Fine Particle Number and Surface Area Concentrations and Daily Cause-Specific Mortality in the Ruhr Area, Germany, 2009–2014 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |language=en |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=027008 |doi=10.1289/EHP2054 |issn=0091-6765 |pmc=6066351 |pmid=29467106}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019311110|title=Ultrafine particles and PM2.5 in the air of cities around the world: Are they representative of each other?|date=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.021 |last1=De Jesus |first1=Alma Lorelei |last2=Rahman |first2=Md Mahmudur |last3=Mazaheri |first3=Mandana |last4=Thompson |first4=Helen |last5=Knibbs |first5=Luke D. |last6=Jeong |first6=Cheol |last7=Evans |first7=Greg |last8=Nei |first8=Wei |last9=Ding |first9=Aijun |last10=Qiao |first10=Liping |last11=Li |first11=Li |last12=Portin |first12=Harri |last13=Niemi |first13=Jarkko V. |last14=Timonen |first14=Hilkka |last15=Luoma |first15=Krista |last16=Petäjä |first16=Tuukka |last17=Kulmala |first17=Markku |last18=Kowalski |first18=Michal |last19=Peters |first19=Annette |last20=Cyrys |first20=Josef |last21=Ferrero |first21=Luca |last22=Manigrasso |first22=Maurizio |last23=Avino |first23=Pasquale |last24=Buonano |first24=Giorgio |last25=Reche |first25=Cristina |last26=Querol |first26=Xavier |last27=Beddows |first27=David |last28=Harrison |first28=Roy M. |last29=Sowlat |first29=Mohammad H. |last30=Sioutas |first30=Constantinos |journal=Environment International |volume=129 |pages=118–135 |pmid=31125731 |s2cid=164216753 |display-authors=1 }}</ref>
-====Solubility====
-The site and extent of absorption of inhaled gases and vapors are determined by their solubility in water. Absorption is also dependent upon air flow rates and the partial pressure of the gases in the inspired air. The fate of a specific contaminant is dependent upon the form in which it exists (aerosol or particulate). Inhalation also depends upon the breathing rate of the subject.<ref>Lippmann, M., Cohen, B.S., Schlesinger, R.S. (2003). Environmental Health Science. New York: Oxford University Press.{{page needed|date=January 2022}}</ref>
-====Shape====
-Another complexity not entirely documented is how the shape of PM can affect health, except for the needle-like shape of [[asbestos]] fibres which can lodge in the lungs. Geometrically angular shapes have more surface area than rounder shapes, which in turn affects the binding capacity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous substances.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} The table below lists the colours and shapes of some common atmospheric particulates:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323788265 | title=Scattering Matrix for Typical Urban Anthropogenic Origin Cement Dust and Discrimination of Representative Atmospheric Particulates}}</ref>
-{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
-! Type of particulate !! Color !! Shape
-|-
-| Portland cement || Gray || Irregular
-|-
-| Smolder smoke || White || Spherical
-|-
-| Soot || Black || Fractal aggregate
-|-
-| Water droplets || White || Spherical
-|-
-| Loess || Yellow Brown || Irregular
-|-
-| Lokon volcanic ash || Dark Brown || Irregular
-|-
-| Sahara sand (Libya) || Brown || Irregular
-|}
-{{Gallery
-| title        =Scanning electronic microscopy of particulates
-| align        =center
-| footer       =
-| style        =
-| state        =
-| height       =
-| width        =800px
-| File:Scanning electron microscopy of glass powder.jpg
- | Scanning electron microscopy of glass powder originated from glass bottles
-| File:Scanning electron microscopy of cement.jpg
- | Scanning electron microscopy of cement
-| File:Scanning electron microscopy of mortar glass powder.jpg
- | Scanning electron microscopy of mortar glass powder (10%) which seems to have fibre-like structure
-| File:Chrysotile SEM photo.jpg
- | Scanning electron microscopy of white asbesto with needle-like shape fibre
 }}
-===Composition, quantity, and duration are important===
-{{expand section|date=February 2023}}
-{{anchor|Composition, quantity and duration are important}}
-[[File:DustWorker.jpg|thumb|Worker in a cloud of concrete dust]]
-Composition of particles can vary greatly depending on their sources and how they are produced. For example, dust emitted from the burning of living and dead vegetation would be different from those emitted from the burning of joss paper or [[Construction waste#Incineration and health risks|construction wastes]]. Particles emitted from fuel combustion are not the same as those emitted from waste combustion. The particulate matter generated from the fire of a [[wrecking yard|recycling yard]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wdtn.com/news/local-news/the-dangers-of-a-scrap-yard-fire-in-your-community/amp/ | title=The dangers of a scrap yard fire in your community| date=10 October 2022}}</ref> or a ship full of [[scrap metal]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://amp.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3135821/hong-kong-barge-fire-sends-cloud-acrid-smoke-sweeping-across | title=Cargo boat fire put out in Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour after burning for 15 hours and sending fumes across city| date=3 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thestandard.com.hk/section-news/section/11/230923/Stench-from-burning-metal-waste-ship-blows-across-HK | title=Stench from burning metal-waste ship blows across HK}}</ref> may contain more toxic substances than other types of burning.
-Different types of building refurbishment activities produce different kinds of dust too. The composition of PM generated from cutting or mixing concrete made with [[Portland Cement]] would be different from those generated from cutting or mixing concrete made with different types of [[slag]] (e.g. [[GGBFS]], [[electric arc furnace|EAF]] slag<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/smm/electric-arc-furnace-eaf-slag |title=Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Slag|date=3 June 2021 }}</ref>), [[fly ash]] or even EAF dust (EAFD),<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652622038549 |title=Use of hazardous electric arc furnace dust in the construction industry: A cleaner production approach|year=2022 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134282 |last1=Nair |first1=Abhilash T. |last2=Mathew |first2=Aneesh |last3=a r |first3=Archana |last4=Akbar |first4=M Abdul |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=377 |page=134282 |s2cid=252553231 }}</ref> while EFAD, slag and fly ash are likely to be [[Slag#Environmental impact|more]] [[Health effects of coal ash#Health effects of toxic constituents found in coal ash|toxic]] as they contain [[heavy metals]]. Besides slag cement that is sold and used as an environmental friendly product,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.slagcement.org/sustainability | title=Sustainability}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/tools_epr/files/hd_er2012e.pdf |title=Hong Kong Housing Authority Sustainability Report 2012/13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628093414/https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/tools_epr/files/hd_er2012e.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.housingauthority.gov.hk/mini-site/haer2021/en/environmental-performance-planning.html |title=Hong Kong Housing Authority - Environmental Report 2020/21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628093525/https://www.housingauthority.gov.hk/mini-site/haer2021/en/environmental-performance-planning.html |archive-date=28 June 2023 }}</ref><!-- Use of slag and other recycled “green materials” in building new public housing is a mandatory contract requirement in Hong Kong --> fake (adulterated) cement, where different types of slag, fly ash or other unknown substances are added, is also very common in some places<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalcement.com/news/itemlist/tag/Fake | title=Cement industry news from Global Cement| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203120609/https://www.globalcement.com/news/itemlist/tag/Fake| archive-date=3 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://hunan-sina-com-cn.translate.goog/city/gdyw/2013-12-16/110281337.html?_x_tr_sl=zh-CN&_x_tr_tl=en | title=黑水泥厂"围城" 打假队一年揪出13家 | trans-title=City "besieged" with dishonest cement factories, anti-counterfeiting teams found 13 of them in one year | language=Chinese}}</ref> due to the much lower production cost.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://gunungcapital.com/growing-importance-of-slag-cement-in-the-global-cement-industry/ | title=Growing Importance of Slag Cement in the Global Cement Industry| date=6 July 2022}}</ref> To address to the quality<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tw-yahoo-com.translate.goog/house/%E6%88%BF%E5%B8%82%E6%96%B0%E5%88%B6%E5%A4%A7%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5%E7%88%90%E6%B8%A3%E5%B1%8B%E6%8E%B0-2021-%E5%B9%B4%E8%B5%B7%E7%A6%81%E7%94%A8%E7%88%90%E6%B8%A3-062821875.html?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en | title=房市新制大調查 爐渣屋掰 2021年起禁用爐渣 | date=10 December 2020 | trans-title=A look into the property market new regulations. No more slag house. Slag will be banned from 2021 | language=Chinese}}</ref> and toxicity problems, some places are starting to ban the use of EAF slag in cement used in buildings.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tw-news-yahoo-com.translate.goog/%E6%96%B0%E7%89%88%E9%A0%90%E5%94%AE%E5%B1%8B%E5%A5%91%E7%B4%84%E7%A6%81%E7%94%A8-%E7%85%89%E9%8B%BC%E7%88%90%E7%A2%B4-%E5%BB%BA%E5%95%86%E9%81%95%E8%A6%8F%E5%B0%87%E6%8C%A8%E7%BD%B0-180847768.html?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en | title=新版預售屋契約禁用「煉鋼爐碴」 建商違規將挨罰 | date=8 May 2019 | trans-title=The new version of the pre-sale house contract prohibits "steelmaking furnace slag" and builders will be fined for violations | language=Chinese}}</ref> Composition of welding fumes varies a lot as well and it depends on the metals in the material being welded, the composition of the coatings, electrode, etc, and hence a lot of health problems (e.g., [[lead poisoning]], [[metal Fume Fever]], cancers, nausea, irritation, kidney and liver damage, central nervous system problems, asthma, pneumonia, etc.) can be resulted from the different types of toxic emissions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/welding/fumes.html |title=Welding - Fumes And Gases, OSH Answers|date=10 February 2023 }}</ref>
-Besides composition, quantity and duration of exposure are also important, since they would affect the triggering and severity of a disease. Particles that get into indoor would directly affect [[indoor air quality]]. Possible secondary contaminations<ref>{{cite journal |title=Experimental study to quantify airborne particle deposition onto and resuspension from clothing using a fluorescent-tracking method|year=2022 |pmc=8620412 |last1=Ren |first1=J. |last2=Tang |first2=M. |last3=Novoselac |first3=A. |journal=Building and Environment |volume=209 |page=108580 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108580 |pmid=34848915 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=地盤工滿身泥衣鞋入茶餐廳 網民批成身水泥累慘清潔工：做死阿姐 | website=香港01 | date=20 Jul 2023 | url=https://www.hk01.com/熱爆話題/919862/地盤工滿身泥衣鞋入茶餐廳-網民批成身水泥累慘清潔工-做死阿姐 | language=zh | access-date=14 Aug 2023}}</ref> like what happened in [[third-hand smoke]] are also of concern.
-In a nutshell, while background concentration is important, only "improvement in air quality" or "decrease in ambient concentration of PM" do not necessarily mean better health. The health impact mainly depends on the toxicity (or source<ref>{{Cite journal | title=The effects of particulate matter sources on daily mortality: a case-crossover study of Barcelona, Spain| year=2011| pmid=21846610| last1=Ostro| first1=B.| last2=Tobias| first2=A.| last3=Querol| first3=X.| last4=Alastuey| first4=A.| last5=Amato| first5=F.| last6=Pey| first6=J.| last7=Pérez| first7=N.| last8=Sunyer| first8=J.| journal=Environmental Health Perspectives| volume=119| issue=12| pages=1781–1787| doi=10.1289/ehp.1103618| pmc=3261985}}</ref>) of the particulate matter a person is exposed to, the amount he is exposed to and for how long, and also the [[#Size, shape, and solubility matter|size, shape, and solubility]] of the PM.
-Since construction and refurbishment projects are prominent sources of particulate matter, it implicates that such projects, which are very common in some places,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www32.ha.org.hk/capitalworksprojects/en/Others/Ten-Year-Hospital-Development-Plan.html | title=10-year Hospital Development Plan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.archsd.gov.hk/en/projects/capital-projects-under-construction.html | title=Architectural Services Department - Capital Projects Under Construction}}</ref> should be avoided in health facilities that already commenced and under operation as far as possible. For inevitable projects, better plannings and mitigation measures regarding PM emission should be introduced. Use of power tools, heavy equipments, diesel fuels and potentially toxic building materials (e.g. [[concrete]], metals, [[solder]], paint, etc.) should be strictly monitored to ensure that patients who are there seeking for disease treatments or chances to survive are not adversely affected.
-=== Health problems ===
-{{Update section|date=July 2023}}
-[[File:Deaths per year per 1000 people from various causes in the four largest countries.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Deaths from air pollution compared to other common causes]]
-[[File: Pył zawieszony Komunikat o jakości powietrza w Katowicach 7.10.2011 godz. 9.10.JPG|thumb|Air quality information on PM<sub>10</sub> displayed in [[Katowice]], Poland]]
-The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely studied in humans and animals include [[COVID-19]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Relation between PM2.5 pollution and Covid-19 mortality in Western Europe for the 2020–2022 period| year=2022 | pmc=9310379 | last1=Renard | first1=J. B. | last2=Surcin | first2=J. | last3=Annesi-Maesano | first3=I. | last4=Delaunay | first4=G. | last5=Poincelet | first5=E. | last6=Dixsaut | first6=G. | journal=The Science of the Total Environment | volume=848 | page=157579 | doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157579 | pmid=35901896 | bibcode=2022ScTEn.848o7579R }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Assessing the impact of long-term exposure to nine outdoor air pollutants on COVID-19 spatial spread and related mortality in 107 Italian provinces| year=2022 | doi=10.1038/s41598-022-17215-x | last1=Perone | first1=Gaetano | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=12 | issue=1 | page=13317 | pmid=35922645 | pmc=9349267 | bibcode=2022NatSR..1213317P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41370-021-00366-w|doi-access=free|title=SARS-CoV-2 test positivity rate in Reno, Nevada: Association with PM2.5 during the 2020 wildfire smoke events in the western United States |year=2021 |last1=Kiser |first1=Daniel |last2=Elhanan |first2=Gai |last3=Metcalf |first3=William J. |last4=Schnieder |first4=Brendan |last5=Grzymski |first5=Joseph J. |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=797–803 |pmid=34257389 |pmc=8276229 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-85751-z |doi-access=free|title=A global association between Covid-19 cases and airborne particulate matter at regional level |year=2021 |last1=Solimini |first1=Angelo |last2=Filipponi |first2=F. |last3=Fegatelli |first3=D. Alunni |last4=Caputo |first4=B. |last5=De Marco |first5=C. M. |last6=Spagnoli |first6=A. |last7=Vestri |first7=A. R. |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=6256 |pmid=33737616 |pmc=7973572 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=
-https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-07-22/studies-connect-wildfire-smoke-side-effects-covid-19-risk|title = With metals and maybe even coronavirus, wildfire smoke is more dangerous than you think| website=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=22 July 2021 }}</ref> [[asthma]], lung cancer, respiratory diseases like [[silicosis]],
-<ref>{{Cite web|url=
-https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/diseases/silicosis.html | title = Silicosis, OSH Answers Fact Sheets| date = 13 June 2023}}</ref>
-<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/92-102/default.html | title = Preventing Silicosis and Deaths From Sandblasting| year = 1992| doi = 10.26616/NIOSHPUB92102}}</ref> cardiovascular disease, [[premature delivery]], birth defects, [[low birth weight]], developmental disorders,<ref name="Childhood autism spectrum disorders">{{cite journal |last1=Flores-Pajot |first1=Marie-Claire |last2=Ofner |first2=Marianna |last3=Do |first3=Minh T. |last4=Lavigne |first4=Eric |last5=Villeneuve |first5=Paul J. |title=Childhood autism spectrum disorders and exposure to nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter air pollution: A review and meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Research |date=November 2016 |volume=151 |pages=763–776 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.030 |pmid=27609410 |bibcode=2016ER....151..763F }}</ref><ref name="Maternal exposure to air pollution">{{cite journal |last1=Chun |first1=HeeKyoung |last2=Leung |first2=Cheryl |last3=Wen |first3=Shi Wu |last4=McDonald |first4=Judy |last5=Shin |first5=Hwashin H. |title=Maternal exposure to air pollution and risk of autism in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=January 2020 |volume=256 |pages=113307 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113307 |pmid=31733973 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="A Systematic Review and Meta-Analys">{{cite journal |last1=Lam |first1=Juleen |last2=Sutton |first2=Patrice |last3=Kalkbrenner |first3=Amy |last4=Windham |first4=Gayle |last5=Halladay |first5=Alycia |last6=Koustas |first6=Erica |last7=Lawler |first7=Cindy |last8=Davidson |first8=Lisette |last9=Daniels |first9=Natalyn |last10=Newschaffer |first10=Craig |last11=Woodruff |first11=Tracey |title=A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Multiple Airborne Pollutants and Autism Spectrum Disorder |journal=PLOS ONE |date=21 September 2016 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=e0161851 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161851 |pmid=27653281 |pmc=5031428 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161851L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Air Pollution and Autism Spectrum D">{{cite journal |last1=Weisskopf |first1=Marc G. |last2=Kioumourtzoglou |first2=Marianthi-Anna |last3=Roberts |first3=Andrea L. |title=Air Pollution and Autism Spectrum Disorders: Causal or Confounded? |journal=Current Environmental Health Reports |date=December 2015 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=430–439 |doi=10.1007/s40572-015-0073-9 |pmid=26399256 |pmc=4737505 }}</ref> neurodegenerative disorders<ref name="Air Pollution and Alzheimer's Disea">{{cite journal |last1=Fu |first1=Pengfei |last2=Yung |first2=Ken Kin Lam |title=Air Pollution and Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease |date=15 September 2020 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=701–714 |doi=10.3233/JAD-200483 |pmid=32741830 |s2cid=220942039 }}</ref><ref name="Fine particulate matter is a potent">{{cite journal |last1=Tsai |first1=Tsung-Lin |last2=Lin |first2=Yu-Ting |last3=Hwang |first3=Bing-Fang |last4=Nakayama |first4=Shoji F. |last5=Tsai |first5=Chon-Haw |last6=Sun |first6=Xian-Liang |last7=Ma |first7=Chaochen |last8=Jung |first8=Chau-Ren |title=Fine particulate matter is a potential determinant of Alzheimer's disease: A systemic review and meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Research |date=October 2019 |volume=177 |pages=108638 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2019.108638 |pmid=31421449 |bibcode=2019ER....177j8638T |s2cid=201057595 }}</ref> mental disorders,<ref name = suicide>{{cite journal |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Isobel |last2=Zhang |first2=Shuo |last3=Kirkbride |first3=James B. |last4=Osborn |first4=David P. J. |last5=Hayes |first5=Joseph F. |title=Air Pollution (Particulate Matter) Exposure and Associations with Depression, Anxiety, Bipolar, Psychosis and Suicide Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=December 2019 |volume=127 |issue=12 |pages=126002 |doi=10.1289/EHP4595 |pmid=31850801 |pmc=6957283 }}</ref><ref name = economic>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Jackson G |title=Air pollution: A systematic review of its psychological, economic, and social effects |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |date=April 2020 |volume=32 |pages=52–65 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.024 |pmid=31557706 |s2cid=199147061 }}</ref><ref name = suicidedep>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Qisijing |last2=Wang |first2=Wanzhou |last3=Gu |first3=Xuelin |last4=Deng |first4=Furong |last5=Wang |first5=Xueqin |last6=Lin |first6=Hualiang |last7=Guo |first7=Xinbiao |last8=Wu |first8=Shaowei |title=Association between particulate matter air pollution and risk of depression and suicide: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=February 2021 |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=9029–9049 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-12357-3 |pmid=33481201 |s2cid=231677095 }}</ref> and premature death. Outdoor fine particulates with diameter less than 2.5 microns accounts for 4.2 million annual deaths worldwide, and more than 103 million disability-adjusted [[life-years lost]], making it the fifth leading [[risk factor]] for death. Air pollution has also been linked to a range of other psychosocial problems.<ref name = economic/> Particulates may cause tissue damage by entering organs directly, or indirectly by [[systemic inflammation]]. Adverse impacts may obtain even at exposure levels lower than published air quality standards deemed safe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schraufnagel |first1=Dean E. |last2=Balmes |first2=John R. |last3=Cowl |first3=Clayton T. |last4=De Matteis |first4=Sara |last5=Jung |first5=Soon-Hee |last6=Mortimer |first6=Kevin |last7=Perez-Padilla |first7=Rogelio |last8=Rice |first8=Mary B. |last9=Riojas-Rodriguez |first9=Horacio |last10=Sood |first10=Akshay |last11=Thurston |first11=George D. |last12=To |first12=Teresa |last13=Vanker |first13=Anessa |last14=Wuebbles |first14=Donald J. |title=Air Pollution and Noncommunicable Diseases |journal=Chest |date=February 2019 |volume=155 |issue=2 |pages=409–416 |doi=10.1016/j.chest.2018.10.042 |pmid=30419235 |pmc=6904855 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |last2=McMullan |first2=Lydia |last3=Blight |first3=Garry |last4=Roberts |first4=Simon |last5=Hulley-Jones |first5=Frank |title=Revealed: air pollution may be damaging 'every organ in the body' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2019/may/17/air-pollution-may-be-damaging-every-organ-and-cell-in-the-body-finds-global-review |work=The Guardian |date=17 May 2019 }}</ref>
-==== Anthropogenic fine particulates as main hazard ====
-{{See also|Harvard Six Cities study}}
-Increased levels of fine particles in the air as a result of [[Anthropogenic impact|anthropogenic]] particulate air pollution "is consistently and independently related to the most serious effects, including [[lung cancer]]<ref name="Lancet71013">{{cite journal|display-authors=6 |last1=Raaschou-Nielsen |first1=Ole |last2=Andersen |first2=Zorana J |last3=Beelen |first3=Rob |last4=Samoli |first4=Evangelia |last5=Stafoggia |first5=Massimo |last6=Weinmayr |first6=Gudrun |last7=Hoffmann |first7=Barbara |last8=Fischer |first8=Paul |last9=Nieuwenhuijsen |first9=Mark J |last10=Brunekreef |first10=Bert |last11=Xun |first11=Wei W |last12=Katsouyanni |first12=Klea |last13=Dimakopoulou |first13=Konstantina |last14=Sommar |first14=Johan |last15=Forsberg |first15=Bertil |last16=Modig |first16=Lars |last17=Oudin |first17=Anna |last18=Oftedal |first18=Bente |last19=Schwarze |first19=Per E |last20=Nafstad |first20=Per |last21=De Faire |first21=Ulf |last22=Pedersen |first22=Nancy L |last23=Östenson |first23=Claes-Göran |last24=Fratiglioni |first24=Laura |last25=Penell |first25=Johanna |last26=Korek |first26=Michal |last27=Pershagen |first27=Göran |last28=Eriksen |first28=Kirsten T |last29=Sørensen |first29=Mette |last30=Tjønneland |first30=Anne |last31=Ellermann |first31=Thomas |last32=Eeftens |first32=Marloes |last33=Peeters |first33=Petra H |last34=Meliefste |first34=Kees |last35=Wang |first35=Meng |last36=Bueno-de-Mesquita |first36=Bas |last37=Key |first37=Timothy J |last38=de Hoogh |first38=Kees |last39=Concin |first39=Hans |last40=Nagel |first40=Gabriele |last41=Vilier |first41=Alice |last42=Grioni |first42=Sara |last43=Krogh |first43=Vittorio |last44=Tsai |first44=Ming-Yi |last45=Ricceri |first45=Fulvio |last46=Sacerdote |first46=Carlotta |last47=Galassi |first47=Claudia |last48=Migliore |first48=Enrica |last49=Ranzi |first49=Andrea |last50=Cesaroni |first50=Giulia |last51=Badaloni |first51=Chiara |last52=Forastiere |first52=Francesco |last53=Tamayo |first53=Ibon |last54=Amiano |first54=Pilar |last55=Dorronsoro |first55=Miren |last56=Trichopoulou |first56=Antonia |last57=Bamia |first57=Christina |last58=Vineis |first58=Paolo |last59=Hoek |first59=Gerard |title=Air pollution and lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts: prospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE) |journal=The Lancet Oncology |date=August 2013 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=813–822 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70279-1 |pmid=23849838 |url=https://www.openaccessrepository.it/record/23400 }}</ref> and other [[cardiopulmonary]] [[Death|mortality]]."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen AJ, Ross Anderson H, Ostro B, Pandey KD, Krzyzanowski M, Künzli N, Gutschmidt K, Pope A, Romieu I, Samet JM, Smith K | display-authors = 6 | title = The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A | volume = 68 | issue = 13–14 | pages = 1301–7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16024504 | doi = 10.1080/15287390590936166 | s2cid = 23814778 }}</ref> The association between a large number of deaths<ref>{{cite web |title=Air Pollution & Cardiovascular Disease |url=http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/impacts/cardiovascular/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514110919/http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/impacts/cardiovascular/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-14 |publisher=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences}}</ref> and other health problems and particulate pollution was first demonstrated in the early 1970s<ref name="lave">{{cite journal | last1 = Lave | first1 = Lester B.|author1-link=Lester Lave| last2 = Seskin | first2 = Eugene P. | title = An Analysis of the Association between U.S. Mortality and Air Pollution | journal = Journal of the American Statistical Association | date = June 1973 | volume = 68 | issue = 342 | pages = 284–290 | issn = 0162-1459 | eissn = 1537-274X | doi = 10.1080/01621459.1973.10482421 | pmid = | url = }}</ref> and has been reproduced many times since. PM pollution is estimated to cause 22,000–52,000 deaths per year in the United States (from 2000)<ref name="mokdad">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL | title = Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000 | journal = JAMA | volume = 291 | issue = 10 | pages = 1238–45 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15010446 | doi = 10.1001/jama.291.10.1238 | s2cid = 14589790 }}</ref> contributed to ~370,000 premature deaths in [[Europe]] during 2005.<ref name="EEA_2005">{{cite book |doi=10.2800/165 |year=2009 |author1=European Environment Agency |title=Spatial assessment of PM10 and ozone concentrations in Europe (2005) |publisher=Publications Office |isbn=978-92-9167-988-1 }}{{page needed|date=January 2022}}</ref> and 3.22 million deaths globally in 2010 per the [[Global Burden of Disease Study|global burden of disease collaboration]].<ref name="Lim">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, Danaei G, Shibuya K, Adair-Rohani H, Amann M, Anderson HR, Andrews KG, Aryee M, Atkinson C, Bacchus LJ, Bahalim AN, Balakrishnan K, Balmes J, Barker-Collo S, Baxter A, Bell ML, Blore JD, Blyth F, Bonner C, Borges G, Bourne R, Boussinesq M, Brauer M, Brooks P, Bruce NG, Brunekreef B, Bryan-Hancock C, Bucello C, Buchbinder R, Bull F, Burnett RT, Byers TE, Calabria B, Carapetis J, Carnahan E, Chafe Z, Charlson F, Chen H, Chen JS, Cheng AT, Child JC, Cohen A, Colson KE, Cowie BC, Darby S, Darling S, Davis A, Degenhardt L, Dentener F, Des Jarlais DC, Devries K, Dherani M, Ding EL, Dorsey ER, Driscoll T, Edmond K, Ali SE, Engell RE, Erwin PJ, Fahimi S, Falder G, Farzadfar F, Ferrari A, Finucane MM, Flaxman S, Fowkes FG, Freedman G, Freeman MK, Gakidou E, Ghosh S, Giovannucci E, Gmel G, Graham K, Grainger R, Grant B, Gunnell D, Gutierrez HR, Hall W, Hoek HW, Hogan A, Hosgood HD, Hoy D, Hu H, Hubbell BJ, Hutchings SJ, Ibeanusi SE, Jacklyn GL, Jasrasaria R, Jonas JB, Kan H, Kanis JA, Kassebaum N, Kawakami N, Khang YH, Khatibzadeh S, Khoo JP, Kok C, Laden F, Lalloo R, Lan Q, Lathlean T, Leasher JL, Leigh J, Li Y, Lin JK, Lipshultz SE, London S, Lozano R, Lu Y, Mak J, Malekzadeh R, Mallinger L, Marcenes W, March L, Marks R, Martin R, McGale P, McGrath J, Mehta S, Mensah GA, Merriman TR, Micha R, Michaud C, Mishra V, Mohd Hanafiah K, Mokdad AA, Morawska L, Mozaffarian D, Murphy T, Naghavi M, Neal B, Nelson PK, Nolla JM, Norman R, Olives C, Omer SB, Orchard J, Osborne R, Ostro B, Page A, Pandey KD, Parry CD, Passmore E, Patra J, Pearce N, Pelizzari PM, Petzold M, Phillips MR, Pope D, Pope CA, Powles J, Rao M, Razavi H, Rehfuess EA, Rehm JT, Ritz B, Rivara FP, Roberts T, Robinson C, Rodriguez-Portales JA, Romieu I, Room R, Rosenfeld LC, Roy A, Rushton L, Salomon JA, Sampson U, Sanchez-Riera L, Sanman E, Sapkota A, Seedat S, Shi P, Shield K, Shivakoti R, Singh GM, Sleet DA, Smith E, Smith KR, Stapelberg NJ, Steenland K, Stöckl H, Stovner LJ, Straif K, Straney L, Thurston GD, Tran JH, Van Dingenen R, van Donkelaar A, Veerman JL, Vijayakumar L, Weintraub R, Weissman MM, White RA, Whiteford H, Wiersma ST, Wilkinson JD, Williams HC, Williams W, Wilson N, Woolf AD, Yip P, Zielinski JM, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, Ezzati M, AlMazroa MA, Memish ZA | display-authors = 6 | title = A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9859 | pages = 2224–60 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23245609 | pmc = 4156511 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61766-8 }}</ref> A study by the European Environment Agency estimates that 307,000 people have died prematurely in 2019 due to fine particle pollution in the 27 EU member states.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-24 |title=Air pollution in Europe: These are the worst-hit cities to live in |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/12/24/air-pollution-new-report-shows-which-european-cities-have-the-worst-air-quality |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref>
-A study in 2000 conducted in the U.S. explored how fine particulate matter may be more harmful than coarse particulate matter. The study was based on six different cities. They found that deaths and hospital visits that were caused by particulate matter in the air were primarily due to fine particulate matter.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laden |first1=F |last2=Neas |first2=L M |last3=Dockery |first3=D W |last4=Schwartz |first4=J |title=Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities. |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=October 2000 |volume=108 |issue=10 |pages=941–947 |doi=10.1289/ehp.00108941 |pmid=11049813 |pmc=1240126 }}</ref> Similarly, a 1987 study of American air pollution data found that fine particles and sulfates, as opposed to coarser particles, most consistently and significantly correlated to total annual mortality rates in [[standard metropolitan statistical area]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ozkaynak |first1=Haluk |last2=Thurston |first2=George D. |title=Associations Between 1980 U.S. Mortality Rates and Alternative Measures of Airborne Particle Concentration |journal=Risk Analysis |date=December 1987 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=449–461 |doi=10.1111/j.1539-6924.1987.tb00482.x |pmid=3444932 }}</ref>
-A study published in 2022 in ''[[American Geophysical Union#Publications|GeoHealth]]'' concluded that eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $537–$678 billion in benefits from avoided PM2.5-related illness and death.<ref name=GeoHealth_20220516>{{cite journal |last1=Mailloux |first1=Nicholas A. |last2=Abel |first2=David W. |last3=Holloway |first3=Tracey |last4=Patz |first4=Jonathan A. |title=Nationwide and Regional PM2.5-Related Air Quality Health Benefits From the Removal of Energy-Related Emissions in the United States |journal=GeoHealth |volume=6 |issue=5 |date=16 May 2022 |pages=e2022GH000603 |doi=10.1029/2022GH000603 |pmid=35599962 |pmc=9109601 }}</ref>
-==== Infertility, pregnancy, fetuses and birth effects====
-Higher rates of infertility have been correlated with exposure to particulates.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Air pollution significantly raises risk of infertility, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/17/air-pollution-significantly-raises-risk-of-infertility-study-finds |work=The Guardian |date=17 February 2021 }}</ref>
-In addition, inhalation of PM{{sub|2.5}} – PM{{sub|10}} is associated with elevated risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as [[low birth weight]].<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Sapkota A, Chelikowsky AP, Nachman KE, Cohen AJ, Ritz B |date=2012-12-01|title=Exposure to particulate matter and adverse birth outcomes: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis|journal=Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health |volume=5|issue=4|pages=369–381|doi=10.1007/s11869-010-0106-3|s2cid=95781433 }}</ref> Maternal PM{{sub|2.5}} exposure during pregnancy is also associated with high blood pressure in children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang M, Mueller NT, Wang H, Hong X, Appel LJ, Wang X | title = Maternal Exposure to Ambient Particulate Matter ≤2.5 μm During Pregnancy and the Risk for High Blood Pressure in Childhood | journal = Hypertension | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 194–201 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29760154 | pmc = 6002908 | doi = 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.10944 }}</ref> Exposure to PM{{sub|2.5}} has been associated with greater reductions in birth weight than exposure to PM{{sub|10}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/isa/recordisplay.cfm?deid=216546|title=2009 Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter |work = US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment, Research Triangle Park Nc, Environmental Media Assessment Group | vauthors = Sacks J |access-date=2017-03-31}}</ref> PM exposure can cause inflammation, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and impaired oxygen transport access to the placenta,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erickson AC, Arbour L | title = The shared pathoetiological effects of particulate air pollution and the social environment on fetal-placental development | journal = Journal of Environmental and Public Health | volume = 2014 | pages = 901017 | date = 2014-11-26 | pmid = 25574176 | pmc = 4276595 | doi = 10.1155/2014/901017 | doi-access = free }}</ref> all of which are mechanisms for heightening the risk of low birth weight.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee PC, Talbott EO, Roberts JM, Catov JM, Bilonick RA, Stone RA, Sharma RK, Ritz B | display-authors = 6 | title = Ambient air pollution exposure and blood pressure changes during pregnancy | journal = Environmental Research | volume = 117 | pages = 46–53 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22835955 | pmc = 3656658 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2012.05.011 | bibcode = 2012ER....117...46L }}</ref> Overall epidemiologic and toxicological evidence suggests that a causal relationship exists between long-term exposures to PM{{sub|2.5}} and developmental outcomes (i.e. low birth weight).<ref name=":0" /> However, studies investigating the significance of trimester-specific exposure have proven to be inconclusive,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Darrow LA, Slama R, Bell ML, Choi H, Glinianaia S, Hoggatt KJ, Karr CJ, Lobdell DT, Wilhelm M | display-authors = 6 | title = Methodological issues in studies of air pollution and reproductive health | journal = Environmental Research | volume = 109 | issue = 3 | pages = 311–320 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19215915 | pmc = 6615486 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2008.12.012 | bibcode = 2009ER....109..311W }}</ref> and results of international studies have been inconsistent in drawing associations of prenatal particulate matter exposure and low birth weight.<ref name=":0" /> As perinatal outcomes have been associated with lifelong health<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Byrne CD, Phillips DI | title = Fetal origins of adult disease: epidemiology and mechanisms | journal = Journal of Clinical Pathology | volume = 53 | issue = 11 | pages = 822–8 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11127263 | pmc = 1731115 | doi = 10.1136/jcp.53.11.822 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barker DJ | title = The fetal and infant origins of adult disease | journal = BMJ | volume = 301 | issue = 6761 | pages = 1111 | date = November 1990 | pmid = 2252919 | pmc = 1664286 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.301.6761.1111 }}</ref> and exposure to particulate matter is widespread, this issue is of critical public health importance and additional research will be essential to inform public policy on the matter.
-==== Cardiovascular and respiratory disease ====
-A 2002 study indicated that PM{{sub|2.5}} leads to high plaque deposits in [[arteries]], causing [[vascular]] inflammation and [[atherosclerosis]] – a hardening of the arteries that reduces elasticity, which can lead to [[heart attacks]] and other [[cardiovascular]] problems.<ref name="pope">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pope CA, Burnett RT, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Ito K, Thurston GD | title = Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution | journal = JAMA | volume = 287 | issue = 9 | pages = 1132–41 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11879110 | pmc = 4037163 | doi = 10.1001/jama.287.9.1132 | author-link = C. Arden Pope }}</ref> A 2014 meta analysis reported that long term exposure to particulate matter is linked to coronary events. The study included 11 cohorts participating in the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE) with 100,166 participants, followed for an average of 11.5 years. An increase in estimated annual exposure to PM 2.5 of just 5 μg/m{{sup|3}} was linked with a 13% increased risk of heart attacks.<ref>[http://www.medical-reference.net/2014/01/new-study-linked-pm-with-heart-attack.html EU's PM2.5 Limit Festering: New Study Linked PM with Heart Attack] {{cite journal | vauthors = Cesaroni G, Forastiere F, Stafoggia M, Andersen ZJ, Badaloni C, Beelen R, Caracciolo B, de Faire U, Erbel R, Eriksen KT, Fratiglioni L, Galassi C, Hampel R, Heier M, Hennig F, Hilding A, Hoffmann B, Houthuijs D, Jöckel KH, Korek M, Lanki T, Leander K, Magnusson PK, Migliore E, Ostenson CG, Overvad K, Pedersen NL, J JP, Penell J, Pershagen G, Pyko A, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Ranzi A, Ricceri F, Sacerdote C, Salomaa V, Swart W, Turunen AW, Vineis P, Weinmayr G, Wolf K, de Hoogh K, Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Peters A | display-authors = 6 | title = Long term exposure to ambient air pollution and incidence of acute coronary events: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis in 11 European cohorts from the ESCAPE Project | journal = BMJ | volume = 348 | pages = f7412 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24452269 | pmc = 3898420 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.f7412 }}</ref> In 2017, a study revealed that PM not only affects human cells and tissues, but also impacts bacteria which cause disease in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hussey SJ, Purves J, Allcock N, Fernandes VE, Monks PS, Ketley JM, Andrew PW, Morrissey JA | display-authors = 6 | title = Air pollution alters Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilms, antibiotic tolerance and colonisation | journal = Environmental Microbiology | volume = 19 | issue = 5 | pages = 1868–1880 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28195384 | pmc = 6849702 | doi = 10.1111/1462-2920.13686 | url = https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/39549/5/Hussey_et_al-2017-Environmental_Microbiology.pdf }}</ref> This study concluded that [[biofilm]] formation, antibiotic tolerance, and colonisation of both ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' and ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' was altered by [[black carbon]] exposure.
-The largest US study on acute health effects of coarse particle pollution between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter was published 2008 and found an association with hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/national-study-examines-health-risks-of-coarse-particle-pollution|title=National Study Examines Health Risks of Coarse Particle Pollution|website=www.newswise.com}}</ref> After taking into account fine particle levels (PM{{sub|2.5}} and less), the association with coarse particles remained but was no longer statistically significant, which means the effect is due to the subsection of fine particles.
-The Mongolian government agency recorded a 45% increase in the rate of respiratory illness in the past five years (reported in 2011).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://eurasianet.org/mongolia-ulaanbaatar-air-pollution-linked-to-public-health-crisis | title=Mongolia: Ulaanbaatar Air Pollution Linked to Public Health Crisis}}</ref> Bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and interstitial pneumonia were the most common ailments treated by area hospitals. Levels of premature death, chronic bronchitis, and cardiovascular disease are increasing at a rapid rate.<ref name="Mongolia" />
-====Cognitive hazards and mental health====
-{{Further|Neuroplastic effects of pollution}}
-The effects of air pollution and particulate matter on cognitive performance has become an active area of research.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Matthews |first1=Dylan |title=How humans could live two years longer |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22691558/air-pollution-deaths-mortality-pm-25-soot-particulate |work=Vox |date=27 December 2021 }}</ref> A recent [[longitudinal study]] in China comparing air pollution and particulate exposure with verbal and mathematics test scores found that accumulative exposure impeded verbal scores significantly more than math scores. The negative impact in verbal reasoning as a result of particulate exposure was more pronounced as people aged and affected men more than women. Level of cognitive decline in verbal reasoning scores was more pronounced in the less educated (middle school diploma or lower).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang X, Chen X, Zhang X | title = The impact of exposure to air pollution on cognitive performance | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 37 | pages = 9193–9197 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30150383 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1809474115 | pmc = 6140474 | bibcode = 2018PNAS..115.9193Z | doi-access = free }}</ref> Short term PM exposure has been linked to short term cognitive decline in otherwise healthy adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shehab MA, Pope FD | title = Effects of short-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution on cognitive performance | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 8237 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 31160655 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-019-44561-0 | pmc = 6546704 | bibcode = 2019NatSR...9.8237S | url = }}</ref>
-Air pollution, particulate matter and wood smoke may also cause brain damage<ref>{{Cite journal|title=News Feature: How air pollution threatens brain health|first=Lynne|last=Peeples|date=June 23, 2020|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=117|issue=25|pages=13856–13860|doi=10.1073/pnas.2008940117|pmid=32493753|pmc=7322062|bibcode=2020PNAS..11713856P|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/06/air-pollution-particles-in-young-brains-linked-to-alzheimers-damage|title=Air pollution particles in young brains linked to Alzheimer's damage|date=October 6, 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.the-scientist.com/features/air-pollution-may-damage-peoples-brains-66473|title=Air Pollution May Damage People's Brains|website=The Scientist Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7news.com/2719037/|title=Stanford study shows wood smoke can harm the brain|date=December 2, 2017|website=ABC7 San Francisco}}</ref> and increase the risk of developmental disorders (e.g., [[autism]]),<ref name="Childhood autism spectrum disorders"/><ref name="Maternal exposure to air pollution"/><ref name="A Systematic Review and Meta-Analys"/><ref name="Air Pollution and Autism Spectrum D"/> neurodegenerative disorders,<ref name="Air Pollution and Alzheimer's Disea"/><ref name="Fine particulate matter is a potent"/> mental disorders,<ref name=suicide/><ref name=economic/><ref name = suicidedep/> and [[suicide]],<ref name = suicide/><ref name = suicidedep/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Symons |first=Angela |date=2022-12-15 |title=Suicide rates rise as air quality worsens, study finds |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/12/15/suicide-may-be-more-common-in-areas-worst-hit-by-air-pollution-new-study-reveals |access-date=2022-12-19 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> although studies on the link between depression and some air pollutants are not consistent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=Shu-Jun |last2=Heinrich |first2=Joachim |last3=Bloom |first3=Michael S. |last4=Zhao |first4=Tian-Yu |last5=Shi |first5=Tong-Xing |last6=Feng |first6=Wen-Ru |last7=Sun |first7=Yi |last8=Shen |first8=Ji-Chuan |last9=Yang |first9=Zhi-Cong |last10=Yang |first10=Bo-Yi |last11=Dong |first11=Guang-Hui |title=Ambient air pollution and depression: A systematic review with meta-analysis up to 2019 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=January 2020 |volume=701 |pages=134721 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134721 |pmid=31715478 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.701m4721F |s2cid=207944384 |url=https://push-zb.helmholtz-muenchen.de/frontdoor.php?source_opus=57348 }}</ref> At least one study has identified "the abundant presence in the human brain of [[magnetite]] nanoparticles that match precisely the high-temperature magnetite nanospheres, formed by combustion and/or friction-derived heating, which are prolific in urban, airborne particulate matter (PM)."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maher |first1=Barbara A. |last2=Ahmed |first2=Imad A. M. |last3=Karloukovski |first3=Vassil |last4=MacLaren |first4=Donald A. |last5=Foulds |first5=Penelope G. |last6=Allsop |first6=David |last7=Mann |first7=David M. A. |last8=Torres-Jardón |first8=Ricardo |last9=Calderon-Garciduenas |first9=Lilian |title=Magnetite pollution nanoparticles in the human brain |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=27 September 2016 |volume=113 |issue=39 |pages=10797–10801 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1605941113 |pmid=27601646 |pmc=5047173 |bibcode=2016PNAS..11310797M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Particulates also appear to have a role in the [[pathogenesis]] of [[Alzheimer's disease]] and premature [[Aging brain|brain aging.]] There is increasing evidence to suggest a correlation between PM2.5 exposure and the prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's.
-Several epidemiological studies have suggested a link between PM2.5 exposure and cognitive decline, particularly in the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's. While the exact mechanisms behind the link between PM2.5 exposure and cognitive decline are not fully understood, research suggests that the fine particles may be able to enter the brain through the olfactory nerve and cause inflammation and oxidative stress, which can damage brain cells and contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0197018620301200|title=Olfactory cell cultures to investigate health effects of air pollution exposure: Implications for neurodegeneration}}</ref>
-==== Increased death ====
-The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimated in 2005 that "... fine particulate air pollution (PM(2.5)), causes about 3% of mortality from cardiopulmonary disease, about 5% of mortality from cancer of the trachea, bronchus, and lung, and about 1% of mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years, worldwide."<ref name=who>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen AJ, Ross Anderson H, Ostro B, Pandey KD, Krzyzanowski M, Künzli N, Gutschmidt K, Pope A, Romieu I, Samet JM, Smith K | display-authors = 6 | title = The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A | volume = 68 | issue = 13–14 | pages = 1301–7 | date = 2005 | pmid = 16024504 | doi = 10.1080/15287390590936166 | s2cid = 23814778 }}</ref> A 2011 study concluded that traffic exhaust is the single most serious preventable cause of [[heart attack]] in the general public, the cause of 7.4% of all attacks.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nawrot TS, Perez L, Künzli N, Munters E, Nemery B | title = Public health importance of triggers of myocardial infarction: a comparative risk assessment | journal = Lancet | volume = 377 | issue = 9767 | pages = 732–40 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21353301 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62296-9 | s2cid = 20168936 }} "Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for traffic exposure (7.4%)... ":"... [O]dds ratios and frequencies of each trigger were used to compute population-attributable fractions (PAFs), which estimate the proportion of cases that could be avoided if a risk factor were removed. PAFs depend not only on the risk factor strength at the individual level but also on its frequency in the community. ... [T]he exposure prevalence for triggers in the relevant control time window ranged from 0.04% for cocaine use to 100% for air pollution. ... Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for traffic exposure (7.4%) ...</ref>
-Particulate matter studies in Bangkok, Thailand from 2008 indicated a 1.9% increased risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, and 1.0% risk of all disease for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter. Levels averaged 65 in 1996, 68 in 2002, and 52 in 2004. Decreasing levels may be attributed to conversions of diesel to natural gas combustion as well as improved regulations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ww16.baq2008.org/system/files/sw16_Vajanapoom+presentation.pdf?sub1=20230317-0255-325a-9d16-7e9736a0471e|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217174016/http://www.baq2008.org/system/files/sw16_Vajanapoom+presentation.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Resources and Information.|archivedate=17 December 2008|website=ww16.baq2008.org}}</ref>
-==== Racial disparities ====
-There have been many studies [[Environmental racism|linking race to increased proximity]] to particulate matter, and thus susceptibility to adverse health effects that go in tandem with long term exposure. In a study analyzing the effects of air pollution on racially segregated neighborhoods in the United States, results show that "the proportions of Black residents in a tract was linked to higher asthma rates".<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Smiley |first1=Kevin T. |title=Racial and Environmental Inequalities in Spatial Patterns in Asthma Prevalence in the US South |journal=Southeastern Geographer |date=2019 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=389–402 |doi=10.1353/sgo.2019.0031 |id={{Project MUSE|736789}} |s2cid=210244838 }}</ref> Many scholars link this disproportionality to [[Housing segregation in the United States|racial housing segregation]] and their respective inequalities in "toxic exposures".<ref name=":1" /> This reality is made worse by the finding that "health care occurs in the context of broader historic and contemporary social and economic inequality and persistent racial and ethnic discrimination in many sectors of American life".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Erratum: Eur. Phys. J. C.22, 695–705 (2002) – DOI 10.1007/s100520100827 Published online: 7 December 2001 |journal=The European Physical Journal C |date=August 2002 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=665–666 |doi=10.1007/s10052-002-0987-x |bibcode=2002EPJC...24..665. |s2cid=195313204 }}</ref> Residential proximity to particulate emitting facilities increases exposure to PM 2.5 which is linked to increased morbidity and mortality rates.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Mikati |first1=Ihab |last2=Benson |first2=Adam F. |last3=Luben |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Sacks |first4=Jason D. |last5=Richmond-Bryant |first5=Jennifer |title=Disparities in Distribution of Particulate Matter Emission Sources by Race and Poverty Status |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=1 April 2018 |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=480–485 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2017.304297 |pmid=29470121 |pmc=5844406 }}</ref> Multiple studies confirm the burden of PM emissions is higher among non-White and poverty ridden populations,<ref name=":2" /> though some say that income does not drive these differences.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Urban Air Pollution and Health Inequities: A Workshop Report |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=1 June 2001 |volume=109 |issue=s3 |pages=357–374 |doi=10.1289/ehp.01109s3357 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7m9766bx }}</ref> This correlation between race and housing related health repercussions stems from a longstanding [[environmental justice]] problem linked to the practice of historic redlining. An example of these factors contextualized is an area of Southeastern Louisiana, colloquially dubbed '[[Cancer Alley]]' for its high concentration of cancer related deaths due to neighboring chemical plants.<ref name=":3">{{cite news |last1=Jervis |first1=Rick |last2=Gomez |first2=Alan |title=Racism turned their neighborhood into 'Cancer Alley.' Now they're dying from COVID-19 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/nation/2020/10/12/covid-racism-kills-black-americans-living-near-toxic-plants/3498180001/ |work=USA Today |date=12 October 2020 }}</ref> Cancer Alley being a majority African American community, with the neighborhood nearest to the plant being 90% Black,<ref name=":3" /> perpetuates the scientific narrative that Black populations are located disproportionately closer to areas of high PM output than White populations. A 2020 article relates the long term health effects of living in high PM concentrations to increased risk, spread, and mortality rates from the SARS-CoV-2 or [[COVID-19]], and faults a history of racism for this outcome.<ref name=":3" />
-====Wildfire smoke risk====
-There is an increased risk of particulate exposure in regions where [[wildfire]]s are persistent. Smoke from wildfires may impact sensitive groups such as the elderly, children, pregnant women, and people with lung, and cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OAR|date=2018-11-12|title=How Smoke from Fires Can Affect Your Health|url=https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/how-smoke-fires-can-affect-your-health|access-date=2020-11-26|website=US EPA }}</ref> A study found that in the 2008 wildfire season in California, the particulate matter was much more toxic to human lungs, as increased neutrophil infiltrate, cell influx and edema was observed versus particulate matter from ambient air.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wegesser TC, Pinkerton KE, Last JA | title = California wildfires of 2008: coarse and fine particulate matter toxicity | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 6 | pages = 893–7 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19590679 | pmc = 2702402 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0800166 }}</ref> Furthermore, particulate matter from wildfires have been linked to be a triggering factor of acute coronary events such as ischemic heart disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haikerwal A, Akram M, Del Monaco A, Smith K, Sim MR, Meyer M, Tonkin AM, Abramson MJ, Dennekamp M | display-authors = 6 | title = Impact of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Exposure During Wildfires on Cardiovascular Health Outcomes | journal = Journal of the American Heart Association | volume = 4 | issue = 7 | pages = e001653 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26178402 | pmc = 4608063 | doi = 10.1161/JAHA.114.001653 }}</ref> Wildfires also have been associated with increased emergency department visits due to particulate matter exposure, as well as an increased risk of asthma related events.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reid CE, Considine EM, Watson GL, Telesca D, Pfister GG, Jerrett M | title = Associations between respiratory health and ozone and fine particulate matter during a wildfire event | journal = Environment International | volume = 129 | pages = 291–298 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31146163 | doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.033 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haikerwal A, Akram M, Sim MR, Meyer M, Abramson MJ, Dennekamp M | title = Fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ) exposure during a prolonged wildfire period and emergency department visits for asthma | journal = Respirology | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 88–94 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26346113 | doi = 10.1111/resp.12613 | s2cid = 22910313 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Furthermore, a link between PM2.5 from wildfires and increased risk of hospitalizations for cardiopulmonary diseases has been discovered.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = DeFlorio-Barker S, Crooks J, Reyes J, Rappold AG | title = Cardiopulmonary Effects of Fine Particulate Matter Exposure among Older Adults, during Wildfire and Non-Wildfire Periods, in the United States 2008-2010 | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 127 | issue = 3 | pages = 37006 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30875246 | pmc = 6768318 | doi = 10.1289/EHP3860 }}</ref> Various lines of evidence also suggest wildfire smoke reduces mental performance.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2023/06/27/what-is-smoke-brain-how-air-pollution-can-harm-our-cognition-and-mental-health.html |newspaper=Toronto Star |date=June 27, 2023 |first=Kevin |last=Jiang |title=What is 'smoke brain'? How air pollution can harm our cognition and mental health}}</ref>
-===Energy industry knowledge and response to adverse health effects===
-[[Big oil|Major energy companies]] understood at least since the 1960s that use of their products causes widespread adverse health effects and death but continued aggressive political [[lobbying in the United States]] and elsewhere against clean air regulation and launched major [[corporate propaganda]] campaigns to sow doubt regarding the causative link between the burning of fossil fuels and major risks to human life. Internal company memoranda reveal that energy industry scientists and executives knew that air pollutants created by fossil fuels [[lung disease and air pollution|lodge deep in human lung tissue]], and cause [[birth defects]] in children of oil industry workers. The industry memos acknowledge that automobiles "are by far the greatest sources of air pollution" and also that air pollution causes adverse health effects and lodges toxins, including [[carcinogen]]s, "deep into the lungs which would otherwise be removed in the throat".<ref name="theguardian.com">''The Guardian'', 18 March 2021 [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/18/oil-industry-fossil-fuels-air-pollution-documents?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other "Oil Firms Knew Decades Ago Fossil Fuels Posed Grave Health Risks, Riles Reveal; Exclusive: Documents Seen by Guardian Show Companies Fought Clean-Air Rules Despite Being Aware of Harm Caused by Air Pollution"]</ref>
-In response to mounting public concern, the industry eventually created the [[Global Climate Coalition]], an industry lobby group, to derail governments' attempts to regulate air pollution and to [[agnotology|create confusion]] in the public mind about the necessity of such regulation. Similar lobbying and corporate public relations efforts were undertaken by the [[American Petroleum Institute]], a [[trade association]] of the oil and gas industry, and the [[climate change denier]] private think tank, [[The Heartland Institute]]. "The response from fossil-fuel interests has been from the same playbook – first they know, then they scheme, then they deny and then they delay. They've fallen back on delay, subtle forms of propaganda and the undermining of regulation," said Geoffrey Supran, a Harvard University researcher of the history of fossil-fuel companies and climate change. These efforts have been compared, by policy analysts such as Carroll Muffett of the [[Center for International Environmental Law]], to the [[tobacco industry]] strategy of [[tobacco politics|lobbying and corporate propaganda campaigns]] to create doubt regarding the causal connection between cigarette smoking and cancer and to forestall its regulation. In addition, industry-funded advocates, when [[revolving door (politics)|appointed to senior government positions]] in the United States, have [[politicization of science|revised scientific findings]] showing the deadly effects of air pollution and have [[rollback (legislation)|rolled back]] its regulation.<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref>The Guardian [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2020/oct/20/trump-us-dirtier-planet-warmer-75-ways "75 Ways Trump Made America Dirtier and the Planet Warmer: In the Past Four Years, Trump has Shredded Environmental Protections for American Lands, Animals and People"]</ref><ref>Union of Concerned Scientists, 27 April 2020 [https://blog.ucsusa.org/elliott-negin/oil-industry-ghostwrites-trumps-deadly-anti-environmental-policies "Oil Industry Ghostwrites Trump's Deadly Anti-Environmental Policies"]</ref>
-==Effects on vegetation==
-Particulate matter can clog stomatal openings of plants and interfere with photosynthesis functions.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Hogan CM | year=2010| url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461| title=Abiotic factor| website=Encyclopedia of Earth| editor=Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland| publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment}}</ref> In this manner, high particulate matter concentrations in the atmosphere can lead to growth stunting or mortality in some plant species.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
-==Regulation==
-Most governments have created regulations both for the emissions allowed from certain types of pollution sources (motor vehicles, industrial emissions etc.) and for the ambient concentration of particulates. The [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]] and [[WHO]] designate particulates a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1 carcinogen]]. Particulates are the deadliest form of [[air pollution]] due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood streams unfiltered, causing [[respiratory disease]]s, [[heart attacks]], and [[premature death]].<ref name="EPA"/> In 2013, the ESCAPE study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg/m{{sup|3}} in PM{{sub|10}}, the lung cancer rate rose 22%. For PM{{sub|2.5}} there was a 36% increase in lung cancer per 10 μg/m{{sup|3}}.<ref name=Lancet71013/> In a 2014 meta-analysis of 18 studies globally including the ESCAPE data, for every increase of 10 μg/m{{sup|3}} in PM{{sub|2.5}}, the lung cancer rate rose 9%.<ref name=ehp>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamra GB, Guha N, Cohen A, Laden F, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Samet JM, Vineis P, Forastiere F, Saldiva P, Yorifuji T, Loomis D | display-authors = 6 | title = Outdoor particulate matter exposure and lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 122 | issue = 9 | pages = 906–11 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 24911630 | pmc = 4154221 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1408092 }}</ref>
-===Limits / standards set by governments===
-{| class="wikitable sortable"
-! rowspan="2" | Country/ Region
-!! colspan="2" | PM{{Sub|2.5}} ({{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}})
-!! colspan="2" | PM{{Sub|10}} ({{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}})
-!! rowspan="2" | No. of exceedances allowed per year
-|-
-! Yearly avg.
-! Daily avg. (24-hour)
-! Yearly avg.
-! Daily avg (24-hour)
-|-
-| '''Australia''' <ref>{{cite web|author=Department of the Environment |url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016C00215 |title=National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure |publisher=Federal Register of Legislation |date=25 February 2016 |access-date=16 November 2018}}</ref> ||style="text-align:right"| 8 ||style="text-align:right"| 25 ||style="text-align:right"| 25 ||style="text-align:right"| 50 || {{N/a|None}}
-|-
-| '''China''' <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/dqhjbh/dqhjzlbz/201203/W020120410330232398521.pdf |title=Ambient air quality standards |access-date=30 April 2013 |archive-date=30 April 2013 |archive-url=
-https://web.archive.org/web/20130430003715/http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/dqhjbh/dqhjzlbz/201203/W020120410330232398521.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ||style="text-align:right"| 35 ||style="text-align:right"| 75 ||style="text-align:right"| 70 ||style="text-align:right"| 150 || {{N/a|None}}
-|-
-| '''European Union''' <ref name="eustandards">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/standards.htm |title=Air Quality Standards – Environment – European Commission |publisher=Ec.europa.eu |access-date=1 February 2015}}</ref>{{efn|PM10 limit since 1 January 2005}}{{efn|PM2.5 limit since 1 January 2015}} ||style="text-align:right"| 25 || {{N/a|None}} ||style="text-align:right"| 40 ||style="text-align:right"| 50 || PM{{Sub|2.5}}: None; PM{{Sub|10}}: 35
-|-
-| '''Hong Kong''' <ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/air_quality_objectives/air_quality_objectives.html| title=Air Quality Objectives| publisher=Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong| date= 19 December 2012| access-date=27 July 2013}}</ref>{{efn|Since 1 January 2014}} ||style="text-align:right"| 35 ||style="text-align:right"| 75 ||style="text-align:right"| 50 ||style="text-align:right"| 100 || PM{{Sub|2.5}}: 9; PM{{Sub|10}}: 9
-|-
-| '''Japan''' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/air/air_pollution/PM2.5/index.html |title=微小粒子状物質（PM{{Sub|2.5}}）対策｜東京都環境局 大気・騒音・振動・悪臭対策 |publisher=Kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp |access-date=1 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228230336/http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/air/air_pollution/PM2.5/index.html |archive-date=28 February 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Air Quality Standards | url = http://www2.dmu.dk/AtmosphericEnvironment/Expost/database/docs/AQ_limit_values.pdf}}</ref><ref>PM10 referred to as Suspended Particulate Matter</ref>{{efn|PM{{Sub|2.5}} limit since 21 September 2009}} ||style="text-align:right"| 15 ||style="text-align:right"| 35 || {{N/a|None}} ||style="text-align:right"| 100 || {{N/a|None}}
-|-
-| '''South Korea''' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airkorea.or.kr/ |title=Home |website=airkorea.or.kr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://news.kbs.co.kr/news/view.do?ncd=3621522&ref=A |title = 미세먼지 환경기준 선진국 수준 강화...'나쁨' 4배 늘 듯}}</ref>{{efn|PM10 limit since 4 December 2006}}{{efn|PM{{Sub|2.5}} limit since 27 March 2018}} ||style="text-align:right"| 15 ||style="text-align:right"| 35 ||style="text-align:right"| 50 ||style="text-align:right"| 100 || {{N/a|None}}
-|-
-| '''Taiwan''' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://air.epa.gov.tw/Public/suspended_particles.aspx|title=細懸浮微粒管制|publisher=Environmental Protection Administration, ROC |access-date=16 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2014/02/05/2003582795|title=FEATURE: Air pollution reason for concern: groups - Taipei Times|date=5 February 2014|website=www.taipeitimes.com}}</ref> ||style="text-align:right"| 15 ||style="text-align:right"| 35 ||style="text-align:right"| 50 ||style="text-align:right"| 100 || {{N/a|None}}
-|-
-| '''United States''' <ref name="usstandards">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/pm/s_pm_history.html |title=Pm Naaqs {{pipe}} Us Epa |publisher=Epa.gov |access-date=1 February 2015}}</ref> ||style="text-align:right"| 12{{efn|annual limit since 2012}} ||style="text-align:right"| 35{{efn|daily limit since 2007}} || {{N/a|None{{efn|annual limit removed in 2006}}}} ||style="text-align:right"| 150{{efn|daily limit since 1987<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/aqtrnd95/pm10.html |title=Environmental Protection Agency – Particulate Matter (PM-10) |publisher=Epa.gov |date=28 June 2006 |access-date=1 February 2015}}</ref>}} || PM{{Sub|2.5}}: Not applicable{{efn|3-year average of annual 98th percentile}}; PM{{Sub|10}}: 1
-|}
-===Canada===
-In [[Canada]] the standard for particulate matter is set nationally by the federal-provincial [[Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment]] (CCME). Jurisdictions (provinces and territories) may set more stringent standards. The CCME standard for particulate matter 2.5 (PM{{sub|2.5}}) as of 2015 is 28 μg/m{{sup|3}} (calculated using the 3-year average of the annual 98th percentile of the daily 24-hr average concentrations) and 10 μg/m<sup>3</sup> (3-year average of annual mean). PM{{sub|2.5}} standards will increase in stringency in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccme.ca/files/current_priorities/aqms_elements/caaqs_and_azmf.pdf|title=Canadian Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS) for Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) and Ozone|access-date=11 December 2016|archive-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220231843/http://www.ccme.ca/files/current_priorities/aqms_elements/caaqs_and_azmf.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-===European Union===
-The [[European Union]] has established the [[European emission standards]], which include limits for particulates in the air:<ref name=eustandards/>
-{{Clear}}
-{| class="wikitable"
-|-
-! [https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air/air-quality-index European Air Quality Index] !! Good !! Fair !! Moderate !! Poor !! Very poor !! Extremely poor
-|-
-| Particles less than 2.5μm (PM{{sub|2,5}}) || 0–10 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 10–20 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 20–25 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 25–50 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 50–75 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 75–800 μg/m{{sup|3}}
-|-
-| Particles less than 10μm (PM{{sub|10}}) || 0–20 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 20–40 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 40–50 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 50–100 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 100–150 μg/m{{sup|3}} || 150–1200 μg/m{{sup|3}}
-|}
-===United Kingdom===
-To mitigate the problem of wood burning, starting from May 2021, traditional house coal (bituminous coal) and wet wood, two of the most polluting fuels, can no longer be sold. Wood sold in volumes of less than 2m<sup>3</sup> must be certified as 'Ready to Burn', which means it has a moisture content of 20% or less. Manufactured solid fuels must also be certified as 'Ready to Burn' to ensure they meet sulphur and smoke emission limits.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/burnbetter/ |title=Burn better: Making changes for cleaner air}}</ref> Starting from January 2022, all new wood burning stoves have to meet new EcoDesign standards (Ecodesign stoves produce 450 times more toxic air pollution than gas central heating. Older stoves, which are now banned from sale, produce 3,700 times more).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.london.gov.uk/programmes-and-strategies/environment-and-climate-change/pollution-and-air-quality/guidance-wood-burning-london | title=Guidance for wood burning in London}}</ref>
-In 2023, the amount of smoke that burners in "smoke control areas" - most England's towns and cities - can emit per hour is reduced from 5g to 3g. Violation will result in an on-the-spot fine of up to £300. Those who do not comply may even get a criminal record.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/log-burners-rules-wood-stoves-b2276589.html?amp | title=Log burners: What are the new rules and are they going to be banned?| website=[[Independent.co.uk]]| date=6 February 2023}}</ref>
-===United States===
-[[File:ParticulateTrendUS.png|thumb|upright=1.55|Air quality trends in the United States]]
-The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has set standards for PM{{sub|10}} and PM{{sub|2.5}} concentrations.<ref name=usstandards/> (See [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards]].)
-{{clear}}
-====California====
-{{Update|section|date=September 2016|22 January 2009}}
-[[File:ParticulateTrendWestUS.png|thumb|upright=1.55|Air quality trends in the western United States]]
-In October 2008, the Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), within the [[California Environmental Protection Agency]], announced its intent to request information regarding analytical test methods, fate and transport in the environment, and other relevant information from manufacturers of [[Carbon nanotube#Safety and health|carbon nanotube]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nanotechnology web page |publisher=Department of Toxic Substances Control |url=http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/index.cfm |year=2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101100532/http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/index.cfm |archive-date=1 January 2010 }}</ref> DTSC is exercising its authority under the California Health and Safety Code, Chapter 699, sections 57018-57020.<ref name="chemical_call_in">{{cite web|title=Chemical Information Call-In web page |publisher=Department of Toxic Substances Control |url=http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/PollutionPrevention/Chemical_Call_In.cfm |year=2008 |access-date=28 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318011017/http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/PollutionPrevention/Chemical_Call_In.cfm |archive-date=18 March 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These sections were added as a result of the adoption of Assembly Bill AB 289 (2006).<ref name="chemical_call_in" /> They are intended to make information on the fate and transport, detection and analysis, and other information on chemicals more available. The law places the responsibility to provide this information to the Department on those who manufacture or import the chemicals.
-On 22 January 2009, a formal information request letter<ref>{{citation | title = Call in letter | date = 22 January 2009 | vauthors = Wong J | url = http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/upload/Formal_AB289_Call_In_Letter_CNTs.pdf | access-date = 28 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170127145621/http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/upload/Formal_AB289_Call_In_Letter_CNTs.pdf | archive-date = 27 January 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> was sent to manufacturers who produce or import carbon nanotubes in California, or who may export carbon nanotubes into the State.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/upload/AB289_CNT_Contact_List.pdf|title = Contact List for CNT January 22 & 26 2009 Document|access-date = 28 December 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170131163500/http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/upload/AB289_CNT_Contact_List.pdf|archive-date = 31 January 2017|url-status = dead}}</ref> This letter constitutes the first formal implementation of the authorities placed into statute by AB 289 and is directed to manufacturers of carbon nanotubes, both industry, and academia within the State, and to manufacturers outside California who export carbon nanotubes to California. This request for information must be met by the manufacturers within one year. DTSC is waiting for the upcoming 22 January 2010 deadline for responses to the data call-in.
-The California Nano Industry Network and DTSC hosted a full-day symposium on 16 November 2009 in Sacramento, California. This symposium provided an opportunity to hear from nanotechnology industry experts and discuss future regulatory considerations in California.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archived DTSC Nanotechnology Symposia |publisher=Department of Toxic Substances Control |url=http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/ArchivedSymposium.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101164727/http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/ArchivedSymposium.cfm |archive-date=1 January 2010 }}</ref>
-DTSC is expanding the Specific Chemical Information Call-in to members of the nanometal oxides, the latest information can be found on their website.<ref>[http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/index.cfm dtsc.ca.gov] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101100532/http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/index.cfm |date=1 January 2010 }}</ref>
-====Colorado====
-[[File:ParticulateTrendSouthwestUS.png|thumb|upright=1.55|Air quality trends in the southwestern United States]]
-Key points in the Colorado Plan include reducing emission levels and solutions by sector. Agriculture, transportation, green electricity, and renewable energy research are the main concepts and goals in this plan. Political programs such as mandatory vehicle emissions testing and the prohibition of smoking indoors are actions taken by local government to create public awareness and participation in cleaner air. The location of Denver next to the Rocky Mountains and wide expanse of plains makes the metro area of Colorado's capital city a likely place for smog and visible air pollution.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
-{{clear}}
-== Affected areas ==
-[[File:Difference between levels of PM2.5 in the air in 2019 and 2022 among 70 capital cities.png|thumb|upright=1.65|Difference between levels of PM2.5 in the air in 2019 and 2022 among 70 capital cities<ref name=housefresh>{{cite web | url=https://housefresh.com/the-cities-where-air-pollution-has-increased-and-decreased-the-most-since-2019/ | title=The Cities Where Air Pollution Has Increased and Decreased the Most since 2019| date=20 February 2023}}</ref>]]
-To see the air pollution trend, 480 cities around the world (Ukraine excluded) was mapped by the air experts at HouseFresh<ref name=housefresh /> to calculate the average PM2.5 level of the first nine months of 2019 against that of 2022, as reported by the Forbes magazines.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/duncanmadden/2023/03/17/mapped-new-survey-shows-air-pollution-changes-in-cities-around-the-world/ | title=Mapped: New Survey Shows Air Pollution Changes In Cities Around The World| website=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> Average levels of PM2.5 were measured using aqicn.org's World Air Quality Index data, and a formula developed by AirNow was used to convert the PM2.5 figure into micrograms per cubic meter of air ({{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}) values.
-Among the 70 capital cities investigated, [[Baghdad]], Iraq is the worst performing one, with PM2.5 levels going up +31.6&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}. [[Ulan Bator]] (Ulaanbaatar), the capital city of Mongolia, is performing the best, with PM2.5 levels dropping by -23.4&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}. Previously it was as one of the most polluted capital cities in the world. An air quality improvement plan in 2017 appears to be showing positive results.
-Out of the 480 cities, [[Dammam]] in Saudi Arabia is performing the worst with PM2.5 levels going up +111.1&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}. The city is a significant center for the Saudi oil industry and home to both the largest airport in the world and the largest port in the Persian Gulf. It is currently the most polluted city surveyed.
-In Europe, the worst performing cities are located in Spain. They are [[Salamanca]] and [[Palma de Mallorca|Palma]], with PM2.5 levels increase by +5.1&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}} and +3.7&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}} respectively. The best performing city is [[Skopje]], the capital city of North Macedonia, with PM2.5 levels dropping by -12.4&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}. It was once the most polluted capital city in Europe and still has a long way to go to achieve clean air.
-In the U.S., [[Salt Lake City]], Utah and [[Miami]], Florida are the two cities with the highest PM2.5 level increases (+1.8&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}). Salt Lake City suffers from a weather event known as 'inversion'. Located in a valley, cooler, polluted air is trapped close to ground level under the warmer air above when inversion occurs. On the other hand, [[Omaha]], Nebraska is performing the best and has a decrease of -1.1&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}} in PM2.5 levels.
-The cleanest city in this report is [[Zürich]], Switzerland with PM2.5 levels of just '''0.5&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}''', placed first in both 2019 and 2022. The second cleanest city is [[Perth]], with 1.7&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}} and PM2.5 levels dropping by -6.2&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}} since 2019. Of the top ten cleanest cities, five are from [[Australia]]. They are Hobart, Wollongong, Launceston, Sydney and Perth. [[Honolulu]] is the only U.S. city in the top ten list, ranking tenth with levels of 4&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}, with a tiny increase since 2019.
-Almost all of the top ten most polluted cities are in the Middle East and Asia. The worst is Dammam in Saudi Arabia with a PM2.5 level of '''155&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}'''. [[Lahore]] in Pakistan is the second worst with 98.1&nbsp;{{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}}. The third is [[Dubai]], home to the world's tallest building. In the bottom ten are three cities from [[India]], Muzaffarnagar, Delhi and New Delhi. Here is a list of the '''30 most polluted cities by PM2.5''', Jan to Sep 2022:<ref name=housefresh />
-{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
-! rowspan="2" | City !! rowspan="2" | Country / Region !! colspan="2" | 1st 9 months average PM2.5 ({{Sfrac|μg|m{{Sup|3}}}})
-|-
-! 2022
-! 2019
-|-
-| [[Dammam]] || {{Flag| Saudi Arabia}} || 155 || 43.9
-|-
-| [[Lahore]] || {{Flag| Pakistan}} || 98.1 || 64.6
-|-
-| [[Dubai]] || {{Flag| United Arab Emirates}} || 97.7 || 47.5
-|-
-| [[Baghdad]] || {{Flag| Iraq}} || 60.5 || 29
-|-
-| [[Dhaka]] || {{Flag| Bangladesh}} || 55.3 || 48.7
-|-
-| [[Muzaffarnagar]] || {{Flag| India}} || 53.9 || 60.5
-|-
-| [[Delhi]] || {{Flag| India}} || 51.6 || 59.8
-|-
-| [[Oaxaca]] || {{Flag| Mexico}} || 51.1 || 13.5
-|-
-| [[New Delhi]] || {{Flag| India}} || 50.1 || 54.2
-|-
-| [[Manama]] || {{Flag| Bahrain}} || 48 || 43.4
-|-
-| [[Patna]] || {{Flag| India}} || 47.9 || 53.5
-|-
-| [[Peshawar]] || {{Flag| Pakistan}} || 47 || 46.7
-|-
-| [[Ghāziābād]] || {{Flag| India}} || 46.6 || 56.9
-|-
-| [[Lucknow]] || {{Flag| India}} || 46.4 || 54.1
-|-
-| [[Hawalli, Kuwait|Hawalli]] || {{Flag| Kuwait}} || 46.2 || 40.4
-|-
-| [[Hapur]] || {{Flag| India}} || 45.7 || 53.3
-|-
-| [[Chandigarh]] || {{Flag| India}} || 44.9 || 39.7
-|-
-| [[Jaipur]] || {{Flag| India}} || 43.5 || 40.6
-|-
-| [[Kampala]] || {{Flag| Uganda}} || 42.9 || 48.3
-|-
-| [[Khorramshahr]] || {{Flag| Iran}} || 42 || 30
-|-
-| [[Pokhara]] || {{Flag| Nepal}} || 41.8 || 18.2
-|-
-| [[Abu Dhabi]] || {{Flag| United Arab Emirates}} || 40.2 || 44.7
-|-
-| [[Xi'an]] || {{Flag| China}} || 36.6 || 40
-|-
-| [[Xuchang]] || {{Flag| China}} || 36.4 || 41.4
-|-
-| [[Xinxiang]] || {{Flag| China}} || 36.3 || 46.4
-|-
-| [[Anyang]] || {{Flag| China}} || 36.1 || 45.9
-|-
-| [[Shijiazhuang]] || {{Flag| China}} || 36 || 44.9
-|-
-| [[Taiyuan]] || {{Flag| China}} || 35.9 || 39.2
-|-
-| [[East London]] || {{Flag| South Africa}} || 35.9 || 7.1
-|-
-| [[Gandhinagar]] {{ns|16}} || {{Flag| India}} {{ns|26}} || 35.5 || 42.9
-|-
-|}
-There are limits to the above survey. For example, not every city in the world is covered, and that the number of monitoring stations for each city would not be the same. So the data is for reference only.
-===Australia===
-PM10 pollution in [[coal mining]] areas in Australia such as the [[Latrobe Valley]] in Victoria and the [[Hunter Region]] in New South Wales significantly increased during 2004 to 2014. Although the increase did not significantly add to non-attainment statistics the rate of increase has risen each year during 2010 to 2014.<ref name=Guardian4115>{{cite news|author1=Oliver Milman|title=Call for action on pollution as emissions linked to respiratory illnesses double|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/apr/02/call-for-action-on-pollution-as-emissions-linked-to-respiratory-illnesses-double|access-date=3 April 2015|work=The Guardian|date=1 April 2015|quote=emissions of a key pollutant linked to respiratory illness have doubled over the past five years}}</ref>
-===China===
-{{See also|Pollution_in_China#Particulates}}
-Some cities in Northern China and South Asia have had concentrations above 200 μg/m{{sup|3}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Jie |last2=Du |first2=Huiyun |last3=Wang |first3=Zifa |last4=Sun |first4=Yele |last5=Yang |first5=Wenyi |last6=Li |first6=Jianjun |last7=Tang |first7=Xiao |last8=Fu |first8=Pingqing |date=2017-04-01 |title=Rapid formation of a severe regional winter haze episode over a mega-city cluster on the North China Plain |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749117302993 |journal=Environmental Pollution |language=en |volume=223 |pages=605–615 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.063 |pmid=28159396 |issn=0269-7491}}</ref> The PM levels in Chinese cities were extreme between 2010 - 2014, reaching an all-time high in Beijing on 12 January 2013, of 993 μg/m{{sup|3}},<ref name="Mongolia" /> but has been improving thanks to clean air actions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhong |first1=Junting |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiaoye |last3=Gui |first3=Ke |last4=Liao |first4=Jie |last5=Fei |first5=Ye |last6=Jiang |first6=Lipeng |last7=Guo |first7=Lifeng |last8=Liu |first8=Liangke |last9=Che |first9=Huizheng |last10=Wang |first10=Yaqiang |last11=Wang |first11=Deying |last12=Zhou |first12=Zijiang |date=2022-07-12 |title=Reconstructing 6-hourly PM2.5 datasets from 1960 to 2020 in China |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/14/3197/2022/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=English |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=3197–3211 |doi=10.5194/essd-14-3197-2022 |bibcode=2022ESSD...14.3197Z |s2cid=250512127 |issn=1866-3508 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China: annual PM2.5 levels Beijing 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/690823/china-annual-pm25-particle-levels-beijing/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref>
-To monitor the air quality of south China, the U.S. Consulate [[Guangzhou]] set a PM<sub>2.5</sub> and PM<sub>10</sub> monitor on [[Shamian Island]] in Guangzhou and displays readings on its official website and social platforms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://guangzhou.usembassy-china.org.cn/guangzhou-air-quality-monitor.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701120727/http://guangzhou.usembassy-china.org.cn/guangzhou-air-quality-monitor.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-07-01|author=Consulate General of the United States of America Guangzhou, China|title=U.S. Consulate Air Quality Monitor and StateAir|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=n.d.|access-date=24 December 2014}}</ref>
-===Europe===
-[[File:PM10 in Europe.png|center|thumb|upright=1.65|Concentration of PM{{sub|10}}<ref name="EEA_2005"/> in Europe, 2005]]
-====Italy====
-[[File:VSON WP6910 (air detector) pm2,5 Autumn 2019, Winter 2019-2020, Spring 2020 pm2,5 ≥27µgm3 Location 45.44234 10.96862 Verona (Borgo Milano) Italy.pdf|thumb|center|upright=1.65|Concentration of PM{{sub|2,5}} (European Air Quality Index) during time slot in a city in Italy 2019–2020]]
-===South Korea===
-As of 2017, South Korea has the worst air pollution among the developed nations in the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2017/10/10/552264719/armed-with-nasa-data-south-korea-confronts-its-choking-smog | title=Armed With NASA Data, South Korea Confronts Its Choking Smog| website=[[NPR]]}}</ref> According to a study conducted by NASA and NIER, 52% of PM2.5 measured in Olympic Park, Seoul in May and June 2016 came from local emissions. The rest was trans-boundary pollution coming from China's Shandong Province (22%), North Korea (9%), Beijing (7%), Shanghai (5%), and a combined 5% from China's Liaoning Province, Japan and the West Sea.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/803654.html | title=NASA and NIER study finds that 48% of particulate matter comes from outside S. Korea}}</ref> In December 2017, the environmental ministers from South Korea and China signed the China-Korea Environmental Cooperation Plan (2018-22), a five-year plan to jointly solve issues in the air, water, soil and waste. An environmental cooperation centre was also launched in 2018 to aid cooperation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asianews.eu/content/china-south-korea-build-environment-cooperation-75620 | title=China, South Korea build environment cooperation| date=26 June 2018}}</ref>
-===Thailand===
-Air quality of Thailand is getting worse in 2023, which is described as a "post-COVID back-to-normal situation". In addition to the capital Bangkok, air quality in Chiang Mai, a popular tourist destination, is also deteriorating. Chiang Mai was listed as the most polluted city in a live ranking by the Swiss air quality company IQAir on 27 March 2023. The ranking includes data from about 100 world cities for which measured PM2.5 data is available.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/27/air-pollution-chokes-thailand-as-campaigners-call-for-stricter-laws-chiang-mai | title=Air pollution chokes Thailand as campaigners call for stricter laws}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://airqualitynews.com/2023/03/13/air-pollution-hospitalises-200000-in-one-week-as-fumes-emissions-and-smoke-descend-on-thailand/ | title=Air pollution hospitalises 200,000 in one week as fumes, emissions and smoke descend on Thailand| date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
-=== Ulaanbaatar ===
-[[Mongolia]]'s capital city [[Ulaanbaatar]] has an annual average mean temperature of about 0&nbsp;°C, making it the world's coldest capital city. About 40% of the population lives in apartments, 80% of which are supplied with central heating systems from three combined heat and power plants. In 2007, the power plants consumed almost 3.4 million tons of coal. The pollution control technology is in poor condition. {{citation needed|date=December 2014}}
-The other 60% of the population reside in shantytowns (Ger districts), which have developed due to the country's new market economy and the very cold winter seasons. The poor in these districts cook and heat their wood houses with indoor stoves fueled by wood or coal. The resulting air pollution is characterized by raised sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide levels and very high concentrations of airborne particles and [[particulate matter]] (PM).<ref name="Mongolia" />
-Annual seasonal average particulate matter concentrations have been recorded as high as 279&nbsp;μg/m{{sup|3}} (micrograms per cubic meter).{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} The World Health Organization's recommended annual mean PM{{sub|10}} level is 20&nbsp;μg/m{{sup|3}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health|title=Ambient (outdoor) air pollution|website=www.who.int}}</ref> which means that Ulaanbaatar's PM{{sub|10}} annual mean levels are 14 times higher than recommended.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}
-During the winter months, in particular, the air pollution obscures the air, affecting the visibility in the city to such an extent that airplanes on some occasions are prevented from landing at the airport.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmental-protection.org.uk/policy-areas/air-quality/air-pollution-and-transport/aviation-pollution/|title = Aviation Pollution}}</ref>
-In addition to stack emissions, another source unaccounted for in the [[emission inventory]] is [[fly ash]] from ash ponds, the final disposal place for fly ash that has been collected in settling tanks. Ash ponds are continually eroded by wind during the winter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/recycling/fach01.cfm|title=Chapter 1 - Fly Ash - An Engineering Material - Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers - Recycling - Sustainability - Pavements - Federal Highway Administration|website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref>
-===United States===
-[[File:US-PM25-nonattainment-2018-06.png|thumb|U.S. counties violating national PM{{sub|2.5}} standards, June 2018]]
-[[File:US-PM10-nonattainment-2018-06.png|thumb|left|U.S. counties violating national PM{{sub|10}} standards, June 2018]]
-From the "State of Air 2022" report compiled by the American Lung Association using data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency from 2018-2020,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.lung.org/research/sota | title=City Rankings, State of the Air, American Lung Association}}</ref> California cities are the most polluted cities (by PM2.5) in the U.S. while the East Coast is cleaner.
-However, another study has come up with a very different conclusion. According to Forbes, a travel insurance comparison site InsureMyTrip conducted a survey of 50 U.S. cities in 2020 and ranked them by cleanliness with criteria like hand sanitizer demand, cleanliness of restaurants, quantity of recycling collectors, satisfaction of garbage disposal, electric vehicle market share and pollution.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurabegleybloom/2021/12/31/the-dirtiest-and-cleanest-cities-in-america-the-worst-will-surprise-you/ | title=The Dirtiest And Cleanest Cities In America (The Worst Will Surprise You)| website=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> On their top ten cleanest cities list, seven are from California, including Long Beach (No. 1), San Diego (No. 2), Sacramento (No. 3), San Jose (No. 6), Oakland (No. 7), Bakersfield (No. 9), and San Francisco (No. 10). The discrepancies maybe due to the differences in data choice, calculation methods, definitions of "cleanliness" and a large variation of air quality across the same state, etc. This again shows that one need to be very careful when drawing conclusions from the many air quality rankings available on the internet.
-In mid-2023, air quality in eastern U.S. lowered significantly as particulates from Canada’s wildfires blew down. According to NASA, some of the fires were ignited by [[lightning]].<ref>
-{{cite web |url=https://time.com/6285633/wildfire-smoke-n95-mask-air-quality/ |title=An N95 Mask Is Your Best Defense Against Wildfire Smoke &#124; Time |date=7 June 2023 |format= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/151430/fires-burn-across-quebec |title=Fires Burn Across Quebec|date=5 June 2023 }} </ref>
-{{Clear}}
-== See also ==
-{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
-*[[Air quality index]]
-*[[Air quality law]]
-*[[ASTDR]]
-*[[Bioaerosol]]
-*[[Chip formation]]
-*[[Cleanroom]]
-*[[Contamination control]]
-*[[Criteria air contaminants]]
-*[[Dust]]
-*[[Exposure assessment]]
-*[[Exposure science]]
-*[[Fertilizer]]
-*[[Fog]]
-*[[Fugitive dust]]
-*[[List of least polluted (and most polluted) cities by particulate matter concentration]]
-*[[List of most polluted cities by particulate matter concentration]]
-*[[Metal swarf]]
-*[[NIEHS]]
-*[[Non-exhaust emissions]]
-*[[Occupational dust exposure]]
-*[[Pea soup fog]]
-*[[Pesticides]]
-*[[Respirator]]
-*[[Sawdust]]
-*[[Scrubber]]
-*[[Suspended solids]]
-'''Health-related:'''
-*[[Asthmagen]]
-*[[Atherosclerosis]]
-*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]
-*[[Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction]]
-*[[Pneumoconiosis]]
-*[[Pulmonary emphysema]]
-*[[Pulmonary fibrosis]]
-{{div col end}}
-== Other names ==
-*atmospheric aerosol particles
-*particulate matter (PM)
-*suspended particulate matter (SPM)
-== Notes ==
-{{notelist|30em}}
-== References ==
-{{Reflist|30em}}
-== Further reading ==
-*{{Cite web | url=https://www.epa.gov/pmcourse | title=Particulate Pollution Course | website=US EPA| date=12 September 2014 }}
-*{{Cite web | url=https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/best-practices-indoor-air-quality-when-remodeling-your-home | title=Best Practices for Indoor Air Quality when Remodeling Your Home | website=US EPA| date=7 January 2015 }}
-*{{Cite web | url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-business/find-a-topic/dust/advice-for-businesses/work-based-examples | title=Examples of how to manage dust in the workplace | website=EPA Victoria}}
-*Voiland, Adam. "Aerosols: Tiny Particles, Big Impact." NASA, 2 November 2010, [https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Aerosols Aerosols: Tiny Particles, Big Impact]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020220174932/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/160.htm The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the principal international scientific body on climate change) chapter on atmospheric aerosols and their radiative effects]
-* [http://insideepa.com/secure/insider_display.asp?f=epa_2001.ask&docid=142006_links InsideEPA.com, Study Links Air Toxics To Heart Disease In Mice Amid EPA Controversy]{{Dead link|date=April 2016}}
-* Preining, Othmar and E. James Davis (eds.), "History of Aerosol Science," Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, {{ISBN|3-7001-2915-7}} (Pbk.)
-* {{cite journal |vauthors=Jelonek Z, Drobniak A, Mastalerz M, Jelonek I |title=Environmental implications of the quality of charcoal briquettes and lump charcoal used for grilling |journal=Sci Total Environ |volume=747 |issue= |pages=141267 |date=December 2020 |pmid=32777507 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141267|bibcode=2020ScTEn.747n1267J |s2cid=221100463 }}
-* G Invernizzi et al., ''Particulate matter from tobacco versus diesel car exhaust: an educational perspective''. [http://tc.bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/13/3/219?ijkey=330b5aea15a8e36fcc2f4208cf99da58d84150f3 Tobacco Control 13, S.219–221] (2004)
-*{{Cite web|url=https://undark.org/breathtaking/|title=The Weight of Numbers: Air Pollution and PM2.5 |website=Undark Magazine |access-date=2019-09-27}}
-*JEFF CHARLTON ''Pandemic planning: a review of respirator and mask protection levels.''
-* Hinds, William C., ''Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles'', Wiley-Interscience, {{ISBN|0-471-19410-7}}
-*Zangari, Shelby et al., ''Air quality changes in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic.'' [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720340183 Science of the Total Environment 742] (2020)
-*NARSTO (2004) Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment. P. McMurry, M. Shepherd, and J. Vickery, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. {{ISBN|0 52 184287 5}}.
-*{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/17/air-pollution-particles-found-on-foetal-side-of-placentas-study | title=Air pollution particles found on foetal side of placentas – study| website=[[TheGuardian.com]]| date=17 September 2019| last1=Carrington| first1=Damian}}
-*{{cite journal | title=Toxicologic and epidemiologic clues from the characterization of the 1952 London smog fine particulate matter in archival autopsy lung tissues| year=2003| pmid=12842775| last1=Hunt| first1=A.| last2=Abraham| first2=J. L.| last3=Judson| first3=B.| last4=Berry| first4=C. L.| journal=Environmental Health Perspectives| volume=111| issue=9| pages=1209–1214| doi=10.1289/ehp.6114| pmc=1241576}}
-*{{cite web | url=https://www.london.gov.uk/programmes-strategies/environment-and-climate-change/environment-and-climate-change-publications/70-years-great-london-smog | title=70 years since the great London smog 1952, air quality in a modern context| date=5 December 2022}}
-*{{cite web | url=https://www.earth.columbia.edu/articles/view/3281 | title=A Major Source of Air Pollution: Farms - The Earth Institute}}
-*{{cite web |url=https://amp.scmp.com/comment/opinion/article/3158428/hong-kongs-illegal-barbecue-site-something-chew |title=Hong Kong's illegal barbecue site something to chew on {{pipe}} South China Morning Post|date=4 December 2021 }}
-*{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231022003053 |title=Outdoor charcoal grilling: Particulate and gas-phase emissions, organic speciation and ecotoxicological assessment - ScienceDirect|journal=Atmospheric Environment |date=15 September 2022 |volume=285 |page=119240 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119240 |last1=Alves |first1=Célia A. |last2=Evtyugina |first2=Margarita |last3=Vicente |first3=Estela |last4=Vicente |first4=Ana |last5=Gonçalves |first5=Cátia |last6=Neto |first6=Ana Isabel |last7=Nunes |first7=Teresa |last8=Kováts |first8=Nora |s2cid=249860528 }}
-*{{cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366318710|title=Aerosol optical depth regime over megacities of the world}}
-* {{cite web |url= https://www.science.org/content/article/air-pollution-helps-wildfires-create-their-own-lightning/ |title=Air pollution helps wildfires create their own lightning}}
-== External links ==
-*[https://www.rbkc.gov.uk/pdf/Document%2012%20-%20BRE%20-%20Control%20of%20Dust%20from%20Construction%20&%20Demolition%20Activities.pdf Control of dust from construction and demolition activities]
-*[https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/cis69.pdf Controlling construction dust with on-tool extraction (4 page PDF with photos)]
-*[https://www.hilti.ca/content/hilti/W1/CA/en/business/business/safety/dust-awareness.html Beware of dust - Hilti Canada] | [https://www.hilti.com.hk/content/hilti/A1/HK/en/company/health-safety-and-environment/dust.html Dust control - Hilti Hong Kong]
-*[https://www.hse.gov.uk/lev/what-is-ileve.htm What is Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)?]
-*[https://www.hse.gov.uk/welding/protect-your-workers/index.htm Welding fume: protect your workers]
-*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4eh6IKahbok NASA's Earth Minute: My Name is Aerosol]
-*[https://aerosol-soc.com/covid-19/ SARS-CoV-2 Aerosol Mechanisms, The Aerosol Society]
-*[https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/particulates/surface/level/overlay=pm1/winkel3 Current global map of PM{{sub|1}} distribution] | [https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/particulates/surface/level/overlay=pm2.5/winkel3 Current global map of PM{{sub|1}} and PM{{sub|2.5}} distribution] | [https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/particulates/surface/level/overlay=pm10/winkel3 Current global map of PM{{sub|1}}, PM{{sub|2.5}} and PM{{sub|10}} distribution]
-*[https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/particulates/surface/level/overlay=organic_matter_aot/winkel3 Current global map of the aerosol optical thickness of organic matter in green light]
-*[http://aqicn.org/map/world/#@g/2.0574/7.9102/2z Real time air quality] | [https://aqicn.org/contact/ About]
-*[https://www.airvisual.com/air-quality-map Air quality map] | [https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/worlds-largest-platform-air-quality-data-launched-tenth-world-urban About]
-*[https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/pollution-facts/ Pollution Facts by Air Quality Life Index]
-*[https://www.aqhi.gov.hk/en/health-advice/health-effects-of-air-pollutants.html Health Effects of Air Pollutants]. EPD HK. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140105010623/https://www.aqhi.gov.hk/en/health-advice/health-effects-of-air-pollutants.html Archived] from original on 5 January 2014.
-*[https://s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/hkca.com.hk/upload/doc/publication/20190813_v8-1-full-YppIK.pdf Environmental Toolbox Training Kit] from the [https://hkca.com.hk/publications Hong Kong Construction Association] with many illustrated useful tips on particle pollution control. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230703095444/https://s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/hkca.com.hk/upload/doc/publication/20190813_v8-1-full-YppIK.pdf Archived] from original on 3 July 2023.
-*[https://magazine.medlineplus.gov/article/precision-environmental-healths-role-in-preventing-disease Precision Environmental Health’s role in preventing disease]
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-[[Category:Visibility]]
-[[Category:Air pollution]]
-[[Category:Climate forcing]]
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-[[Category:Pollution]]
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Particulates: Difference between revisions

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