Horror film: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:29, 7 March 2026

Max Schreck as Count Orlok in the 1922 film *Nosferatu*. Critic and historian Kim Newman declared that it set the template for the horror film.^[1]

Template:Speculative fiction sidebar Horror is a film genre that seeks to elicit physical or psychological fear in its viewers.^[2] Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with transgressive topics or themes. Broad elements of the genre include monsters, apocalyptic events, and religious or folk beliefs.

Horror films have existed since the early 20th century. Early inspirations predating film include folklore; the religious beliefs and superstitions of different cultures; and the Gothic and horror literature of authors such as Edgar Allan Poe, Bram Stoker, and Mary Shelley. From its origins in silent films and German Expressionism, horror became a codified genre only after the release of Dracula (1931). Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, including body horror, comedy horror, erotic horror, slasher films, splatter films, supernatural horror, and psychological horror. The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions. Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of Japan, Korea, and Thailand, among other countries.

Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen major commercial success, influenced society, and generated popular culture icons. Template:TOCLIMIT

Characteristics[edit | edit source]

The book The Film Experience: An Introduction (2021) defines the horror film as a genre with origins in Gothic literature that seeks to frighten the viewer. The authors highlight the fundamental elements of the horror film as "characters with physical, psychological, or spiritual deformities"; "narratives built on suspense, surprise, and shock"; and "visual compositions that move between the dread of not seeing and the horror of seeing".^[2]

Alternatively, The Dictionary of Film Studies (2012) defines the horror film as representing "disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses of fear, terror, disgust, shock, suspense, and (of course) horror from their viewers."^[3] In his chapter "The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s" from the book Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan (2002), film critic Robin Wood declared that the commonality between horror films is that “normality is threatened by the monster.”^[4] This idea was further expanded on by Noël Carroll in his book The Philosophy of Horror, or Paradoxes of the Heart (1990); he noted that "repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity."^[4]

Before the release of Dracula (1931), as historian Gary D. Rhodes explained, the ideas and terminology of horror films did not yet exist as a codified genre, although critics had used the term horror to describe films in reviews prior to Dracula's release.^[5] Horror was a term used with a variety of meanings. In 1913, the magazine Moving Picture World defined horrors as showcasing "striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards".^[6] Some titles directly suggested horror, such as The Hand of Horror (1914), a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.^[6] During the silent era, the term horror was used to describe everything from battle scenes in war films to stories of drug addiction.^[7] Rhodes concluded that the term horror film (or horror movie) was not used in early cinema.^[8]

The mystery film genre was then in vogue, and early information commonly promoted Dracula as a mystery film, despite the novel, the play, and the film relying on the supernatural.^[9] Kim Newman discussed the genre in British Film Institute's book Companion to Horror, where he noted that horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but after that decade, “the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narrative patterns”.^[10] In the 1940s, the horror film was viewed in different terms. Critic Siegfried Kracauer included The Lost Weekend among films described as “terror films,” along with Shadow of a Doubt (1943), The Dark Corner (1946), Gaslight (1944), Shock (1946), The Spiral Staircase (1946), The Stranger (1946), and Spellbound (1945). Two years earlier, the New York Times described a new cycle of “horror” productions included Gaslight, The Woman in the Window (1944), Dark Waters (1944), Laura (1944), and Phantom Lady (1944).^[11] Mark Jancovich wrote in the book The Shifting Definitions of Genre: Essays on Labeling Films, Television Shows and Media (2008) that horror was virtually synonymous with mystery as a generic term, not being limited to films concerned with the strange, eerie, and uncanny.^[11]

Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964 (1971)) and Peter Hutchings (Approaches to Popular Film (1995)) implied that it is easier to view films as cycles rather than genres, suggesting that viewing the slasher film as a cycle would locate it in terms of several factors: the film industry's economy and production, the personnel involved in particular eras, and the manner of film marketing, distribution, and exhibition.^[12] In an essay, Mark Jancovich declared that "there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre" among fans and critics of the genre.^[13] Jancovich found that disagreements existed between audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves. Such disagreement included fans of other genres who may view a film such as Alien (1979) as belonging to science fiction, as well as horror fans dismissing it as inauthentic for either genre.^[14] Further debates exist among genre fans having personal definitions of “true” horror films: some fans embrace cult figures such as Freddy Krueger of the A Nightmare on Elm Street series, while other fans disassociate themselves from characters and series and focus instead on genre auteur directors such as Dario Argento, while still other fans would deem Argento's films too mainstream, preferring more underground films.^[15] Andrew Tudor wrote in his book Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie that "Genre is what we collectively believe it to be."^[16]

Cinematic techniques[edit | edit source]

Jacob Shelton investigated in detail the many ways that horror films manipulate audience members.^[17] Shelton notes that negative space can draw viewers' eyes to anything in the frame—for example, a wall or the empty blackness in the shadows.^[17]

Anna Powell explores how horror directors use cinematography to induce certain viewer reactions. Powell observes that lighting extremes, whether bright or dark, can prevent viewers from seeing every detail in a scene, which provokes unease. Bright lighting might also trick viewers into feeling safe.^[18]

Powell also points out how distorting space and time can confuse and disorient horror film viewers.^[19] To confound viewers' senses, directors might use tilted camera angles and shots in slow-motion or reverse.^[20]

Powell notes that directors also use colour, through costuming, setting, and lens filters, to communicate mood and evoke certain connotations. Red, for example, might convey blood, passion, or disease.^[21] Contrasting colours bring viewers’ attention to certain places in the frame.^[22]

The jump scare is a horror film trope where an abrupt change in image accompanied by a loud sound aims to surprise the viewer.^[17] This trope can also be subverted to create tension, as audiences may feel increased unease and discomfort in anticipating jump scares.^[17]

Mirrors are often used to create a sense of tension in horror films.

Mirrors are often used in horror films to create visual depth and build tension. Shelton argues that mirrors have been used so often in horror films that audiences have been conditioned to fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.^[17] Tight framing and close-ups are also commonly used; these can build tension and induce anxiety by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is near the protagonist.^[17]

The interaction between horror films and their audiences is another significant issue discussed by Rhodes. He notes that horror films often serve as a safe space for viewers to confront and process their fears. This cathartic experience can provide psychological relief and a sense of empowerment, as viewers face and overcome their anxieties in a controlled environment. The communal experience of watching horror films in theaters or discussing them in fan communities also plays a crucial role in the genre's impact and popularity.[6]

Music[edit | edit source]

Filmmaker and composer John Carpenter, who has directed and scored numerous horror films, performing in 2016

Music is a key element of horror films. In his book Music in the Horror Film (2010), Lerner writes that "music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created by imagery and themes. Music helps to set the tense or chilling mood that horror movies often aim to achieve; it can even cause physiological effects that override learned reactions and behaviors.^[23] Dissonance, atonality and experiments with timbre are typical techniques used by composers in horror film music.^[24]

Themes[edit | edit source]

Frankenstein's monster

Apocalypse by Albert Goodwin

A demon in the Book of Wonders

Charles Derry proposed that the three key components of horror are personality, Armageddon and the demonic.

In his book Dark Dreams, author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broad themes: the horror of personality, the horror of Armageddon, and the horror of the demonic.^[25] First, the horror of personality derives from monsters being at the centre of the plot, such as Frankenstein's monster, whose psychology makes them perform horrific acts including rapes, mutilations, and sadistic killings.^[25] Other key works with this theme include Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho, which feature psychotic murderers without monster make-up.^[25] Second, the Armageddon theme explores the fear of large-scale destruction, which includes science fiction works but also natural events, such as Hitchcock's The Birds (1963).^[25] Finally, the theme of the demonic features graphic accounts of satanic rites, witchcraft, and exorcisms outside traditional forms of worship, as seen in films such as The Exorcist (1973) and The Omen (1976).^[26]

Some critics have suggested that horror films can be vessels for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, supports the use of horror films to ease the process of understanding issues by making use of their visual elements.^[27] The use of horror films can help audiences to understand prior historical events, for example, the Vietnam War, the Holocaust, the worldwide AIDS epidemic^[28] or post-9/11 pessimism.^[29]

Anxieties surrounding race and racism have historically and continuously informed the horror genre.^[2] A good example is the history of the zombie apocalypse subgenre. The first zombie horror films, such as White Zombie (1932), were inspired by stories brought back to Europe by colonizers, and these stories explicitly presented Afro-Haitian religious and spiritual practices as evil and perverse.^[30] The film which later revived the subgenre, Night of the Living Dead (1968), incidentally presented themes surrounding race in America by casting Duane Jones, a Black actor, as the lead.^[31] Whether accidentally or actively, horror films demonstrate societal issues by who or what is chosen to incite fear, and how this choice is represented visually and narratively.

History[edit | edit source]

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In discussing narrative trends in horror, scholar Isabel Pinedo draws on the book Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie (1989) to map the development of the Anglo-American horror genre. She points out that early synchronized sound, as well as post-war period films, present threats to social order as external, while human agency (largely male) prevails. The focus is on the monster's acts of violence and the characters' failed attempts at resistance, ending with male experts using violence or knowledge to defeat the monster and restore social order.^[32]^[33]

Pinedo presents the category of postmodern horror. She summarizes the narrative structure as indicating the prevalence of internal threats to social order by using a combination of monstrous violence and ineffectual human resistance with open endings. These open endings may be as follows: the monster triumphs as in Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer (1990); the monster is defeated but only temporarily as in Halloween (1978); or there is an ambiguous outcome as in Night of the Living Dead (1968), The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974), The Thing (1982), and Nightmare on Elm Street (1984).^[32]Template:Horrorfilmlist

Sub-genres of horror film[edit | edit source]

Horror is a malleable genre, and it can often be altered to accommodate other genres such as science fiction, which makes some films difficult to categorize.^[34]

Lovecraftian horror[edit | edit source]

Named after American author H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), this sub-genre of horror films include themes of cosmic dread, forbidden and dangerous knowledge, madness, non-human influences on humanity, religion and superstition, fate and inevitability, and the risks associated with scientific discoveries.

Body horror[edit | edit source]

A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation. In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.^[35]^[36] The focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.^[35] The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of director David Cronenberg, specifically with early films like Shivers (1975).^[35]^[36] Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as in The Thing (1982) and The Fly (1986).^[37]

Christmas horror[edit | edit source]

Christmas horror is a film subgenre that emerged in the 1970s with films such as Whoever Slew Auntie Roo? (1971) and Silent Night, Bloody Night (1972),^[38] which were soon followed by the influential Black Christmas (1974).^[38]^[39] Defining the Christmas horror genre has been described as challenging,^[40] as it has generally been regarded as a sub-genre of the slasher film.^[41]^[42] Adam Rockoff, in Rue Morgue, noted that the sub-genre sits within a trend of holiday-themed slasher films, alongside films such as My Bloody Valentine (1981) and April Fool's Day (1986).^[42] Others take a broader view that Christmas horror is not limited to the slasher genre,^[41] noting how it evolved from the English Christmas tradition of telling ghost stories.^[38] Christmas in literature has historically included elements of "darkness"—fright, misery, death and decay—tracing its literary antecedents as far back as the biblical account of the Massacre of the Innocents and more recently in works such as E. T. A. Hoffmann's "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King" (1816) and Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol (1843).^[38]^[39] Although ghosts have largely been replaced by serial killers, Christmas horror creates an outlet through which to explore "a modern reinvention of the Christmas ghost story".^[38]

Erotic horror[edit | edit source]

Erotic horror is a subgenre of horror fiction that blends sensual and sexual imagery with horrific themes for the sake of sexual arousal. Erotic horror has had influences on French^[43] and American horror cinema. The works of Jean Rollin, such as Le Viol du Vampire and Fascination, are considered quintessential erotic horror films, blending deeply sexual imagery with gore.^[43] American cinema has also featured notable erotic horror film franchises, such as Candyman.^[44] An example of a British erotic horror film series is Hellraiser.^[45] Alien features heavy erotic imagery, with the design of the Xenomorph by H. R. Giger featuring both phallic and vaginal imagery, intended to symbolize patriarchal guilt^[46] as well as sex, rape, and pregnancy.^[47]

Extreme Horror[edit | edit source]

Extreme horror is a subgenre of horror that emerged from early twentieth century theater through shocking performances from Paris, France's Théâtre du Grand‑Guignol.^[48] The transition from theater to cinema allowed transgressive acts of uncensored sex, torture, mutilation, and taboo exploitation to reach a wider audience. Notably, the 1970s herald in extreme horror that is frequently cited as the beginning of the film subgenre including Last House on the Left (1972), Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom (1975), and I Spit on Your Grave (1978). ^[49] Extreme horror film series, such as Saw (2004) and Hostel (2005), have reached mainstream media with character(s) appearances in video games namely Dead by Daylight and the subject of musical lyrics for the band Ice Nine Kills.

Folk horror[edit | edit source]

Folk horror uses elements of folklore or other religious and cultural beliefs to instill fear in audiences. Folk horror films have featured rural settings and themes of isolation, religion and nature.^[50]^[51] Frequently cited examples are Witchfinder General (1968), The Blood on Satan's Claw (1971), The Wicker Man (1973), The Witch (2015), and Midsommar (2019).^[50]^[51] Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from the Southeast Asia region, including Thailand and Indonesia.^[52]^[53]

Found footage horror[edit | edit source]

The found footage horror film "technique" gives the audience a first person view of the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after. Horror films which are framed as being made up of "found-footage" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.^[54] Alexandra Heller-Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites like YouTube in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successful Paranormal Activity (2007).^[55]

Gothic horror[edit | edit source]

In their book Gothic film, Richard J. McRoy and Richard J. Hand stated that "Gothic" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that "Gothic" as a whole was a style like film noir and not bound to certain cinematic elements like the Western or science fiction film.^[56] The term "gothic" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film. Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.^[57] Narratives in these films often focus on an audience's fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.^[58] The genre can be applied to films as early as The Haunted Castle (1896), Frankenstein (1910) as well as to more complex iterations such as Park Chan-wook's Stoker (2013) and Jordan Peele's Get Out (2017).^[56]

The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film. This includes Universal Pictures' horror films of the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer, Roger Corman's Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.^[59] By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had their Dracula stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated by Black Sunday.^[60]^[61]^[62] In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors like Anne Rice where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.^[63] Following the release of Francis Ford Coppola's Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.^[64]

Natural horror[edit | edit source]

Also described as "eco-horror", the natural horror film is a subgenre "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."^[65]^[66] In 1963, Alfred Hitchcock defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity with The Birds (1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s. Following the success of Willard (1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films with Stanley (1972) and an official sequel Ben (1972).^[67] Other films followed in suit such as Night of the Lepus (1972), Frogs (1972), Bug (1975), Squirm (1976) and what Muir described as the "turning point" in the genre with Jaws (1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres "towards a less-fantastic route" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such as Grizzly (1976) and Night Creature (1977), Orca (1977), and Jaws 2 (1978).^[67]^[68]^[69] The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s such vegetarianism, animal rights movements, and organizations such as Greenpeace.^[70] Following Jaws, sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such as Mako: The Jaws of Death (1976) and Great White (1981) to the Sharknado film series.^[70] James Marriott found that the genre had "lost momentum" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.^[71]

Psychological horror[edit | edit source]

Bill Gibron of PopMatters declared a mixed definition of the psychological horror film, ranging from definitions of anything that created a sense of disquiet or apprehension to a film where an audience's mind makes up what was not directly displayed visually. Gibron concluded it as a "clouded gray area between all out splatter and a trip through a cinematic dark ride."^[72]

Religious horror[edit | edit source]

Religious horror is a subgenre of horror film whose common themes are based on religion and focus heavily on supernatural beings, often with demons as the main antagonists that bring a sense of threat.^[73]^[74] Such films commonly use religious elements, including the crucifix or cross, holy water, the Bible, the rosary, the sign of the cross, the church, and prayer, which are forms of religious symbols and rituals used to depict the use of faith to defeat evil.^[75]

Slasher film[edit | edit source]

The slasher film is a horror subgenre which involves a killer murdering a group of people (often teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.^[76] In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff wrote that these villains represented a "rogue genre" of films that are "tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic."^[77] Following the financial success of Friday the 13th (1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.^[78] These films usually revolved around three properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).^[79] The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.^[80] The release of Scream (1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.^[81] Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle with Bloody Beach (2000), Nightmare (2000) and The Record (2000).^[82]

Splatter film[edit | edit source]

Splatter is a subgenre that depends on violence and gore to display and accentuate a fascination with the theatricality of mutilation and the vulnerability of the human body.^[83]

Supernatural horror[edit | edit source]

Supernatural horror films, sometimes referred to as paranormal horror films, integrate supernatural elements, such as the afterlife, spirit possession and religion into the horror genre.^[84] Since they often focus on undead or non-physical beings, they may create unease in viewers without a visible presence on screen. This may include characters feeling a touch or chill in the air, furniture moving on its own, mysterious sounds, or lights flickering with no apparent cause. Prominent supernatural horror films include Paranormal Activity and The Conjuring.^[85]

Suburban gothic[edit | edit source]

Suburban gothic is a subgenre of Gothic fiction, art, film and television, focused on anxieties associated with the creation of suburban communities, particularly in the United States and the Western world, from the 1950s and 1960s onwards.

This genre often explores themes of paranoia, conformity, and hidden dangers. Suburban horror films include Halloween (1978), A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), and The Stepford Wives (1975), all of which use the suburban setting to heighten the tension and fear.^[86]^[87]^{[better source needed]}^[88]

Teen horror[edit | edit source]

Teen horror is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong, anti-conformity teenage leads, appealing to young generations. This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.^[89] Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions from American International Pictures (AIP) and productions of Herman Cohen with I Was a Teenage Werewolf (1957) and I Was a Teenage Frankenstein (1957).^[90] This led to later productions like Daughter of Dr. Jekyll (1957) and Frankenstein's Daughter (1958).^[90] Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.^[91] Prior to Scream, there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.^[92] After the financial success of Scream, teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films like I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997) and non-slasher The Faculty (1998).^[93]^[92] The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films like Donnie Darko (2001) and Crazy/Beautiful (2001).^[94] In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.^[95]

Regional horror films[edit | edit source]

Asian horror films[edit | edit source]

Horror films in Asia have been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religious folklore, particularly beliefs in ghosts or spirits.^[52]^[96] In Asian Horror, Andy Richards writes that there is a "widespread and engrained acceptance of supernatural forces" in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related to animist, pantheist and karmic religious traditions, as in Buddhism and Shintoism.^[96] Although Chinese, Japanese, Thai and Korean horror has arguably received the most international attention,^[96] horror also makes up a considerable proportion of Cambodian^[97] and Malaysian cinema.^[98]

European horror films[edit | edit source]

Ian Olney described the horror films of Europe were often more erotic and "just plain stranger" than their British and American counter-parts.^[99] European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror)^[100] draw from distinctly European cultural sources, including surrealism, romanticism, decadent tradition, early 20th century pulp-literature, film serials, and erotic comics.^[101] In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.^[102]

Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from countries like Italy, Spain and France, and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre and grindhouse theaters.^[99] As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin, changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.^[103] Several productions, such as those in Italy, were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.^[104] European horror films began developing strong cult following since the late 1990s.^[99]

Oceania[edit | edit source]

Australia[edit | edit source]

It is unknown when Australia's cinema first horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging from The Strangler's Grip (1912) to The Face at the Window (1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear in Guyra Ghost Mystery (1921).^[105] By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.^[106] It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release with Dead Easy (1970) and Night of Fear (1973). The Cars That Ate Paris (1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.^[105] 1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films (Ozploitation), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called the cultural cringe.^[107] The greater success of genre films like Mad Max (1979), The Last Wave (1977) and Patrick (1978) led to the Australian Film Commission to change its focus to being a more commercial operation. This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures. A new development known as the 10BA tax shelter scheme was developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author of Australian Horror Films, suggested meant "making a profit was more important than making a good film."^[107] Shelley called these films derivative of "American films and presenting generic American material".^[107] These films included the horror film productions of Antony I. Ginnane.^[108] While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than five horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.^[109]^[110] It was only after the success of Wolf Creek (2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.^[109]^[110]

New Zealand[edit | edit source]

By 2005, New Zealand has produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.^[111] New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews of Stuff as making "po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs."^[112] Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions are Strange Behavior (1981), a co-production with Australia and Death Warmed Up (1984) a single production.^[113] Early features such as Melanie Read's Trial Run (1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston's Mr. Wrong (1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.^[114] Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films with Bridge to Nowhere (1986), and the early films of Peter Jackson who combined splatter films with comedy with Bad Taste (1988) and Braindead (1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.^[113] Film producer Ant Timpson had an influence curating New Zealand horror films, creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s including The ABCs of Death (2012), Deathgasm (2015), and Housebound (2014).^[112] Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films like What We Do in the Shadows (2014) with Jonathan King, director of Black Sheep (2006) and The Tattooist (2007) stating "I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen."^[112]

North America[edit | edit source]

Mexico[edit | edit source]

After the 1931 release of an American-produced Spanish-language version of Dracula by George Melford for the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme of science vs. religion conflict.^[115] Ushered by the release of El vampiro, the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and Aztec mummies.^[116] A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly in Germán Robles-starred vampire films) was producer Abel Salazar.^[117] The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence of Carlos Enrique Taboada as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such as Hasta el viento tiene miedo (1967), El libro de piedra (1968), Más negro que la noche (1975) or Veneno para las hadas (1984).^[118] Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as the Ranchería setting, the colonial past or the myth of La Llorona (shared with other Hispanic-American nations).^[119]

Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research.^[120]

Effects on audiences[edit | edit source]

Psychological effects[edit | edit source]

In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed via functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results. It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.^[121]

In another study done by John Greene and Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience the excitation transfer process (ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members. The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film. In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence. Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified. Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.^[122]

Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films.^[123] The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that of PTSD if the environment reminds them of particular scenes.^[124]

A 2021 study suggested horror films that explore grief can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.^[125]

Physical effects[edit | edit source]

In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noise (<500 Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).^[126] Another study by Baliatsas et al. observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.^[127] Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30 Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.^[17]

Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience is cognitive dissonance, which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.^[128] Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.^[129] A study by Prete et al. identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.^[130] There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.^[130] Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.^[130]

Skin conductance responses (SCRs), heart rate (HR), and electromyographic (EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher for negative emotions in what is known as the "negative bias."^[131] When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.^[131] The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).^[131] This initial response can sometimes result in a fight-or-flight response, which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers.^[17]

Reception[edit | edit source]

In film criticism[edit | edit source]

Critic Robin Wood was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his article Return of the Repressed in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.^[132] Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive "historic importance" intellectual views of the film genre.^[132] William Paul in his book Laughing Screaming comments that "the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres. More positively, it could be said that they are more direct. Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection. Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry."^[133]

Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had "always operated under duress" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding "career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention".^[134]

Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy of film criticism and major films awards.^[135]^[136] As of 2025, only seven horror films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, with The Silence of the Lambs being the sole winner.^[137] However, horror films have still won major awards.^[138]

Critics have also commented on the representation of women^[139]^[140]^[141]^[142] and disability^[143] in horror films, as well as the prevalence of racial stereotypes.^[144]^[145]

Censorship[edit | edit source]

Many horror films have been the subject of moral panic, censorship and legal controversy.

In the United Kingdom, film censorship has frequently been applied to horror films.^[146] A moral panic over several slasher films in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape; the phenomenon became popularly termed "video nasties".^[147]^[148] Constraints on permitted subject matter in Indonesian films has also influenced Indonesian horror films.^[149] In March 2008, China banned all horror films from its market.^[150]

In the U.S., the Motion Picture Production Code which was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by the MPAA film rating system)^[151] offered more freedom to the movie industry.

References[edit | edit source]

Notes[edit | edit source]

↑ Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 20.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Corrigan, Timothy; White, Patricia (2021). The Film Experience : An Introduction (Sixth ed.). Bedford/St. Martin’s. ISBN 9781319208189.
↑ Kuhn, Annette; Westwell, Guy (2012). A dictionary of film studies. Oxford reference online premium (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-19-174442-6.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Balmain 2008, p. 4.
↑ Rhodes 2014, p. 91.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Rhodes 2018b, p. 97.
↑ Rhodes 2018b, p. 98.
↑ Rhodes 2018b, p. 97-98.
↑ Rhodes 2014, p. 90.
↑ Balmain 2008, p. 5.
↑ ^11.0 ^11.1 Jancovich 2008, p. 28.
↑ Jancovich 2000, p. 31-32.
↑ Jancovich 2000, p. 25-26.
↑ Jancovich 2000, p. 26-27.
↑ Jancovich 2000, p. 28.
↑ Tudor 1991, p. 6-7.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 ^17.4 ^17.5 ^17.6 ^17.7 "15 Ways You Didn't Even Realize Horror Movies Are Manipulating You into Fear". Ranker. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
↑ Powell 2005, p. 120.
↑ Powell 2005, p. 130.
↑ Powell 2005, p. 131-2.
↑ Powell 2005, p. 137.
↑ Powell 2005, p. 141.
↑ Donnelly, K. J. (Kevin J. ) (2005). The spectre of sound : music in film and television. London: BFI. ISBN 978-1-84457-025-6 – via Internet Archive.
↑ Lerner, Neil (16 December 2009). Music in the Horror Film: Listening to Fear. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-28044-4.
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 ^25.2 ^25.3 Prawer 1989, p. 16.
↑ Prawer 1989, p. 17.
↑ Lizardi, Ryan (31 August 2010). "'Re-Imagining' Hegemony and Misogyny in the Contemporary Slasher Remake". Journal of Popular Film and Television. 38 (3): 113–121. doi:10.1080/01956051003623464. S2CID 191466131.
↑ Heller-Nicholas, Alexandra. History and Horror. Screen Education.
↑ Aston & Walliss 2013, p. 4.
↑ McAlister, Elizabeth (2017). "Slaves, Cannibals, and infected Hyper-Whites: The Race and Religion of Zombies". In Lauro, Sarah Juliet (ed.). Zombie theory: a reader. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-1-5179-0091-5.
↑ Means Coleman, Robin R. (2023). Horror Noire: A History of Black American Horror from the 1890s to Present. Oxford: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-367-76719-8.
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 Pinedo, Isabel Cristina (1997). Recreational terror: women and the pleasures of horror film viewing. SUNY series, interruptions--border testimony(ies) and critical discourse/s. Albany, N.Y: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3441-3.
↑ Tudor 1991.
↑ Odell & Le Blanc 2007, p. 15.
↑ ^35.0 ^35.1 ^35.2 Jancovich 1994, p. 26.
↑ ^36.0 ^36.1 Jancovich 1992, p. 112.
↑ Jancovich 1992, p. 115.
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 ^38.3 ^38.4 Newby 2018.
↑ ^39.0 ^39.1 Ulaby 2015.
↑ DuPée 2022, p. 6.
↑ ^41.0 ^41.1 DuPée 2022, p. 5.
↑ ^42.0 ^42.1 Rockoff 2003, p. 30.
↑ ^43.0 ^43.1 "Kinoeye | French horror: Jean Rollin - an introduction". www.kinoeye.org. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
↑ Hobbs, Thomas (31 October 2021). "'A living mirror to white brutality': Tony Todd on Candyman's violent (and erotic) horror". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
↑ "The sexual undertones of Clive Barker's 'Hellraiser'". faroutmagazine.co.uk. 1 October 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
↑ Topel, Fred (29 January 2019). "What 'Memory: The Origins of Alien' Reveals About the Sexual Metaphors in the 1979 Film [Interview]". Bloody Disgusting!. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
↑ "What's the Meaning Behind the Sexual Imagery in "Alien"? | Watch | The Take". What's the Meaning Behind the Sexual Imagery in "Alien"? | Watch | The Take. 19 May 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
↑ "Dissections Horror E-Zine". www.simegen.com. Retrieved 14 October 2025.
↑ "Dissections Horror E-Zine". www.simegen.com. Retrieved 15 October 2025.
↑ ^50.0 ^50.1 Hurley, Andrew Michael (28 October 2019). "Devils and debauchery: why we love to be scared by folk horror". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
↑ ^51.0 ^51.1 Murphy, Bernice M. "Beyond Midsommar: 'folk horror' in popular fiction". The Irish Times. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
↑ ^52.0 ^52.1 Ferrarese, Marco. "'New kinds of monsters': The rise of Southeast Asian horror films". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
↑ Rithdee, Kong (5 November 2021). "Into the devil's lair". Bangkok Post. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
↑ McRobert, Neil (November 2015). "Mimesis of Media: Found Footage Cinema and the Horror of the Real". Gothic Studies. 17 (2): 137–150. doi:10.7227/GS.17.2.9.
↑ Heller-Nicholas 2014, p. 4.
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 Hand & McRoy 2020, p. 3.
↑ Hand & McRoy 2020, p. 1.
↑ Hand & McRoy 2020, p. 2.
↑ Hand & McRoy 2020, p. 5-6.
↑ Muir 2012, p. 10.
↑ Muir 2012, p. 11.
↑ Curti 2015, p. 38.
↑ Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 220.
↑ Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 272.
↑ "Natural Horror Top rated Most Viewed – AllMovie". Allrovi.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
↑ Gregersdotter, Hoglund & Hallen 2015, p. 32.
↑ ^67.0 ^67.1 Muir 2012, p. 17.
↑ Muir 2012, p. 19.
↑ Muir 2012, p. 20.
↑ ^70.0 ^70.1 Gregersdotter, Hoglund & Hallen 2015, p. 31.
↑ Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 187.
↑ Gibron 2013.
↑ "From 'The Exorcist' to 'Saint Maud': 8 of The Best Religious Horror Movies". Collider. 24 June 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
↑ "Two New Religious Horror Films Showdown Over Demonic Possession". religionunplugged.com. 18 April 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
↑ Hong, Seung Min (June 2010). "Redemptive Fear: A Review of Sacred Terror and Further Analyses of Religious Horror Films". The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture. 22 (2): 6. doi:10.3138/jrpc.22.2.006. ISSN 1703-289X.
↑ Clayton, Wickham, ed. (2015). Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137496478. OCLC 927961472.
↑ Muir 2007, p. 17.
↑ Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 218.
↑ Muir 2007, p. 21.
↑ Muir 2007, p. 18-19.
↑ Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 274.
↑ Chung 2013, p. 87.
↑ Hesseldenz, Peter. "Research Guides: Horror Film: Splatter Film". libguides.uky.edu. Retrieved 14 January 2025.
↑ "Supernatural". The Script Lab. 26 March 2011. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
↑ Arnaud, Jourdan (18 October 2021). "Subgenres of Horror Films Explained". The Los Angeles Film School. Retrieved 1 April 2025.
↑ "Subgenre deep dive: Suburban Horror". The British Fantasy Society.
↑ Sheetz, Janelle (17 February 2024). "10 Best Suburban Horror Movies, Ranked". Collider.
↑ "The First Big Thriller of 2024 Reveals the Power of an Overlooked Genre". Inverse. 20 February 2024.
↑ Miller, Cynthia J.; Bowdoin Van Riper, A. (2015). "Marketing, Monsters, and Music: Teensploitation Horror Films" (PDF). The Journal of American Culture. 38 (2): 130–141. doi:10.1111/jacc.12303. ISSN 1542-7331.
↑ ^90.0 ^90.1 Marriott & Newman 2018, p. 70.
↑ West 2018, p. 4.
↑ ^92.0 ^92.1 Shary 2005, p. 99.
↑ Shary 2005, p. 102.
↑ Shary 2005, p. 103.
↑ West 2018, pp. 3–4.
↑ ^96.0 ^96.1 ^96.2 Richards, Andy (21 October 2010). Asian Horror. Oldcastle Books. ISBN 978-1-84243-408-6.
↑ Chronister, Kay (1 March 2020). "'My Mother, the Ap': Cambodian Horror Cinema and the Gothic Transformation of a Folkloric Monster". Gothic Studies. 22 (1): 98–113. doi:10.3366/gothic.2020.0040. ISSN 1362-7937. S2CID 216404862.
↑ Ainslie, Mary J. (2016). "Towards a Southeast Asian Model of Horror: Thai Horror Cinema in Malaysia, Urbanization, and Cultural Proximity". In Siddique, Sophia; Raphael, Raphael (eds.). Transnational Horror Cinema: Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 179–203. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5_9. ISBN 978-1-137-58416-8.
↑ ^99.0 ^99.1 ^99.2 Olney 2013, p. xi.
↑ Wynter 2016, p. 44.
↑ Olney 2013, p. 6.
↑ Olney 2013, p. 7.
↑ Lazaro-Reboll 2012, p. 11-12.
↑ Heffernan 2004, p. 141.
↑ ^105.0 ^105.1 Shelley 2012, p. 9.
↑ Shelley 2012, p. 5-6.
↑ ^107.0 ^107.1 ^107.2 Shelley 2012, p. 10.
↑ Odell & Le Blanc 2007, p. 192.
↑ ^109.0 ^109.1 Shelley 2012, p. 12.
↑ ^110.0 ^110.1 Withers 2016.
↑ Conrich 2005, p. 115.
↑ ^112.0 ^112.1 ^112.2 Matthews 2017.
↑ ^113.0 ^113.1 Conrich 2005, p. 117.
↑ Conrich 2005, p. 116.
↑ Green, Doyle (2005). Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and similar films, 1957-1977. McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-7864-2201-7.
↑ Green 2005, pp. 6-9.
↑ Flores, Silvana (2018). "Entre monstruos, leyendas ancestrales y luchadores populares: La inserción del Santo en el cine fantástico mexicano". Secuencias. Madrid: UAM Ediciones: 17. doi:10.15366/secuencias2018.48.001. hdl:10486/690219. ISSN 1134-6795. S2CID 213113335.
↑ García Ruiz 2019, pp. 41–42.
↑ García Ruiz, Pedro Enrique (2019). "El cine de terror mexicano: más que romanticismo y gótico". Cine mexicano y filosofía (PDF). Ciudad de México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. p. 40. ISBN 978-607-30-2039-8.
↑ Gallón, Angélica (26 August 2022). "¿Qué dice de México que sea el primer país del mundo que más cine de terror consume?". El País.
↑ Hasson, Uri; Landesman, Ohad; Knappmeyer, Barbara; Vallines, Ignacio; Rubin, Nava; Heeger, David J. (1 June 2008). "Neurocinematics: The Neuroscience of Film". Projections. 2 (1): 1–26. doi:10.3167/proj.2008.020102. ISSN 1934-9696. S2CID 5680951.
↑ Greene, John O.; Sparks, Glenn G. (1983). "The role of outcome expectations in the experience of a state of communication apprehension". Communication Quarterly. 31 (3): 212–219. doi:10.1080/01463378309369506. ISSN 0146-3373.
↑ admin-risepoint (13 July 2020). "The Psychology of Fear". CSP Global. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
↑ de Araújo, Alexandre Xavier Gomes; Luz, Mariana Pires; Berger, William; Pagotto, Luiz Felipe; Figueira, Ivan; Mendlowicz, Mauro V. (2019). "Can horror movies induce PTSD-like syndrome?". Revista Latinoamericana de Psicopatologia Fundamental. 22 (2): 360–375. doi:10.1590/1415-4714.2019v22n2p360.11. ISSN 1984-0381.
↑ Millar, Becky; Lee, Jonny (1 July 2021). "Horror Films and Grief". Emotion Review. 13 (3): 171–182. doi:10.1177/17540739211022815. ISSN 1754-0739. S2CID 235779574.
↑ Bonanca, Iris; Caetano, Marlene; Castelo Branco, NunoA.A.; Ferraria, Renata; Graca, Andreia; Jorge, Ana; Mendes, Ana P; Oliveira, Nadia; Santos, Carolina; Alves-Pereira, Mariana (2014). "Voice acoustic profile of males exposed to occupational infrasound and low-frequency noise". Journal of Laryngology and Voice. 4 (1): 12. doi:10.4103/2230-9748.141460. hdl:10400.26/14507. S2CID 53399379.
↑ Baliatsas, Christos; van Kamp, Irene; van Poll, Ric; Yzermans, Joris (July 2016). "Health effects from low-frequency noise and infrasound in the general population: Is it time to listen? A systematic review of observational studies". Science of the Total Environment. 557–558: 163–169. Bibcode:2016ScTEn.557..163B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.065. PMID 26994804.
↑ "Dissonance theory". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
↑ "dissonance", The Free Dictionary, retrieved 22 November 2019
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External links[edit | edit source]

Horror genre on IMDb

Template:Horror film Template:Film genres Template:Filmsbygenre Template:Horror fiction Template:Goth subculture

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[140] Clover, Carol J. (1 October 1987). "Her Body, Himself: Gender in the Slasher Film". Representations. 20 (20): 187–228. doi:10.2307/2928507. ISSN 0734-6018. JSTOR 2928507.

[Spines-141] Spines, Christine. "Chicks dig scary movies". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

[Nowell-142] Nowell, Richard (2011). "'There's More Than One Way to Lose Your Heart': The American Film Industry, Early Teen Slasher Films, and Female Youth". Cinema Journal. 51 (1): 115–140. doi:10.1353/cj.2011.0073. JSTOR 41342285. S2CID 144874450. Template:Gale.

[143] Sutton, Travis (9 September 2014). "Avenging the Body: Disability in the Horror Film". In Benshoff, Harry M. (ed.). A Companion to the Horror Film (1 ed.). Wiley. pp. 73–89. doi:10.1002/9781118883648.ch5. ISBN 978-0-470-67260-0. Retrieved 30 September 2022.

[144] "From Blacula to Get Out: the documentary examining black horror". The Guardian. 7 February 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2021.

[145] Means Coleman, Robin R. (2011). Horror noire : blacks in American horror films from the 1890s to present. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-88019-0 – via Internet Archive.

[146] Kermode, Mark (2001). "The British censors and horror cinema". In Steve Chibnall, Julian Petley (ed.). British Horror Cinema. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203996768. ISBN 978-0-203-99676-8. Retrieved 22 December 2021.

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[149] Heeren, Katinka van (1 June 2007). "Return of the Kyai: representations of horror, commerce, and censorship in post-Suharto Indonesian film and television". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 8 (2): 211–226. doi:10.1080/13583880701238688. ISSN 1464-9373. S2CID 145086314.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{short description|Film genre}}
-{{Redirect|Horror Movie|the Skyhooks song|Horror Movie (song)}}
+{{redirect|Scary movie|the 2000 film|Scary Movie}}
+{{redirect|Horror Movie|the Skyhooks song|Horror Movie (song)}}
-{{Multiple issues|{{Excessive examples|date=January 2017}}
+[[File:Max Schreck as Count Orlok in Nosferatu – Eine Symphonie des Grauens (1922).jpg|thumb|292x292px|[[Max Schreck]] as [[Count Orlok]] in the 1922 film ''[[Nosferatu]]''. Critic and historian [[Kim Newman]] declared that it set the template for the horror film.{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=20}}]]
-{{more citations needed|date=December 2021}}
-{{cleanup rewrite|date=December 2021}}}}
-[[File:NosferatuShadow.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Max Schreck]] as [[Count Orlok]] in the 1922 film ''[[Nosferatu]]''. Critic and historian [[Kim Newman]] declared it as a film that set the template for the horror film.{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=20}}]]
 {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
 {{Speculative fiction sidebar|cTopic=Horror fiction}}
-'''Horror''' is a [[film genre]] that seeks to elicit [[fear]] or [[disgust]] in its audience for entertainment purposes.<ref name=":16">{{Citation|last1=Kuhn|first1=Annette|title=horror film|date=2012-12-20|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199587261.001.0001/acref-9780199587261-e-0354|work=A Dictionary of Film Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780199587261.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-958726-1|access-date=2021-12-20|last2=Westwell|first2=Guy}}</ref>
+'''Horror''' is a [[film genre]] that seeks to elicit physical or psychological [[fear]] in its viewers.<ref name="Kuhn-2012">{{Cite book |last1=Corrigan |first1=Timothy |title=The Film Experience : An Introduction |last2=White |first2=Patricia |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin’s |year=2021 |isbn=9781319208189 |edition=Sixth}}</ref><!--Characteristics--> Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with [[Transgressive art|transgressive topics or themes]]. Broad elements of the genre include [[Monster movie|monsters]], [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction|apocalyptic events]], and [[Religion|religious]] or [[Folk horror|folk]] beliefs.
-<!--Characteristics-->Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with [[Transgressive art|transgressive topics or themes]]. Broad elements include [[Monster movie|monsters]], [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction|apocalyptic events]], and [[Religion|religious]] or [[Folk horror|folk]] beliefs. Cinematic techniques used in horror films have been shown to provoke psychological reactions in an audience.
-<!--History and sub-genres-->Horror films have existed for [[History of horror films|more than a century]]. Early inspirations from before the development of film include [[folklore]], religious beliefs and [[superstition]]s of different cultures, and the [[Gothic fiction|Gothic]] and [[Horror fiction|horror literature]] of authors such as [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Bram Stoker]], and [[Mary Shelley]]. From origins in [[silent film]]s and [[German Expressionism (cinema)|German Expressionism]], horror only became a codified [[genre]] after the release of [[Dracula (1931 English-language film)|''Dracula'']] (1931). Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, including [[body horror]], [[comedy horror]], [[slasher film]]s, [[Supernatural horror film|supernatural horror]] and [[psychological horror]]. The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions. Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of [[Japanese horror|Japan]], [[Korean horror|Korea]], Italy and [[Thai horror|Thailand]], among other countries.
+<!--History and sub-genres-->Horror films have existed [[History of horror films|since the early 20th century]]. Early inspirations predating film include [[folklore]]; the religious beliefs and [[superstition]]s of different cultures; and the [[Gothic fiction|Gothic]] and [[Horror fiction|horror literature]] of authors such as [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Bram Stoker]], and [[Mary Shelley]]. From its origins in [[silent film]]s and [[German expressionist cinema|German Expressionism]], horror became a codified [[genre]] only after the release of [[Dracula (1931 English-language film)|''Dracula'']] (1931). Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, including [[body horror]], [[comedy horror]], [[erotic horror]], [[slasher film]]s, [[splatter film]]s, [[Supernatural horror film|supernatural horror]], and [[Psychological horror (film and television)|psychological horror]]. The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions. Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of [[Japanese horror|Japan]], [[Korean horror|Korea]], and [[Thai horror|Thailand]], among other countries.
-<!--Reception-->Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen major [[List of highest-grossing horror films|commercial success]], influenced society and spawned several popular [[Cultural icon|culture icons]].
+<!--Reception-->Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen major [[List of highest-grossing horror films|commercial success]], influenced society, and generated popular [[Cultural icon|culture icons]].
 {{TOCLIMIT|3}}
 == Characteristics ==
-{{See also|Horror and terror}}''The Dictionary of Film Studies'' defines the horror film as representing "disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses of [[fear]], [[Horror and terror|terror]], [[disgust]], shock, [[suspense]], and, of course, horror from their viewers."<ref name=":16" /> In the chapter "The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s" from ''Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan'' (2002), film critic [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] declared that commonality between horror films are that "normality is threatened by the monster."{{sfn|Balmain|2008|p=4}} This was further expanded upon by ''The Philosophy of Horror, or Parodoxes of the Heart'' by [[Noël Carroll]] who added that "repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity."{{sfn|Balmain|2008|p=4}}
+{{See also|Horror and terror}}The book ''The Film Experience: An Introduction'' (2021) defines the horror film as a genre with origins in Gothic literature that seeks to frighten the viewer. The authors highlight the fundamental elements of the horror film as "characters with physical, psychological, or spiritual deformities"; "narratives built on suspense, surprise, and shock"; and "visual compositions that move between the dread of not seeing and the horror of seeing".<ref name="Kuhn-2012" />
+Alternatively'', The Dictionary of Film Studies'' (2012) defines the horror film as representing "disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses of [[fear]], [[Horror and terror|terror]], [[disgust]], shock, [[suspense]], and (of course) horror from their viewers."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kuhn |first1=Annette |title=A dictionary of film studies |last2=Westwell |first2=Guy |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-174442-6 |edition=1st |series=Oxford reference online premium |location=Oxford}}</ref> In his chapter "The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s" from the book ''Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan'' (2002), film critic [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] declared that the commonality between horror films is that “normality is threatened by the monster.”{{sfn |Balmain |2008 |p=4}} This idea was further expanded on by [[Noël Carroll]] in his book ''The Philosophy of Horror, or Paradoxes of the Heart'' (1990); he noted that "repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity."{{sfn |Balmain |2008 |p=4}}
-Prior to the release of ''[[Dracula (1931 English-language film)|Dracula]]'' (1931), historian [[Gary Don Rhodes]] explained that the idea and terminology of horror film did not exist yet as a codified [[Film genre|genre]], although critics used the term "horror" to describe films in reviews prior to ''Dracula''{{'}}s release.{{sfn|Rhodes|2014|p=91}} "Horror" was a term used to describe a variety of meanings. In 1913, ''Moving Picture World'' defined "horrors" as showcasing "striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards"{{sfn|Rhodes|2018b|p=97}} Some titles that suggest horror such as ''The Hand of Horror'' (1914) was a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.{{sfn|Rhodes|2018b|p=97}} During the silent era, the term horror was used to describe everything from "battle scenes" in war films to tales of drug addiction.{{sfn|Rhodes|2018b|p=98}} Rhodes concluded that the term "horror film" or "horror movie" was not used in early cinema.{{sfn|Rhodes|2018b|p=97-98}}
+Before the release of ''[[Dracula (1931 English-language film)|Dracula]]'' (1931), as historian [[Gary D. Rhodes]] explained, the ideas and terminology of horror films did not yet exist as a codified [[Film genre|genre]], although critics had used the term ''horror'' to describe films in reviews prior to ''Dracula''{{'}}s release.{{sfn |Rhodes |2014 |p=91}} ''Horror'' was a term used with a variety of meanings. In 1913, the magazine ''[[The Moving Picture World|Moving Picture World]]'' defined ''horrors'' as showcasing "striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards".{{sfn |Rhodes |2018b |p=97}} Some titles directly suggested horror, such as ''The Hand of Horror'' (1914), a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.{{sfn |Rhodes |2018b |p=97}} During the silent era, the term ''horror'' was used to describe everything from battle scenes in war films to stories of drug addiction.{{sfn |Rhodes |2018b |p=98}} Rhodes concluded that the term ''horror film'' (or ''horror movie'') was not used in early cinema.{{sfn |Rhodes |2018b |p=97-98}}
-The [[mystery film]] genre was in vogue and early information on ''Dracula'' being promoted as mystery film was common, despite the [[Dracula|novel]], [[Dracula (1924 play)|play]] and film's story relying on the [[supernatural]].{{sfn|Rhodes|2014|p=90}} Newman discussed the genre in [[British Film Institute]]'s ''Companion to Horror'' where he noted that Horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but following that decade "the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narratives patterns".{{sfn|Balmain|2008|p=5}}
+The [[mystery film]] genre was then in vogue, and early information commonly promoted ''Dracula'' as a mystery film, despite the [[Dracula|novel]], the [[Dracula (1924 play)|play]], and the film relying on the [[supernatural]].{{sfn |Rhodes |2014 |p=90}} [[Kim Newman]] discussed the genre in [[British Film Institute]]'s book ''Companion to Horror'', where he noted that horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but after that decade, “the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narrative patterns”.{{sfn |Balmain |2008 |p=5}} In the 1940s, the horror film was viewed in different terms. Critic [[Siegfried Kracauer]] included ''[[The Lost Weekend]]'' among films described as “terror films,” along with ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943), ''[[The Dark Corner]]'' (1946), ''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' (1944), ''[[Shock (1946 film)|Shock]]'' (1946), ''[[The Spiral Staircase (1946 film)|The Spiral Staircase]]'' (1946), ''[[The Stranger (1946 film)|The Stranger]]'' (1946), and ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945). Two years earlier, the ''[[New York Times]]'' described a new cycle of “horror” productions included ''Gaslight'', ''[[The Woman in the Window (1944 film)|The Woman in the Window]]'' (1944), ''[[Dark Waters (1944 film)|Dark Waters]]'' (1944), ''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]] (1944),'' and ''[[Phantom Lady (film)|Phantom Lady]]'' (1944).{{sfn |Jancovich |2008 |p=28}} Mark Jancovich wrote in the book ''The Shifting Definitions of Genre: Essays on Labeling Films, Television Shows and Media'' (2008) that ''horror'' was virtually synonymous with mystery as a generic term, not being limited to films concerned with the strange, eerie, and uncanny.{{sfn |Jancovich |2008 |p=28}}
-Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (''Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964'' (1971)) and Peter Hutchings (''Approaches to Popular Film'' (1995)) implied it easier to view films as [[Social cycle theory|cycles]] opposed to genres, suggesting the [[slasher film]] viewed as a cycle would place it in terms of how the film industry was economically and production wise, the personnel involved in their respective eras, and how the films were marketed exhibited and distributed.{{sfn|Jancovich|2000|p=31-32}}
+Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (''Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964'' (1971)) and Peter Hutchings (''Approaches to Popular Film'' (1995)) implied that it is easier to view films as [[Social cycle theory|cycles]] rather than genres, suggesting that viewing the [[slasher film]] as a cycle would locate it in terms of several factors: the film industry's economy and production, the personnel involved in particular eras, and the manner of film marketing, distribution, and exhibition.{{sfn |Jancovich |2000 |p=31-32}}
-Mark Jancovich in an essay declared that "there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre" between both [[Fandom|fans]] and [[Film criticism|critics]] of the genre.{{sfn|Jancovich|2000|p=25-26}} Jancovich found that disagreements existed from audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves. This ranged from fans of different genres who may view a film like ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' (1979) as belonging to [[Science fiction film|science fiction]], and horror fan bases dismissing it as being inauthentic to either genre.{{sfn|Jancovich|2000|p=26-27}} Further debates exist among fans of the genre with personal definitions of "true" horror films, such as fans who embrace [[Cult following|cult figures]] like [[Freddy Kruger]] of the ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street (franchise)|A Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' series, while others disassociate themselves from characters and series and focusing on genre ''[[auteur]]'' directors like [[Dario Argento]], while others fans would deem Argento's films as too mainstream, having preferences more [[underground film]]s.{{sfn|Jancovich|2000|p=28}} Andrew Tudor wrote in ''Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie'' suggested that "Genre is what we collectively believe it to be"{{sfn|Tudor|1991|p=6-7}}
+In an essay, Mark Jancovich declared that "there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre" among [[Fandom|fans]] and [[Film criticism|critics]] of the genre.{{sfn |Jancovich |2000 |p=25-26}} Jancovich found that disagreements existed between audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves. Such disagreement included fans of other genres who may view a film such as ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' (1979) as belonging to [[Science fiction film|science fiction]], as well as horror fans dismissing it as inauthentic for either genre.{{sfn |Jancovich |2000 |p=26-27}} Further debates exist among genre fans having personal definitions of “true” horror films: some fans embrace [[Cult following|cult figures]] such as [[Freddy Krueger]] of the ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street (franchise)|A Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' series, while other fans disassociate themselves from characters and series and focus instead on genre ''[[auteur]]'' directors such as [[Dario Argento]], while still other fans would deem Argento's films too mainstream, preferring more [[underground film]]s.{{sfn |Jancovich |2000 |p=28}} Andrew Tudor wrote in his book ''Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie'' that "Genre is what we collectively believe it to be."{{sfn |Tudor |1991 |p=6-7}}
 === Cinematic techniques ===
 {{One source|date=December 2021|section}}
-[[File:Woman-wearing-red-t-shirt-2898511.jpg|thumb|[[Mirror]]s are often used to create a sense of tension in horror films]]
+Jacob Shelton investigated in detail the many ways that horror films manipulate audience members.<ref name="Ranker">{{cite web |title=15 Ways You Didn't Even Realize Horror Movies Are Manipulating You into Fear |url=https://www.ranker.com/list/horror-movie-tricks-for-scaring-the-audience/jacob-shelton |access-date=2019-11-22 |website=Ranker |language=en}}</ref> Shelton notes that [[negative space]] can draw viewers' eyes to anything in the frame—for example, a wall or the empty blackness in the shadows.<ref name="Ranker" />
-In a study by Jacob Shelton, the many ways that audience members are manipulated through horror films was investigated in detail.<ref name=":03">{{cite web |title=15 Ways You Didn't Even Realize Horror Movies Are Manipulating You into Fear|url=https://www.ranker.com/list/horror-movie-tricks-for-scaring-the-audience/jacob-shelton|access-date=2019-11-22|website=Ranker|language=en}}</ref> [[Negative space]] is one such method that can play a part in inducing a reaction, causing one's eyes to remotely rest on anything in the frame – a wall, or the empty black void in the shadows.<ref name=":03" />
-The [[jump scare]] is a horror film [[Trope (cinema)|trope]], where an abrupt change in image accompanied with a loud sound intends to surprise the viewer.<ref name=":03" /> This can also be [[subversion|subverted]] to create tension, where an audience may feel more unease and discomfort by anticipating a jump scare.<ref name=":03" />
+Anna Powell explores how horror directors use [[cinematography]] to induce certain viewer reactions. Powell observes that lighting extremes, whether bright or dark, can prevent viewers from seeing every detail in a scene, which provokes unease. Bright lighting might also trick viewers into feeling safe.{{sfn |Powell |2005 |p=120}}
-[[Mirror]]s are often used in horror films is to create visual depth and build tension. Shelton argues mirrors have been used so frequently in horror films that audiences have been [[Classical conditioning|conditioned]] to fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.<ref name=":03" /> [[Framing (visual arts)|Tight framing]] and [[close-up]]s are also commonly used; these can build tension and induce [[anxiety]] by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is around the [[protagonist]].<ref name=":03" />
+Powell also points out how distorting space and time can confuse and disorient horror film viewers.{{sfn |Powell |2005 |p=130}} To confound viewers' senses, directors might use [[Dutch angle|tilted camera angles]] and shots in slow-motion or reverse.{{sfn |Powell |2005 |p=131-2}}
+Powell notes that directors also use colour, through costuming, setting, and [[Photographic filter|lens filters]], to communicate mood and evoke certain connotations. Red, for example, might convey blood, passion, or disease.{{sfn |Powell |2005 |p=137}} Contrasting colours bring viewers’ attention to certain places in the frame.{{sfn |Powell |2005 |p=141}}
+The [[jump scare]] is a horror film [[Trope (cinema)|trope]] where an abrupt change in image accompanied by a loud sound aims to surprise the viewer.<ref name="Ranker" /> This trope can also be [[subversion|subverted]] to create tension, as audiences may feel increased unease and discomfort in anticipating jump scares.<ref name="Ranker" />
+[[File:Woman-wearing-red-t-shirt-2898511.jpg|thumb|Mirrors are often used to create a sense of tension in horror films.]]
+[[Mirror]]s are often used in horror films to create visual depth and build tension. Shelton argues that mirrors have been used so often in horror films that audiences have been [[Classical conditioning|conditioned]] to fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.<ref name="Ranker" /> [[Framing (visual arts)|Tight framing]] and [[close-up]]s are also commonly used; these can build tension and induce [[anxiety]] by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is near the [[protagonist]].<ref name="Ranker" />
+The interaction between horror films and their audiences is another significant issue discussed by Rhodes. He notes that horror films often serve as a safe space for viewers to confront and process their fears. This cathartic experience can provide psychological relief and a sense of empowerment, as viewers face and overcome their anxieties in a controlled environment. The communal experience of watching horror films in theaters or discussing them in fan communities also plays a crucial role in the genre's impact and popularity.[6]
 === Music ===
 {{Main|Horror film score}}
-[[File:John Carpenter Live 2016.jpg|thumb|Filmmaker and composer [[John Carpenter]], who has directed and scored [[John Carpenter filmography|numerous horror films]], performing in 2016.]]
+[[File:John Carpenter Live 2016.jpg|thumb|Filmmaker and composer [[John Carpenter]], who has directed and scored [[John Carpenter filmography|numerous horror films]], performing in 2016]]
-[[Horror film score|Music]] is a key component of horror films. In ''Music in the Horror Film'' (2010), Lerner writes "music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created in imagery and themes. [[Dissonance (music)|Dissonance]], [[atonality]] and experiments with [[timbre]] are typical characteristics used by [[composer]]s in horror film music.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lerner|first=Neil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VyOAgAAQBAJ&dq=horror+film+music&pg=PP1|title=Music in the Horror Film: Listening to Fear|date=2009-12-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-28044-4|language=en}}</ref>
+[[Horror film score|Music]] is a key element of horror films. In his book ''Music in the Horror Film'' (2010), Lerner writes that "music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created by imagery and themes. Music helps to set the tense or chilling mood that horror movies often aim to achieve; it can even cause physiological effects that override learned reactions and behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Donnelly |first=K. J. (Kevin J. ) |url=https://archive.org/details/spectreofsoundmu0000donn_i6l0/mode/2up |title=The spectre of sound : music in film and television |date=2005 |publisher=BFI |isbn=978-1-84457-025-6 |location=London |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> [[Dissonance (music)|Dissonance]], [[atonality]] and experiments with [[timbre]] are typical techniques used by [[composer]]s in horror film music.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lerner |first=Neil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VyOAgAAQBAJ&dq=horror+film+music&pg=PP1 |title=Music in the Horror Film: Listening to Fear |date=2009-12-16 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-28044-4 |language=en}}</ref>
 === Themes ===
@@ Line 57: / Line 61: @@
 | link2             = Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
 | link3             = Demon
-| footer            = Charles Derry proposed the three key components of horror are that of personality, Armageddon and the demonic.
+| footer            = Charles Derry proposed that the three key components of horror are personality, Armageddon and the demonic.
 | footer_align      = center
 }}
-In the book ''Dark Dreams'', author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broad [[Theme (narrative)|themes]]: the horror of [[personality]], horror of [[Armageddon]] and the horror of the [[demon]]ic.{{sfn|Prawer|1989|p=16}} The horror of personality derives from [[Monster movie|monsters]] being at the centre of the plot, such [[Frankenstein's monster]] whose psychology makes them perform unspeakable horrific acts ranging from [[rape]]s, [[mutilation]]s and [[wiktionary:sadistic|sadistic]] killings.{{sfn|Prawer|1989|p=16}} Other key works of this form are [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]],'' which feature psychotic murderers without the make-up of a monster.{{sfn|Prawer|1989|p=16}} The second 'Armageddon' group delves on the fear of [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction|large-scale destruction]], which ranges from [[List of science fiction horror films|science fiction works]] but also of [[List of natural horror films|natural events]], such as Hitchcock's ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963).{{sfn|Prawer|1989|p=16}} The last group of the "Fear of the Demonic" features graphic accounts of [[Satanic film|satanic rites]], [[witchcraft]], [[exorcism]]s outside traditional forms of worship, as seen in films like ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' (1973) or ''[[The Omen]]'' (1976).{{sfn|Prawer|1989|p=17}}
+In his book ''Dark Dreams'', author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broad [[Theme (narrative)|themes]]: the horror of [[personality]], the horror of [[Armageddon]], and the horror of the [[demon]]ic.{{sfn |Prawer |1989 |p=16}} First, the horror of personality derives from [[Monster movie|monsters]] being at the centre of the plot, such as [[Frankenstein's monster]], whose psychology makes them perform horrific acts including [[rape]]s, [[mutilation]]s, and [[wikt:sadistic|sadistic]] killings.{{sfn |Prawer |1989 |p=16}} Other key works with this theme include [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]],'' which feature psychotic murderers without monster make-up.{{sfn |Prawer |1989 |p=16}} Second, the Armageddon theme explores the fear of [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction|large-scale destruction]], which includes [[List of science fiction horror films|science fiction works]] but also [[List of natural horror films|natural events]], such as Hitchcock's ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963).{{sfn |Prawer |1989 |p=16}} Finally, the theme of the demonic features graphic accounts of [[Satanic film|satanic rites]], [[witchcraft]], and [[exorcism]]s outside traditional forms of worship, as seen in films such as ''[[The Exorcist]]'' (1973) and ''[[The Omen]]'' (1976).{{sfn |Prawer |1989 |p=17}}
-Some critics have suggested horror films can be a vessel for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements.<ref name="Lizardi">{{cite journal|last1=Lizardi|first1=Ryan|date=31 August 2010|title='Re-Imagining' Hegemony and Misogyny in the Contemporary Slasher Remake|journal=Journal of Popular Film and Television|volume=38|issue=3|pages=113–121|doi=10.1080/01956051003623464|s2cid=191466131}}</ref> The use of horror films can help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs, for example, to depict the horrors of the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Holocaust]], the worldwide [[AIDS epidemic]]<ref name="History Horror">{{cite book|last=Heller-Nicholas|first=Alexandra|title=History and Horror|publisher=Screen Education}}</ref> or [[post-9/11]] pessimism.{{sfn|Aston|Walliss|2013|p=4}} In many occurrences, the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate,{{According to whom|date=January 2022}} yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life.{{Clarify|date=January 2022}}<ref name="Carta">{{cite journal|last1=Carta|first1=Silvio|date=October 2011|title=Orientalism in the Documentary Representation of Culture|journal=Visual Anthropology|volume=24|issue=5|pages=403–420|doi=10.1080/08949468.2011.604592|s2cid=144730190}}</ref>
+Some critics have suggested that horror films can be vessels for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, supports the use of horror films to ease the process of understanding issues by making use of their visual elements.<ref name="Lizardi">{{cite journal |last1=Lizardi |first1=Ryan |date=31 August 2010 |title='Re-Imagining' Hegemony and Misogyny in the Contemporary Slasher Remake |journal=Journal of Popular Film and Television |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=113–121 |doi=10.1080/01956051003623464 |s2cid=191466131}}</ref> The use of horror films can help audiences to understand prior historical events, for example, the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Holocaust]], the worldwide [[AIDS epidemic]]<ref name="History Horror">{{cite book |last=Heller-Nicholas |first=Alexandra |title=History and Horror |publisher=Screen Education}}</ref> or [[post-9/11]] pessimism.{{sfn |Aston |Walliss |2013 |p=4}}
+Anxieties surrounding race and racism have historically and continuously informed the horror genre.<ref name="Kuhn-2012" /> A good example is the history of the [[zombie apocalypse]] subgenre. The first [[zombie]] horror films, such as ''[[White Zombie (film)|White Zombie]]'' (1932), were inspired by stories brought back to Europe by colonizers, and these stories explicitly presented [[Afro-Haitians|Afro-Haitian]] religious and spiritual practices as evil and perverse.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McAlister |first=Elizabeth |title=Zombie theory: a reader |date=2017 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1-5179-0091-5 |editor-last=Lauro |editor-first=Sarah Juliet |location=Minneapolis |chapter=Slaves, Cannibals, and infected Hyper-Whites: The Race and Religion of Zombies}}</ref> The film which later revived the subgenre, ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' (1968), incidentally presented themes surrounding race in America by casting [[Duane Jones]], a Black actor, as the lead.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Means Coleman |first=Robin R. |title=Horror Noire: A History of Black American Horror from the 1890s to Present |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-367-76719-8 |location=Oxford}}</ref> Whether accidentally or actively, horror films demonstrate societal issues by who or what is chosen to incite fear, and how this choice is represented visually and narratively.
 == History ==
-{{main|History of horror films}}{{Horrorfilmlist}}
+{{Excerpt|History of horror films|templates=no}}In discussing narrative trends in horror, scholar Isabel Pinedo draws on the book ''Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie'' (1989) to map the development of the Anglo-American horror genre. She points out that early synchronized sound, as well as post-war period films, present threats to social order as external, while human agency (largely male) prevails. The focus is on the monster's acts of violence and the characters' failed attempts at resistance, ending with male experts using violence or knowledge to defeat the monster and restore social order.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Pinedo |first=Isabel Cristina |title=Recreational terror: women and the pleasures of horror film viewing |date=1997 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3441-3 |series=SUNY series, interruptions--border testimony(ies) and critical discourse/s |location=Albany, N.Y}}</ref>{{sfn |Tudor |1991}}
-==Sub-genres of horror films==
+Pinedo presents the category of postmodern horror. She summarizes the narrative structure as indicating the prevalence of internal threats to social order by using a combination of monstrous violence and ineffectual human resistance with open endings. These open endings may be as follows: the monster triumphs as in ''[[Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer]]'' (1990); the monster is defeated but only temporarily as in ''[[Halloween (1978 film)|Halloween]]'' (1978); or there is an ambiguous outcome as in ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' (1968), ''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre|The Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]'' (1974), ''[[The Thing (1982 film)|The Thing]]'' (1982), and ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street|Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' (1984).<ref name=":0" />{{Horrorfilmlist}}
-Horror is a malleable genre and often can be altered to accommodate other genre types such as [[Science fiction film|science fiction]], making some films difficult to categorize.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=15}}
+==Sub-genres of horror film==
+Horror is a malleable genre, and it can often be altered to accommodate other genres such as [[Science fiction film|science fiction]], which makes some films difficult to categorize.{{sfn |Odell |Le Blanc |2007 |p=15}}
+===Lovecraftian horror===
+{{main|Lovecraftian horror}}
+Named after American author [[H. P. Lovecraft]] (1890–1937), this sub-genre of horror films include themes of [[Existential dread|cosmic dread]], forbidden and dangerous knowledge, madness, non-human influences on humanity, religion and superstition, fate and inevitability, and the risks associated with scientific discoveries.
 ===Body horror===
 {{main|Body horror}}
-A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation. In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.{{sfn|Jancovich|1994|p=26}}{{sfn|Jancovich|1992|p=112}} In these films, the focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.{{sfn|Jancovich|1994|p=26}} The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of director [[David Cronenberg]], specifically with early films like ''[[Shivers (1975 film)|Shivers]]'' (1975).{{sfn|Jancovich|1994|p=26}}{{sfn|Jancovich|1992|p=112}} Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as in ''[[The Thing (1982 film)|The Thing]]'' (1982) and ''[[The Fly (1986 film)|The Fly]]'' (1986).{{sfn|Jancovich|1992|p=115}}
+A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation. In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.{{sfn |Jancovich |1994 |p=26}}{{sfn |Jancovich |1992 |p=112}} The focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.{{sfn |Jancovich |1994 |p=26}} The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of director [[David Cronenberg]], specifically with early films like ''[[Shivers (1975 film)|Shivers]]'' (1975).{{sfn |Jancovich |1994 |p=26}}{{sfn |Jancovich |1992 |p=112}} Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as in ''[[The Thing (1982 film)|The Thing]]'' (1982) and ''[[The Fly (1986 film)|The Fly]]'' (1986).{{sfn |Jancovich |1992 |p=115}}
+=== Christmas horror ===
+{{Main|Christmas horror}}
+[[Christmas horror]] is a film subgenre that emerged in the 1970s with films such as ''[[Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?]]'' (1971) and ''[[Silent Night, Bloody Night]]'' (1972),{{sfn |Newby |2018}} which were soon followed by the influential ''[[Black Christmas (1974 film)|Black Christmas]]'' (1974).{{sfn |Newby |2018}}{{sfn |Ulaby |2015}} Defining the Christmas horror genre has been described as challenging,{{sfn |DuPée |2022 |p=6}} as it has generally been regarded as a sub-genre of the [[slasher film]].{{sfn |DuPée |2022 |p=5}}{{sfn |Rockoff |2003 |p=30}} Adam Rockoff, in ''[[Rue Morgue (magazine)|Rue Morgue]]'', noted that the sub-genre sits within a trend of holiday-themed slasher films, alongside films such as ''[[My Bloody Valentine (film)|My Bloody Valentine]]'' (1981) and ''[[April Fool's Day (1986 film)|April Fool's Day]]'' (1986).{{sfn |Rockoff |2003 |p=30}} Others take a broader view that Christmas horror is not limited to the slasher genre,{{sfn |DuPée |2022 |p=5}} noting how it evolved from the English Christmas tradition of telling ghost stories.{{sfn |Newby |2018}} Christmas in literature has historically included elements of "darkness"—fright, misery, death and decay—tracing its literary antecedents as far back as the biblical account of the [[Massacre of the Innocents]] and more recently in works such as E. T. A. Hoffmann's "[[The Nutcracker and the Mouse King]]" (1816) and Charles Dickens' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' (1843).{{sfn |Newby |2018}}{{sfn |Ulaby |2015}} Although ghosts have largely been replaced by serial killers, Christmas horror creates an outlet through which to explore "a modern reinvention of the Christmas ghost story".{{sfn |Newby |2018}}
+=== Erotic horror ===
+{{main|Erotic horror}}
+[[Erotic horror]] is a subgenre of horror fiction that blends sensual and sexual imagery with horrific themes for the sake of [[sexual arousal]]. Erotic horror has had influences on French<ref name="www.kinoeye.org">{{Cite web |title=Kinoeye {{!}} French horror: Jean Rollin - an introduction |url=https://www.kinoeye.org/~kinoeyeo/02/07/kalat07.php |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=www.kinoeye.org}}</ref> and American horror cinema. The [[Jean Rollin filmography|works]] of [[Jean Rollin]], such as ''[[Le Viol du Vampire]]'' and ''[[Fascination (1979 film)|Fascination]]'', are considered quintessential erotic horror films, blending deeply sexual imagery with gore.<ref name="www.kinoeye.org" /> American cinema has also featured notable erotic horror film franchises, such as ''[[Candyman (film series)|Candyman]].''<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hobbs |first=Thomas |date=2021-10-31 |title='A living mirror to white brutality': Tony Todd on Candyman's violent (and erotic) horror |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/0/living-mirror-white-brutality-tony-todd-candymans-violent-erotic/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> An example of a British erotic horror film series is ''[[Hellraiser (franchise)|Hellraiser]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-01 |title=The sexual undertones of Clive Barker's 'Hellraiser' |url=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/sexual-undertones-of-clive-barkers-hellraiser/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=faroutmagazine.co.uk |language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Alien (franchise)|Alien]]'' features heavy erotic imagery, with the design of the [[Xenomorph]] by [[H. R. Giger]] featuring both [[Phallus|phallic]] and vaginal imagery, intended to symbolize patriarchal guilt<ref>{{Cite web |last=Topel |first=Fred |date=2019-01-29 |title=What 'Memory: The Origins of Alien' Reveals About the Sexual Metaphors in the 1979 Film [Interview] |url=https://bloody-disgusting.com/interviews/3543552/sundance-alien-documentary-reveals-sexual-metaphors-film-exclusive/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=Bloody Disgusting! |language=en-US}}</ref> as well as sex, rape, and pregnancy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-05-19 |title=What's the Meaning Behind the Sexual Imagery in "Alien"? {{!}} Watch {{!}} The Take |url=https://the-take.com/watch/whats-the-meaning-behind-the-sexual-imagery-in-alien |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=What's the Meaning Behind the Sexual Imagery in "Alien"? {{!}} Watch {{!}} The Take |language=en}}</ref>
+=== Extreme Horror ===
+[[Extreme cinema|Extreme horror]] is a subgenre of horror that emerged from early twentieth century theater through shocking performances from Paris, France's [[Grand Guignol|Théâtre du Grand‑Guignol.]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dissections Horror E-Zine |url=https://www.simegen.com/writers/dissections/Dissections%202019/Dissections_page_13.html |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=www.simegen.com}}</ref> The transition from theater to cinema allowed transgressive acts of uncensored sex, torture, mutilation, and [[taboo]] exploitation to reach a wider audience. Notably, the 1970s herald in extreme horror that is frequently cited as the beginning of the film subgenre including ''[[The Last House on the Left|Last House on the Left]]'' (1972), ''[[Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom]]'' (1975)'','' and ''[[I Spit on Your Grave]]'' (1978)''.'' <ref>{{Cite web |title=Dissections Horror E-Zine |url=https://www.simegen.com/writers/dissections/Dissections%202019/Dissections_page_13.html |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=www.simegen.com}}</ref> Extreme horror film series, such as ''[[Saw (franchise)|Saw]]'' (2004) and [[Hostel (film series)|''Hostel'']] (2005), have reached mainstream media with character(s) appearances in video games namely ''[[Dead by Daylight]]'' and the subject of musical lyrics for the band [[Ice Nine Kills]].
 === Folk horror ===
-[[Folk horror]] uses elements of [[folklore]] or other [[Religion|religious]] and cultural beliefs to instil fear in audiences. Folk horror films have featured [[Rural area|rural settings]] and themes of isolation, religion and nature.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/oct/28/devils-and-debauchery-why-we-love-to-be-scared-by-folk-horror|title=Devils and debauchery: why we love to be scared by folk horror|last=Hurley|first=Andrew Michael|date=2019-10-28|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-02-05|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/beyond-midsommar-folk-horror-in-popular-fiction-1.3963971|title=Beyond Midsommar: 'folk horror' in popular fiction|last=Murphy|first=Bernice M.|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en|access-date=2019-11-12}}</ref> Frequently cited examples are ''[[Witchfinder General (film)|Witchfinder General]]'' (1968), ''[[The Blood on Satan's Claw]]'' (1971), ''[[The Wicker Man]]'' (1973), [[The Witch (2015 film)|''The Witch'']] (2015), and ''[[Midsommar (film)|Midsommar]]'' (2019).<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from the [[Southeast Asian cinema|Southeast Asia]] region, including [[Thai horror|Thailand]] and [[Indonesian horror|Indonesia]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Ferrarese|first=Marco|title='New kinds of monsters': The rise of Southeast Asian horror films|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/2/zombie-films-breathe-new-life-into-malaysian-and-indonesia-horror|access-date=2022-01-19|publisher=Al Jazeera|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Rithdee|first=Kong|title=Into the devil's lair|work=Bangkok Post|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/arts-and-entertainment/2210099/into-the-devils-lair|access-date=2022-01-19}}</ref>
+{{Main|Folk horror}}
+[[Folk horror]] uses elements of [[folklore]] or other [[Religion|religious]] and cultural beliefs to instill fear in audiences. Folk horror films have featured [[Rural area|rural settings]] and themes of isolation, religion and nature.<ref name="Hurley-2019">{{Cite news |last=Hurley |first=Andrew Michael |date=2019-10-28 |title=Devils and debauchery: why we love to be scared by folk horror |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/oct/28/devils-and-debauchery-why-we-love-to-be-scared-by-folk-horror |access-date=2020-02-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="Murphy">{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Bernice M. |title=Beyond Midsommar: 'folk horror' in popular fiction |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/beyond-midsommar-folk-horror-in-popular-fiction-1.3963971 |access-date=2019-11-12 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref> Frequently cited examples are ''[[Witchfinder General (film)|Witchfinder General]]'' (1968), ''[[The Blood on Satan's Claw]]'' (1971), ''[[The Wicker Man]]'' (1973), [[The Witch (2015 film)|''The Witch'']] (2015), and ''[[Midsommar (film)|Midsommar]]'' (2019).<ref name="Hurley-2019" /><ref name="Murphy" /> Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from the [[Southeast Asian cinema|Southeast Asia]] region, including [[Thai horror|Thailand]] and [[Indonesian horror|Indonesia]].<ref name="Ferrarese">{{Cite web |last=Ferrarese |first=Marco |title='New kinds of monsters': The rise of Southeast Asian horror films |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/2/zombie-films-breathe-new-life-into-malaysian-and-indonesia-horror |access-date=2022-01-19 |publisher=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rithdee |first=Kong |date=5 November 2021 |title=Into the devil's lair |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/arts-and-entertainment/2210099/into-the-devils-lair |access-date=2022-01-19 |work=Bangkok Post}}</ref>
 ===Found footage horror===
-The [[Found footage (film technique)|found footage horror]] film "technique" gives the audience a [[First-person narrative|first person view]] of the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after. Horror films which are framed as being made up of "found-footage" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last1=McRobert |first1=Neil |title=Mimesis of Media: Found Footage Cinema and the Horror of the Real |journal=Gothic Studies |date=November 2015 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=137–150 |doi=10.7227/GS.17.2.9 }}</ref> Alexandra Heller-Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites like [[YouTube]] in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successful ''[[Paranormal Activity]]'' (2007).{{sfn|Heller-Nicholas|2014|p=4}}
+The [[Found footage (film technique)|found footage horror]] film "technique" gives the audience a [[First-person narrative|first person view]] of the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after. Horror films which are framed as being made up of "found-footage" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McRobert |first1=Neil |date=November 2015 |title=Mimesis of Media: Found Footage Cinema and the Horror of the Real |journal=Gothic Studies |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=137–150 |doi=10.7227/GS.17.2.9}}</ref> [[Alexandra Heller-Nicholas]] noted that the popularity of sites like [[YouTube]] in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successful ''[[Paranormal Activity]]'' (2007).{{sfn |Heller-Nicholas |2014 |p=4}}
 ===Gothic horror===
 {{main|Gothic film}}
-In their book ''Gothic film'', Richard J. McRoy and Richard J. Hand stated that "Gothic" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that "Gothic" as a whole was a style like ''[[film noir]]'' and not bound to certain cinematic elements like the [[Western (genre) film|Western]] or [[science fiction film]].{{sfn|Hand|McRoy|2020|p=3}}  The term "gothic" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film. Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.{{sfn|Hand|McRoy|2020|p=1}} Narratives in these films often focus on an audiences fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.{{sfn|Hand|McRoy|2020|p=2}}  The genre can be applied to films as early as ''The Haunted Castle'' (1896), ''Frankenstein'' (1910) as well as to more complex iterations such as [[Park Chan-wook]]'s ''[[Stoker (film)|Stoker]]'' (2013) and [[Jordan Peele]]'s ''[[Get Out (film)|Get Out]]'' (2017).{{sfn|Hand|McRoy|2020|p=3}}
+In their book ''Gothic film'', Richard J. McRoy and Richard J. Hand stated that "Gothic" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that "Gothic" as a whole was a style like ''[[film noir]]'' and not bound to certain cinematic elements like the [[Western (genre) film|Western]] or [[science fiction film]].{{sfn |Hand |McRoy |2020 |p=3}} The term "gothic" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film. Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.{{sfn |Hand |McRoy |2020 |p=1}} Narratives in these films often focus on an audience's fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.{{sfn |Hand |McRoy |2020 |p=2}} The genre can be applied to films as early as ''The Haunted Castle'' (1896), ''Frankenstein'' (1910) as well as to more complex iterations such as [[Park Chan-wook]]'s ''[[Stoker (film)|Stoker]]'' (2013) and [[Jordan Peele]]'s ''[[Get Out (film)|Get Out]]'' (2017).{{sfn |Hand |McRoy |2020 |p=3}}
-The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film. This includes Universal Pictures' horror films of the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer, [[Roger Corman]]'s Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.{{sfn|Hand|McRoy|2020|p=5-6}} By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had their ''Dracula'' stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated by ''Black Sunday''.{{sfn|Muir|2012|p=10}}{{sfn|Muir|2012|p=11}}{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=38}} In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors like [[Anne Rice]] where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=220}} Following the release of [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992 film)|Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=272}}
+The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film. This includes [[Universal Classic Monsters|Universal Pictures' horror films]] of the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer, [[Roger Corman]]'s Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.{{sfn |Hand |McRoy |2020 |p=5-6}} By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had their ''Dracula'' stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated by ''Black Sunday''.{{sfn |Muir |2012 |p=10}}{{sfn |Muir |2012 |p=11}}{{sfn |Curti |2015 |p=38}} In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors like [[Anne Rice]] where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=220}} Following the release of [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992 film)|Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=272}}
 ===Natural horror===
 {{see also|List of natural horror films}}
-Also described as "eco-horror", the [[natural horror film]] is a subgenre "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."<ref name=":13">{{cite web |url=http://www.allrovi.com/movies/subgenre/natural-horror-d584 |title=Natural Horror Top rated Most Viewed – AllMovie |publisher=Allrovi.com |access-date=24 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207022414/http://www.allrovi.com/movies/subgenre/natural-horror-d584 |archive-date=7 February 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Gregersdotter|Hoglund|Hallen|2015|p=32}} In 1963, Hitchcock defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity with ''[[The Birds (1963 film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s. Following the success of ''[[Willard (1971 film)|Willard]]'' (1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films with ''[[Stanley (1972 film)|Stanley]]'' (1972) and an official sequel ''[[Ben (film)|Ben]]'' (1972).{{sfn|Muir|2012|p=17}} Other films followed in suit such as ''[[Night of the Lepus]]'' (1972),  ''[[Frogs (film)|Frogs]]'' (1972), ''[[Bug (1975 film)|Bug]]'' (1975), ''[[Squirm]]'' (1976) and what Muir described as the "turning point" in the genre with ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' (1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres "towards a less-fantastic route" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such as ''[[Grizzly (1976 film)|Grizzly]]'' (1976) and ''[[Night Creature]]'' (1977), ''[[Orca (1977 film)|Orca]]'' (1977), and ''[[Jaws 2]]'' (1978).{{sfn|Muir|2012|p=17}}{{sfn|Muir|2012|p=19}}{{sfn|Muir|2012|p=20}} The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s such [[vegetarianism]], [[animal rights movement]]s, and organizations such as [[Greenpeace]].{{sfn|Gregersdotter|Hoglund|Hallen|2015|p=31}} Following ''Jaws'', sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such as ''[[Mako: The Jaws of Death]]'' (1976) and ''[[Great White (1981 film)|Great White]]'' (1981) to the ''[[Sharknado (film series)|Sharknado]]'' film series.{{sfn|Gregersdotter|Hoglund|Hallen|2015|p=31}} [[James Marriott (author)|James Marriott]] found that the genre had "lost momentum" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=187}}
+Also described as "eco-horror", the [[natural horror film]] is a subgenre "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."<ref>{{cite web |title=Natural Horror Top rated Most Viewed – AllMovie |url=http://www.allrovi.com/movies/subgenre/natural-horror-d584 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207022414/http://www.allrovi.com/movies/subgenre/natural-horror-d584 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |access-date=24 April 2012 |publisher=Allrovi.com}}</ref>{{sfn |Gregersdotter |Hoglund |Hallen |2015 |p=32}} In 1963, [[Alfred Hitchcock]] defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity with ''[[The Birds (1963 film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s. Following the success of ''[[Willard (1971 film)|Willard]]'' (1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films with ''[[Stanley (1972 film)|Stanley]]'' (1972) and an official sequel ''[[Ben (1972 film)|Ben]]'' (1972).{{sfn |Muir |2012 |p=17}} Other films followed in suit such as ''[[Night of the Lepus]]'' (1972), ''[[Frogs (film)|Frogs]]'' (1972), ''[[Bug (1975 film)|Bug]]'' (1975), ''[[Squirm]]'' (1976) and what Muir described as the "turning point" in the genre with ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' (1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres "towards a less-fantastic route" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such as ''[[Grizzly (1976 film)|Grizzly]]'' (1976) and ''[[Night Creature]]'' (1977), ''[[Orca (1977 film)|Orca]]'' (1977), and ''[[Jaws 2]]'' (1978).{{sfn |Muir |2012 |p=17}}{{sfn |Muir |2012 |p=19}}{{sfn |Muir |2012 |p=20}} The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s such [[vegetarianism]], [[animal rights movement]]s, and organizations such as [[Greenpeace]].{{sfn |Gregersdotter |Hoglund |Hallen |2015 |p=31}} Following ''Jaws'', sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such as ''[[Mako: The Jaws of Death]]'' (1976) and ''[[Great White (1981 film)|Great White]]'' (1981) to the ''[[Sharknado (film series)|Sharknado]]'' film series.{{sfn |Gregersdotter |Hoglund |Hallen |2015 |p=31}} [[James Marriott (author)|James Marriott]] found that the genre had "lost momentum" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=187}}
-=== Slasher film ===
-{{see also|Slasher film}}
-The [[slasher film]] is a horror subgenre, which involving a killer murdering a group of people (usually teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.<ref name=":0p">{{cite book |title=Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film|date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|editor=Clayton, Wickham|isbn=9781137496478|location=Basingstoke|oclc=927961472}}</ref> In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff that these villains represented a "rogue genre" of films with "tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic."{{sfn|Muir|2007|p=17}} Following the financial success of ''[[Friday the 13th (1980 film)|Friday the 13th]]'' (1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=218}} These films usually revolved around five properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).{{sfn|Muir|2007|p=21}} The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.{{sfn|Muir|2007|p=18-19}} The release of ''[[Scream (1996 film)|Scream]]'' (1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=274}} Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle with ''[[Bloody Beach]]'' (2000), ''[[Nightmare (2000 film)|Nightmare]]'' (2000) and ''[[The Record (film)|The Record]]'' (2000).{{sfn|Chung|2013|p=87}}
-=== Supernatural horror ===
-[[Supernatural horror film]]s integrate [[Supernatural fiction|supernatural elements]], such as the [[afterlife]], [[spirit possession]] and religion into the horror genre.<ref>{{cite web |date=2011-03-26|title=Supernatural|url=https://thescriptlab.com/screenplay/genre/992-supernatural/|access-date=2021-12-19|website=The Script Lab|language=en-US}}</ref>
-=== Teen horror ===
-[[Teen horror]] is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong, [[Anticonformity (psychology)|anti-conformity]] teenage leads, appealing to young generations. This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.<ref name=":14">Miller C, Van Riper A. Marketing, Monsters, and Music: Teensploitation Horror Films. Journal of American Culture [serial online]. June 2015;38(2):130–141. Available from: Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA. Retrieved 21 March 2017.</ref> Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions from [[American International Pictures]] (AIP) and productions of [[Herman Cohen]] with ''[[I Was a Teenage Werewolf]]'' (1957) and ''[[I Was a Teenage Frankenstein]]'' (1957).{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=70}} This led to later productions like ''[[Daughter of Dr. Jekyll]]'' (1957) and ''[[Frankenstein's Daughter]]'' (1958).{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=70}} Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.{{sfn|West|2018|p=4}}
-Prior to ''Scream'', there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.{{sfn|Shary|2005|p=99}} After the financial success of ''Scream'', teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films like ''[[I Know What You Did Last Summer]]'' (1997) and non-slasher ''[[The Faculty]]'' (1998).{{sfn|Shary|2005|p=102}}{{sfn|Shary|2005|p=99}} The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films like ''[[Donnie Darko]]'' (2001) and ''[[Crazy/Beautiful]]'' (2001).{{sfn|Shary|2005|p=103}} In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.{{sfn|West|2018|pp=3–4}}
 === Psychological horror ===
-[[Psychological horror]] is a [[Genre|subgenre]] of [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[psychological fiction]] with a particular focus on mental, emotional, and [[Mental state|psychological states]] to frighten, disturb, or unsettle its audience. The subgenre frequently overlaps with the related subgenre of [[psychological thriller]], and often uses [[Mystery fiction|mystery]] elements and characters with unstable, unreliable, or disturbed psychological states to enhance the [[suspense]], [[drama]], [[Action (narrative)|action]], and [[paranoia]] of the setting and plot and to provide an overall unpleasant, unsettling, or distressing [[Mood (literature)|atmosphere]].<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=2013-07-31|title=What Exactly Is a "Psychological" Horror Film?|language=en|work=PopMatters|url=https://www.popmatters.com/173980-what-exactly-is-psychological-horror-2495736567.html|access-date=2018-08-17}}</ref>
+{{Main|Psychological horror films}}
-== Regional horror films ==
-===Asian horror films===
-Horror films in [[Cinema of Asia|Asia]] have been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religious [[folklore]], particularly beliefs in [[ghost]]s or spirits.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Richards|first=Andy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbiDAAAAQBAJ|title=Asian Horror|date=2010-10-21|publisher=Oldcastle Books|isbn=978-1-84243-408-6|language=en}}</ref> In ''Asian Horror'', Andy Richards writes that there is a "widespread and engrained acceptance of [[supernatural]] forces" in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related to [[Animism|animist]], [[Pantheism|pantheist]] and [[Karma|karmic]] religious traditions, as in [[Buddhism]] and [[Shintoism]].<ref name=":1" /> Although [[Chinese horror film|Chinese]], [[Japanese horror|Japanese]], [[Thai horror|Thai]] and [[Korean horror|Korean]] horror has arguably received the most international attention,<ref name=":1" /> horror also makes up a considerable proportion of [[Horror films of Cambodia|Cambodian]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chronister|first=Kay|date=2020-03-01|title='My Mother, the Ap': Cambodian Horror Cinema and the Gothic Transformation of a Folkloric Monster|url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/gothic.2020.0040|journal=Gothic Studies|volume=22|issue=1|pages=98–113|doi=10.3366/gothic.2020.0040|s2cid=216404862|issn=1362-7937}}</ref> and [[Malaysian cinema|Malaysian]] cinema.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ainslie|first=Mary J.|title=Towards a Southeast Asian Model of Horror: Thai Horror Cinema in Malaysia, Urbanization, and Cultural Proximity|year=2016|url=https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5_9|work=Transnational Horror Cinema: Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque|pages=179–203|editor-last=Siddique|editor-first=Sophia|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5_9|isbn=978-1-137-58417-5|access-date=2022-01-24|editor2-last=Raphael|editor2-first=Raphael}}</ref>
-==== Hong Kong ====
+Bill Gibron of [[PopMatters]] declared a mixed definition of the psychological horror film, ranging from definitions of anything that created a sense of disquiet or apprehension to a film where an audience's mind makes up what was not directly displayed visually. Gibron concluded it as a "clouded gray area between all out splatter and a trip through a cinematic dark ride."{{sfn |Gibron |2013}}
-The Hong Kong film industry has long been associated with genre cinema, specifically for action films.{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=1}} The Hong Kong horror films are generally broad and often feature demons, wraiths and reanimated corpses and have been described by authors Gary Bettinson and Daniel Martin as "generically diffuse and resistant to Western definitions."{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=4}} This was due to Hong Kong cinema often creating various hybrid films which mesh traditional horror films with elements of other genres such as ''[[A Chinese Ghost Story]]'' (1987), which led to Hong Kong critic Chen Yu to suggest that this form was "one more indication of the Hong Kong cinema's inability to establish a proper horror genre."{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=5}}
-Various interpretations of the Hong Kong horror film have included Bettinson and Martin stating that Hong Kong films frequently prioritize comedy and romance over fear.{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=7-8}} Author Felicia Chan described Hong Kong cinema as being noted for its extensive use of parody and pastiche and the horror and ghost films of Hong Kong often turn to comedy and generally follow forms of ghost erotica and ''[[jiangshi]]'' ({{translation|stiff corpses}}).{{sfn|Chan|2018|p=97}} Early horror-related cinema in Mandarin and Cantonese featured ghost stories that occasionally had rational explanations.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=8}} The literary source of Hong Kong horror films is [[Pu Songling]]'s ''[[Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio]]'', a series of short stories with supernatural themes written in the 17th century.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=7}}{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=2}}  Unlike Western stories, Pu focuses on the value of the human form which is essential for reincarnation, leading to stories about ghosts such as [[Fox spirit]] trying to seal a mortal man's life essence, usually through sex.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=7}} This led to a relatively large degree of Hong Kong horror films, even more than their Korean and Japanese counterparts, featuring chimeric creatures exhibiting bodily features of various animals.{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=3}} According to author Stephen Teo, corporeal ‘trans-substantiation’, such as in the form of a human to werewolf or vampire to bat, is "unthinkable in Chinese culture since the rule of pragmatism requires that one’s physical, human shape be kept intact for reincarnation and for the wheel of life to keep revolving"{{sfn|Chan|2018|p=99}}
+=== Religious horror ===
+{{Main|Religious horror}}
+Religious horror is a subgenre of horror film whose common themes are based on religion and focus heavily on supernatural beings, often with [[demon]]s as the main antagonists that bring a sense of threat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-24 |title=From 'The Exorcist' to 'Saint Maud': 8 of The Best Religious Horror Movies |url=https://collider.com/from-the-exorcist-to-saint-maud-best-religious-horror-movies/ |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Collider |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2023 |title=Two New Religious Horror Films Showdown Over Demonic Possession |url=https://religionunplugged.com/news/2023/4/17/this-weekend-two-new-religious-horror-films-showdown-over-demonic-possession?format=amp |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=religionunplugged.com}}</ref> Such films commonly use religious elements, including the crucifix or cross, holy water, the Bible, the rosary, the sign of the cross, the church, and prayer, which are forms of religious symbols and rituals used to depict the use of faith to defeat evil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hong |first=Seung Min |date=June 2010 |title=Redemptive Fear: A Review of Sacred Terror and Further Analyses of Religious Horror Films |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/jrpc.22.2.006 |journal=The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=6 |doi=10.3138/jrpc.22.2.006 |issn=1703-289X |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
-Early Hong Hong horror films of the 1950s were often described by terms such as ''shenguai'' (gods/spirits and the strange/bizarre), ''qi guai'' (strange) and ''shen hua'' (godly story).{{sfn|Tsang|2018|p=20}}  Most of these films involved a man meeting a ''neoi gwei'' (female ghost), followed by a flashback illustrating how the woman had died and usually concluded with a happy ending involving reincarnation and romance.{{sfn|Tsang|2018|p=19-20}} Examples include the ghost story ''Beauty Raised from the Dead'' (1956) and ''The Nightly Cry of the Ghost'' (1957) which suggests the supernatural but concludes with a rational explanation for the proceedings.{{sfn|Tsang|2018|p=22}}{{sfn|Tsang|2018|p=25}} Other trends included humorous variations such as ''The Dunce Bumps into a Ghost'' (1957) as well as films about snake demons that were imitating films from the Philippines and made co-productions with the country with ''Sanda Wong'' (1955) and ''The Serpent's Girls' Worldy Fancies'' (1958).{{sfn|Tsang|2018|p=31-32}}
+=== Slasher film ===
-[[File:Kuei Chih-Hung on set in Hong Kong at Shaw's Studio.jpg|thumb|left|Director Kuei Chih-Hung in 1979, one of the few Hong Kong directors to specialize in horror films.{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=53}}]]
+{{Main|Slasher film}}
-Other Early works include ''[[The Enchanting Shadow]]'' (1960) based on Pu's work, which did not create a cycle of ghost films.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=8}} In the 1970s films such as the [[Shaw Brothers]] and [[Hammer Film Productions]] co-production ''[[Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires]]'' would not take off worldwide and not produce cycles of similar horror films.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=11}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=13}} [[King Hu]]'s films such as ''[[Touch of Zen]]'' would touch upon Pu's work, including plot points of fox spirits, while his other work such as ''[[Legend of the Mountain]]'' would be full on ghost stories.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=9}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=15}}
+The [[slasher film]] is a horror subgenre which involves a killer murdering a group of people (often teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.<ref name=":0p">{{cite book |title=Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137496478 |editor=Clayton, Wickham |location=Basingstoke |oclc=927961472}}</ref> In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff wrote that these villains represented a "rogue genre" of films that are "tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic."{{sfn |Muir |2007 |p=17}} Following the financial success of ''[[Friday the 13th (1980 film)|Friday the 13th]]'' (1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=218}} These films usually revolved around three properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).{{sfn |Muir |2007 |p=21}} The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.{{sfn |Muir |2007 |p=18-19}} The release of ''[[Scream (1996 film)|Scream]]'' (1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=274}} Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle with ''[[Bloody Beach]]'' (2000), ''[[Nightmare (2000 film)|Nightmare]]'' (2000) and ''[[The Record (film)|The Record]]'' (2000).{{sfn |Chung |2013 |p=87}}
-Veteran stuntman, actor and director [[Sammo Hung]] decided to blend horror with more humour, leading to ''[[Encounters of the Spooky Kind]]'' (1980). The film was popular at the box office leading to several kung-fu-oriented ghost comedies.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=5}} Directors ranging from [[Ann Hui]] to Tsui Hark would all dabble with the genre, with Sammo Hung producing ''[[Mr. Vampire]]'' and Tsui Hark producing ''[[A Chinese Ghost Story]]'', which would be stories from Pu Songling's work.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=5}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=9}}
+===Splatter film===
+{{Main|Splatter film}}
+[[Splatter film|Splatter]] is a subgenre that depends on [[violence]] and [[Graphic violence#Gore|gore]] to display and accentuate a fascination with the theatricality of [[mutilation]] and the vulnerability of the human body.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hesseldenz |first=Peter |title=Research Guides: Horror Film: Splatter Film |url=https://libguides.uky.edu/horrorfilms/splatter |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=libguides.uky.edu |language=en}}</ref>
-According to Gary Bettinson and Daniel Martin, the critical attitude towards Hong Kong horror was that it reached its commercial and artistic peaks in the 1980s, partially in response to the audience's decline in the dominance of kung fu films.{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=1}} The rise of Asian horror films in the 2000s has been described by Laikwan Pang in ''Screen'' as setting Hong Kong horror films back, stating that "once famous for churning out hundreds of formulaic horror films have almost completely died out - precisely because of the industry's fraught efforts to adapt to a Chinese market and its policy environment."{{sfn|Chan|2018|p=106}} In 2003, author Daniel O'Brien stated that the Hong Kong film industry still turned out horror films. Still, the number of them turned out much lower, with the genre rarely attracting major filmmakers and operating on the low-budget side of the industry with films like the ''[[Troublesome Night (film series)|Troublesome Night]]'' series, which had 18 entries.{{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=5}} In 2018, Bettinson and Martin found that the Hong Kong horror film had become nostalgic and contemporary, noting films like ''[[Rigor Mortis (film)|Rigor Mortis]]'' (2013) as referencing the older ''Mr. Vampire'' film while also as adapting to the shifting global market for Asian cinema.{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=2}}
+===Supernatural horror===
+{{Main|Supernatural horror film}}
+[[Supernatural horror film]]s, sometimes referred to as [[paranormal]] horror films, integrate [[Supernatural fiction|supernatural elements]], such as the [[afterlife]], [[spirit possession]] and religion into the horror genre.<ref>{{cite web |date=2011-03-26 |title=Supernatural |url=https://thescriptlab.com/screenplay/genre/992-supernatural/ |access-date=2021-12-19 |website=The Script Lab |language=en-US}}</ref> Since they often focus on undead or non-physical beings, they may create unease in viewers without a visible presence on screen. This may include characters feeling a touch or chill in the air, furniture moving on its own, mysterious sounds, or lights flickering with no apparent cause. Prominent supernatural horror films include ''[[Paranormal Activity]]'' and ''[[The Conjuring]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arnaud |first=Jourdan |date=2021-10-18 |title=Subgenres of Horror Films Explained |url=https://www.lafilm.edu/blog/subgenres-of-horror-films-explained/ |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=The Los Angeles Film School |language=en-US}}</ref>
-=====Exploitation and Category III=====
+=== Suburban gothic ===
-In the 1970s a shift in style and type of Hong Kong horror films began being produced, depicting more explicit depictions of sex.{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=52}} Actor [[Kam Kwok-leung]] who appeared in some of these films such as the [[Shaw Brothers]] produced ''[[The Killer Snakes]]'' (1974) stated that the studio's "attitude was rather shameless; they threw in nude scenes or sex scenes regardless of the genre [...] As long as they could insert these scenes, they didn't mind throwing logic out the window. ''The Killer Snakes'' was no exception"{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=53}} The film was directed by [[Kuei Chih-Hung]], it was his first horror film and led to him being one of the few Hong Kong directors to specialize in horror.{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=53}} These films were sometimes described as [[Exploitation film|exploitation]], characterized by their gratuitous or excessive nudity, extreme violence, and gore are generally regarded by critics as "bad" rather than quality or serious cinema.{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=54}} Keui would return to horror in various films after such as ''Ghost Eyes'' (1974), ''Hex'' (1980), ''Hex vs Witcraft'' (1980), ''Hex After Hex'' (1982) ''Curse of Evil'' (1982) and ''[[The Boxer's Omen]]'' (1984).{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=57}} These films were swept aside by the late 1980s when an even more raw form of exploitation cinema arose with the [[Hong Kong motion picture rating system|Category III]] film creation in 1988.{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=57-58}} Category III films from the era such as ''[[Dr. Lamb]]'' (1992) and ''[[The Untold Story]]'' (1993) were linked to horror from their excessive violence and blood-letting of their serial killer central characters.{{sfn|Willis|2018|p=60}}
+{{Main|Suburban Gothic}}
+Suburban gothic is a subgenre of [[Gothic fiction]], art, film and television, focused on anxieties associated with the creation of [[suburb|suburban communities]], particularly in the United States and the [[Western world]], from the 1950s and 1960s onwards.
-Other horror films borrowing from Western trends were made such as [[Dennis Yu]]'s two films ''The Beasts'' (1980) resembling ''[[Last House on the Left]]'' and ''[[The Imp (1981 film)|The Imp]]'' (1981), [[Patrick Tam (film director)|Patrick Tam]]'s ''[[Love Massacre]]'' (1981) resembling the American slasher film trend. {{sfn|O'Brien|2003|p=30}} Later cases of the genre often exclude the ghost story style, such as ''[[The Untold Story]]'' (1993) and ''[[Dream Home]]'' (2010) which have lead characters within scientific explanation.{{sfn|Bettinson|Martin|2018|p=4}}
+This genre often explores themes of paranoia, conformity, and hidden dangers. Suburban horror films include ''[[Halloween (1978 film)|Halloween]]'' (1978), ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' (1984), and ''[[The Stepford Wives (1975 film)|The Stepford Wives]]'' (1975), all of which use the suburban setting to heighten the tension and fear.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Subgenre deep dive: Suburban Horror |url=https://britishfantasysociety.org/subgenre-deep-dive-suburban-horror/ |website=The British Fantasy Society  |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheetz |first=Janelle |date=February 17, 2024 |title=10 Best Suburban Horror Movies, Ranked |url=https://collider.com/suburban-horror-movies-ranked/ |website=Collider |language=en}}</ref>{{better source|date=May 2025|reason=Per [[BP:RSP/VALNET]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 20, 2024 |title=The First Big Thriller of 2024 Reveals the Power of an Overlooked Genre |url=https://www.inverse.com/entertainment/best-suburban-horror-movies |website=Inverse |language=en}}</ref>
-==== India ====
+=== Teen horror ===
-{{Main|Indian ghost movie|Bollywood horror films}}
+[[Teen horror]] is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong, [[Anticonformity (psychology)|anti-conformity]] teenage leads, appealing to young generations. This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Cynthia J. |last2=Bowdoin Van Riper |first2=A. |date=2015 |title=Marketing, Monsters, and Music: Teensploitation Horror Films |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/112063413/jacc.1230320240304-1-h52eri.pdf |journal=The Journal of American Culture |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=130–141 |doi=10.1111/jacc.12303 |issn=1542-7331}}</ref> Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions from [[American International Pictures]] (AIP) and productions of [[Herman Cohen]] with ''[[I Was a Teenage Werewolf]]'' (1957) and ''[[I Was a Teenage Frankenstein]]'' (1957).{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=70}} This led to later productions like ''[[Daughter of Dr. Jekyll]]'' (1957) and ''[[Frankenstein's Daughter]]'' (1958).{{sfn |Marriott |Newman |2018 |p=70}} Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.{{sfn |West |2018 |p=4}}
-The [[Cinema of India]] produces the largest amount of films in the world, ranging from [[Bollywood]] (Hindi cinema based in [[Mumbai]]) to other regions such as [[Cinema of West Bengal|West Bengal]] and [[Tamil cinema|Tamil Nadu]]. Unlike Hollywood and most Western cinematic traditions, horror films produced in India incorporate romance, song-and-dance, and other elements in the "[[Masala film|masala]]" format,{{sfn|Dhusiya|2014|p=2}} where as many genres as possible are bundled into a single film.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=166}} Odell and Le Blanc described the Indian horror film as "a popular, but minor part of the country's film output" and that "has not found a true niche in mainstream Indian cinema."{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=166}}{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=169}} These films are made outside of Mumbai, and are generally seen as disreputable to their more respectable popular cinema.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=166}} As of 2007, the [[Central Board of Film Certification]], India's censorship board has stated films "pointless or unavoidable scenes of violence, cruelty and horror, scenes of violence intended to provide entertainment and such scene that may have the effect of desensitising or dehumanizing people are not shown."{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=169-170}}
+Prior to ''Scream'', there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.{{sfn |Shary |2005 |p=99}} After the financial success of ''Scream'', teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films like ''[[I Know What You Did Last Summer]]'' (1997) and non-slasher ''[[The Faculty]]'' (1998).{{sfn |Shary |2005 |p=102}}{{sfn |Shary |2005 |p=99}} The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films like ''[[Donnie Darko]]'' (2001) and ''[[Crazy/Beautiful]]'' (2001).{{sfn |Shary |2005 |p=103}} In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.{{sfn |West |2018 |pp=3–4}}
-[[File:1949 mahaal.jpg|left|thumb|Still of [[Madhubala]] in [[Mahal (1949 film)|''Mahal'']] (1949), an early Indian horror film.]]
-The earliest Indian horror films were films about ghosts and reincarnation or rebirth such as ''[[Mahal (1949 film)|Mahal]]'' (1949).{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=166}} These early films tended to be spiritual pieces or tragic dramas opposed to having visceral content.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=167}} While prestige films from Hollywood productions had been shown in Indian theatres, the late 1960s had seen a parallel market for minor American and European co-productions to films like the [[List of James Bond films|James Bond film series]] and the films of [[Mario Bava]].{{sfn|Nair|2012|p=125}} In the 1970s and 1980s, the Ramsay Brothers created a career in the lower reaches of the Bombay film industry making low-budget horror films, primarily influenced by Hammer's horror film productions, with little known about their production or distribution history.{{sfn|Nair|2012|p=123}}{{sfn|Nair|2012|p=125}}  The Ramsay Brothers were a family of seven brothers who made horror films that were featured monsters and evil spirits that mix in song and dance sections as well as comic interludes.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=168}} Most of their films played at smaller cinema in India, with Tulsi Ramsay, one of the brothers, later stating "Places where even the trains don't stop, that's where our business was."{{sfn|Nair|2012|p=127}} Their horror films are generally dominated by low-budget productions, such as those by the [[Ramsay Brothers]]. Their most successful film was ''[[Purana Mandir]]'' (1984), which was the second highest-grossing film in India that year.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=168}}{{sfn|Salvi|2018}} The influence of American productions would have an effect on later Indian productions such as ''The Exorcist'' which would lead to films involving demonic possession such as ''[[Gehrayee]]'' (1980). India has also made films featuring zombies and vampires that drew from American horror films opposed to indigenous myths and stories.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=167}} Other directors, such as [[Mohan Bhakri]] made low budget highly exploitive films such as ''Cheekh'' (1985) and his biggest hit, the monster movie ''[[Khooni Mahal]]'' (1987).{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=168}}
-Horror films are not self-evident categories in [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]] and [[Telugu cinema|Telugu films]] and it was only until the late 1980s that straight horror cinema was regularly produced with films like ''[[Uruvam]]'' (1991), ''[[Sivi (film)|Sivi]]'' (2007), and ''[[Eeram]]'' (2009) were released.{{sfn|Dhusiya|2014|p=3}} The first decade of the twenty-first century saw a flurry of commercially successful Telugu horror films like ''[[A Film by Aravind]]'' (2005), ''[[Mantra (2007 film)|Mantra]]'' (2007), and ''[[Arundhati (2009 film)|Arundhati]]'' (2009) were released.{{sfn|Dhusiya|2014|p=3}} [[Ram Gopal Varma]] made films that generally defied the conventions of popular Indian cinema, making horror films like ''[[Raat (film)|Raat]]'' (1992) and ''[[Bhoot (film)|Bhoot]]'' (2003), with the latter film not containing and comic scenes or musical numbers.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=168}} In 2018, the horror film ''[[Tumbbad]]'' premiered in the critics' week section of the [[75th Venice International Film Festival]]—the first ever Indian film to open the festival.<ref name="fp">{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/tumbbad-starring-sohum-shah-to-be-the-first-indian-movie-to-open-venice-film-festivals-critics-week-4801611.html|title=Tumbbad, starring Sohum Shah, to be the first Indian movie to open Venice Film Festival's Critics' Week|work=Firstpost|date=23 July 2018|access-date=21 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821165053/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/tumbbad-starring-sohum-shah-to-be-the-first-indian-movie-to-open-venice-film-festivals-critics-week-4801611.html|archive-date=21 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
+== Regional horror films ==
+===Asian horror films===
+{{main|Horror films of Asia}}
+Horror films in [[Cinema of Asia|Asia]] have been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religious [[folklore]], particularly beliefs in [[ghost]]s or spirits.<ref name="Ferrarese" /><ref name="Richards-2010">{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Andy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbiDAAAAQBAJ |title=Asian Horror |date=2010-10-21 |publisher=Oldcastle Books |isbn=978-1-84243-408-6 |language=en}}</ref> In ''Asian Horror'', Andy Richards writes that there is a "widespread and engrained acceptance of [[supernatural]] forces" in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related to [[Animism|animist]], [[Pantheism|pantheist]] and [[Karma|karmic]] religious traditions, as in [[Buddhism]] and [[Shintoism]].<ref name="Richards-2010" /> Although [[Chinese horror film|Chinese]], [[Japanese horror|Japanese]], [[Thai horror|Thai]] and [[Korean horror|Korean]] horror has arguably received the most international attention,<ref name="Richards-2010" /> horror also makes up a considerable proportion of [[Horror films of Cambodia|Cambodian]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chronister |first=Kay |author-link=Kay Chronister |date=2020-03-01 |title='My Mother, the Ap': Cambodian Horror Cinema and the Gothic Transformation of a Folkloric Monster |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/gothic.2020.0040 |journal=Gothic Studies |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=98–113 |doi=10.3366/gothic.2020.0040 |issn=1362-7937 |s2cid=216404862 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and [[Malaysian cinema|Malaysian]] cinema.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ainslie |first=Mary J. |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5_9 |title=Transnational Horror Cinema: Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-58416-8 |editor-last1=Siddique |editor-first1=Sophia |publication-place=London |pages=179–203 |chapter=Towards a Southeast Asian Model of Horror: Thai Horror Cinema in Malaysia, Urbanization, and Cultural Proximity |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5_9 |editor2-last=Raphael |editor2-first=Raphael}}</ref>
-==== Indonesia ====
+===European horror films===
-{{Excerpt|Indonesian horror}}
+{{main|Horror films of Europe}}
+Ian Olney described the horror films of [[Cinema of Europe|Europe]] were often more erotic and "just plain stranger" than their British and American counter-parts.{{sfn |Olney |2013 |p=xi}} European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror){{sfn |Wynter |2016 |p=44}} draw from distinctly European cultural sources, including [[surrealism]], [[romanticism]], [[Decadent movement|decadent tradition]], early 20th century [[Pulp magazine|pulp-literature]], [[film serials]], and [[erotic comics]].{{sfn |Olney |2013 |p=6}} In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.{{sfn |Olney |2013 |p=7}}
-==== Japan ====
+Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from countries like Italy, Spain and France, and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre and [[grindhouse]] theaters.{{sfn |Olney |2013 |p=xi}} As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin, changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.{{sfn |Lazaro-Reboll |2012 |p=11-12}} Several productions, such as those in Italy, were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.{{sfn |Heffernan |2004 |p=141}} European horror films began developing strong [[cult following]] since the late 1990s.{{sfn |Olney |2013 |p=xi}}
-{{Main|Japanese horror}}
-{{Excerpt|Japanese horror#History and evolution}}
-Some Japanese horror films have inspired American [[remake]]s. The visual interpretations of films can be lost in the translation of their elements from one culture to another, like in the adaptation of the Japanese film ''[[Ju-on: The Grudge|Ju on]]'' into the American film ''[[The Grudge]]''. The cultural components from Japan were slowly "siphoned away" to make the film more relatable to a western audience.<ref name="Holm">{{cite journal|last1=Holm|first1=Nicholas|date=30 November 2011|title=Ex(or)cising the Spirit of Japan: Ringu, The Ring, and the Persistence of Japan|journal=Journal of Popular Film and Television|volume=39|issue=4|pages=183–192|doi=10.1080/01956051.2011.562934|s2cid=194089240}}</ref> This deterioration that can occur in an international remake happens by over-presenting negative cultural assumptions that, as time passes, sets a common ideal about that particular culture in each individual.<ref name="Carta" /> Holm's discussion of ''The Grudge'' remakes presents this idea by stating, "It is, instead, to note that ''The Grudge'' films make use of an un-theorized notion of Japan... that seek to directly represent the country."
-==== South Korea ====
-{{Main|Korean horror}}
-The Korean horror film originated in the 1960s and became a more prominent part of the countries film production in the early 2000s.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=1}} While ghosts have appeared as early as 1924 in Korean film, attempting to chart the history of the genre from this period was described by Alison Peirse and Daniel Martin, the authors of "Korean Horror Cinema" as "problematic", due to the control of the Japanese colonial government blocking artistic or politically independent films.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=3-4}} Regardless of settings or time period, many Korean horror films such as ''Song of the Dead'' (1980) have their stories focused on female relationships, rooted in [[Korean Confucianism]] tradition with an emphasis on biological families.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=2}} Despite the influence of folklore in some films, there is no key single canon to define the Korean horror film.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=3}} Korean horror cinema is also defined by melodrama, as it does in most of Korean cinema.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=5}}
-''[[The Housemaid (1960 film)|The Housemaid]]'' (1960) is widely credited as initiating the first horror cycle in Korean cinema, which involved films of the 1960s about supernatural revenge tales, focused on cruelly murdered women who sought out revenge.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=4-5}} Several of these films are in dept to Korean folklore and ghost stories, with stories of animal transformation.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=2}} Traces of international cinema are found in early Korean horror cinema. such as [[Shin Sang-ok]]'s ''Madame White Snake'' (1960) from the traditional Chinese folktale [[Legend of the White Snake]].{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=2}} Despite bans of Japanese cultural products that lasted from 1945 to 1998,  the influence of Japanese culture are still found in ''[[Kaibyō|Kaibyō eiga]]'' (ghost cats) themed films, such as ''[[A Devilish Homicide]]'' (1965) and ''[[Ghosts of Chosun]]'' (1970).  Other 1960s films featured narratives involving ''[[kumiho]]'' such as ''The Thousand Year Old Fox'' (''Cheonnyeonho'') (1969).{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=3}} These tales based on folklore and ghosts continued into the 1970s.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=6}} Korea also produced giant monster films that received release in the United States such as ''[[Yongary, Monster from the Deep]]'' (1967) and ''[[Ape (1976 film)|Ape]]'' (1976).{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=5}}
-[[File:20130925—Park Chan-wook 박찬욱 Marie Claire Korea photo shoot screenshot (00m01s) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Park Chan-wook]], the director of ''[[Thirst (2009 film)|Thirst]]'' (2009), one of the many varied Korean horror films from the early 21st century.]]
-By the end of the 1970s, the Korean horror film entered a period known commonly as the "dark time" for South Korean cinema with audience attracted to Hong Kong and American imports. The biggest influence on this was the "3S" policy adopted by the [[Chun Doo-hwan]] government which promoted the production of "sports, screen and sex" for the film industry leading to more relaxed censorship leading to a boom in Erotic Korean films. Horror films followed this trend with ''[[Suddenly at Midnight]]'' (1981), a reimagining of ''The Housemaid'' (1960).{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=8}} As of 2013, many pre-1990 Korean horror films are only available through the [[Korean Film Archive]] (KOFA) in [[Seoul]].{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=1}} It was not until the 1998 release of ''[[Whispering Corridors]]'' was the Korean horror film reinvigorated, with its style containing traces of traditional Korean cinema (culturally specific themes and melodrama) but also the American pattern of making a franchise of horror films, as the film received four sequels.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=9}} Since the film's release, Korean horror films had had strong diversity with gothic tales like ''[[A Tale of Two Sisters]]'' (2003), gory horror films like ''[[Bloody Reunion]]'' (2006), horror comedy (''[[To Catch a Virgin Ghost]]'' (2004)), vampire films (''[[Thirst (2009 film)|Thirst]]'' (2009)), and independent productions (''Teenage Hooker Became a Killing Machine'' (2000)).{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=9}} These films varied in popularity with [[Ahn Byeong-ki]]'s ''[[Phone (film)|Phone]]'' (2002) reaching the top ten in the domestic box office sales in 2002 while in 2007, no locally produced Korean horror films were financially successful with local audiences.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=9}}  In 2020, Anton Bitel declared in ''[[Sight & Sound]]'' that South Korea was one of the international hot spots for horror film production in the last decade, citing the international and popular releases of films like ''[[Train to Busan]]'' (2016), ''[[The Odd Family: Zombie on Sale]]'' (2019) ''[[Peninsula (film)|Peninsula]]'' (2020) and ''[[The Wailing (2016 film)|The Wailing]]'' (2016).{{sfn|Bitel|2020|p=49}}
-==== Thailand ====
-{{Excerpt|Thai horror}}
 ===Oceania===
 ==== Australia ====
-It is unknown when [[Cinema of Australia|Australia's cinema]] first horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging from ''[[The Strangler's Grip]]'' (1912) to ''[[The Face at the Window (1919 film)|The Face at the Window]]'' (1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear in ''[[The Guyra Ghost Mystery|Guyra Ghost Mystery]]'' (1921).{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=9}} By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=5-6}} It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release with ''[[Dead Easy (1970 film)|Dead Easy]]'' (1970) and ''[[Night of Fear (film)|Night of Fear]]'' (1973). ''[[The Cars That Ate Paris]]'' (1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=9}} 1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films ([[Ozploitation]]), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called the [[cultural cringe]].{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=10}} The greater success of genre films like ''[[Mad Max (film)|Mad Max]]'' (1979), ''[[The Last Wave]]'' (1977) and ''[[Patrick (1978 film)|Patrick]]'' (1978) led to the [[Australian Film Commission]] to change its focus to being a more commercial operation. This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures. A new development known as the [[Film and television financing in Australia|10BA tax shelter scheme]] was developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author of ''Australian Horror Films'', suggested meant "making a profit was more important than making a good film."{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=10}} Shelley called these films derivative of "American films and presenting generic American material".{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=10}} These films included the horror film productions of [[Antony I. Ginnane]].{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=192}} While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than five horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=12}}{{sfn|Withers|2016}} It was only after the success of ''[[Wolf Creek (film)|Wolf Creek]]'' (2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.{{sfn|Shelley|2012|p=12}}{{sfn|Withers|2016}}
+It is unknown when [[Cinema of Australia|Australia's cinema]] first horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging from ''[[The Strangler's Grip]]'' (1912) to ''[[The Face at the Window (1919 film)|The Face at the Window]]'' (1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear in ''[[The Guyra Ghost Mystery|Guyra Ghost Mystery]]'' (1921).{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=9}} By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=5-6}} It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release with ''[[Dead Easy (1970 film)|Dead Easy]]'' (1970) and ''[[Night of Fear (film)|Night of Fear]]'' (1973). ''[[The Cars That Ate Paris]]'' (1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=9}} 1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films ([[Ozploitation]]), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called the [[cultural cringe]].{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=10}} The greater success of genre films like ''[[Mad Max (film)|Mad Max]]'' (1979), ''[[The Last Wave]]'' (1977) and ''[[Patrick (1978 film)|Patrick]]'' (1978) led to the [[Australian Film Commission]] to change its focus to being a more commercial operation. This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures. A new development known as the [[Film and television financing in Australia|10BA tax shelter scheme]] was developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author of ''Australian Horror Films'', suggested meant "making a profit was more important than making a good film."{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=10}} Shelley called these films derivative of "American films and presenting generic American material".{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=10}} These films included the horror film productions of [[Antony I. Ginnane]].{{sfn |Odell |Le Blanc |2007 |p=192}} While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than five horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=12}}{{sfn |Withers |2016}} It was only after the success of ''[[Wolf Creek (film)|Wolf Creek]]'' (2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.{{sfn |Shelley |2012 |p=12}}{{sfn |Withers |2016}}
 ==== New Zealand ====
-By 2005, [[Cinema of New Zealand|New Zealand]] has produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.{{sfn|Conrich|2005|p=115}} New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews of [[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] as making "po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs."{{sfn|Matthews|2017}} Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions are ''[[Strange Behavior]]'' (1981), a co-production with Australia and ''[[Death Warmed Up]]'' (1984) a single production.{{sfn|Conrich|2005|p=117}}  Early features such as [[Melanie Read]]'s ''[[Trial Run (1984 film)|Trial Run]]'' (1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston's ''[[Mr. Wrong (1984 film)|Mr. Wrong]]'' (1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.{{sfn|Conrich|2005|p=116}} Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films with ''[[Bridge to Nowhere (film)|Bridge to Nowhere]]'' (1986),  and the early films of [[Peter Jackson]] who combined splatter films with comedy with ''[[Bad Taste]]'' (1988) and ''[[Braindead (film)|Braindead]]'' (1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.{{sfn|Conrich|2005|p=117}} Film producer [[Ant Timpson]] had an influence curating New Zealand horror films,  creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s including ''[[The ABCs of Death]]'' (2012), ''[[Deathgasm]]'' (2015), and ''[[Housebound (2014 film)|Housebound]]'' (2014).{{sfn|Matthews|2017}} Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films like ''[[What We Do in the Shadows]]'' (2014) with [[Jonathan King (film director)|Jonathan King]], director of ''[[Black Sheep (2006 New Zealand film)|Black Sheep]]'' (2006) and ''[[The Tattooist]]'' (2007) stating "I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen."{{sfn|Matthews|2017}}
+By 2005, [[Cinema of New Zealand|New Zealand]] has produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.{{sfn |Conrich |2005 |p=115}} New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews of [[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] as making "po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs."{{sfn |Matthews |2017}} Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions are ''[[Strange Behavior]]'' (1981), a co-production with Australia and ''[[Death Warmed Up]]'' (1984) a single production.{{sfn |Conrich |2005 |p=117}} Early features such as [[Melanie Read]]'s ''[[Trial Run (1984 film)|Trial Run]]'' (1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston's ''[[Mr. Wrong (1984 film)|Mr. Wrong]]'' (1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.{{sfn |Conrich |2005 |p=116}} Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films with ''[[Bridge to Nowhere (film)|Bridge to Nowhere]]'' (1986), and the early films of [[Peter Jackson]] who combined splatter films with comedy with ''[[Bad Taste]]'' (1988) and ''[[Braindead (film)|Braindead]]'' (1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.{{sfn |Conrich |2005 |p=117}} Film producer [[Ant Timpson]] had an influence curating New Zealand horror films, creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s including ''[[The ABCs of Death]]'' (2012), ''[[Deathgasm]]'' (2015), and ''[[Housebound (2014 film)|Housebound]]'' (2014).{{sfn |Matthews |2017}} Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films like ''[[What We Do in the Shadows]]'' (2014) with [[Jonathan King (film director)|Jonathan King]], director of ''[[Black Sheep (2006 New Zealand film)|Black Sheep]]'' (2006) and ''[[The Tattooist]]'' (2007) stating "I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen."{{sfn |Matthews |2017}}
-===European horror films===
-Ian Olney described the horror films of [[Cinema of Europe|Europe]] were often more erotic and "just plain stranger" than their British and American counter-parts.{{sfn|Olney|2013|p=xi}} European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror){{sfn|Wynter|2016|p=44}} draw from distinctly European cultural sources, including [[surrealism]], [[romanticism]], [[Decadent movement|decadent tradition]], early 20th century [[Pulp magazine|pulp-literature]], [[film serials]], and [[erotic comics]].{{sfn|Olney|2013|p=6}} In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.{{sfn|Olney|2013|p=7}}
-Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from counties like Italy, Spain and France and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre and [[Grindhouse|grindhouse theatres]].{{sfn|Olney|2013|p=xi}}
-As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=11-12}} Several productions, such as those in Italy were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.{{sfn|Heffernan|2004|p=141}} European horror films began developing strong [[cult following]] since the late 1990s.{{sfn|Olney|2013|p=xi}}
-==== France ====
-{{See also|New French Extremity}}
-[[File:Agathe Rousselle, Julia Ducournau, Vincent Lindon at Cannes 2021 closing ceremony.jpg|thumb|left|French director [[Julia Ducournau]] (centre) won the {{Lang|fr|[[Palme d'Or]]|italic=no}} for horror film ''[[Titane]]''. She is pictured with actors [[Agathe Rousselle]] and [[Vincent Lindon]], who star in the film, at the [[2021 Cannes Film Festival]].]]
-[[Cinema of France|France]] never truly developed a horror film movement to the volume that the United Kingdom or Italy had produced.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=47}} In their book ''European Nightmares'', editors Patricia Allmer, Emily Brick, and David Huxley noted that French cinema was generally perceived as having a tradition of the fantastic, rather than horror films. The editors noted that French cinema had produced a series of outstanding individual horror films, from directors who did not specialize in the field.{{sfn|West|2016|p=7}} In their book ''Horror Films'', Colin Odell & Michelle Le Blanc referred to director [[Jean Rollin]] as one of the countries most consistent horror ''auteurs'' with 40 years of productions described as "highly divisive" low budget horror films often featuring erotic elements, vampires, low budgets, pulp stories and references to both high and low European art.{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=48}} Another of the few French directors who specialized in horror is [[Alexandre Aja]], who stated that "the problem with the French is that they don't trust their own language [when it comes to horror]. American horror movies do well, but in their own language, the French just aren't interested."{{sfn|West|2016|p=7}}
-A 21st-century movement of [[Transgressive art|transgressive]] French cinema known as [[New French Extremity]] was named by film programmer James Quandt in 2004, who declared and derided that films of [[Catherine Breillat]], [[Claire Denis]], [[Gaspar Noé]], and [[Bruno Dumont]], among others, had made "cinema suddenly determined to break every taboo, to wade in rivers of viscera and spumes of sperm, to fill each frame with flesh, nubile, or gnarled, and subject it to all manner of penetration mutilation and defilement."{{sfn|West|2016|p=5}} In her book ''Films of the New French Extremity'', Alexandra West described the phenomenon as initially an art house movement, but as the directors of those films started making horror films fitting [[Art horror|arthouse]] standards such as ''[[Trouble Every Day (film)|Trouble Every Day]]'' (2001) and [[Marina de Van]]'s ''[[In My Skin (film)|In My Skin]]'' (2002), other directors began making more what West described as "outright horror films" such as Aja's ''[[High Tension]]'' (2003) and [[Xavier Gens]]' ''[[Frontier(s)]]'' (2007). Some of these horror films of the New French Extremity movement would regularly place on "Best Of" genre lists, such as ''[[Martyrs (2008 film)|Martyrs]]'' (2008), ''[[Inside (2007 film)|Inside]]'' (2007) and ''[[High Tension]]'' (2003) while [[Julia Ducournau]]'s film ''[[Titane]]'' (2021) won the {{Lang|fr|[[Palme d'Or]]|italic=no}} at the [[2021 Cannes Film Festival]].{{sfn|West|2016|p=6}}{{sfn|LaCava|2021}}
-====Germany====
-[[File:IFFR 2015 - German Angst-10.jpg|thumb|[[Jörg Buttgereit]] in 2015. Buttgereit was described by Kai-Uwe Werbeck as "arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s"{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=439}}]]
-German postwar horror films remained marginal after its success during the silent film era.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=436}}  The Third Reich ended production of horror films and German productions never gained a mass audience in Germany's horror film output leading the genre to not return in any major form until the late 1960s.{{sfn|Halle|2003|p=281}}{{sfn|Halle|2003|p=284}} Between 1933 and 1989, Randall Halle stated about only 34 films that could be described as horror films and 45 which were co-productions with other countries, primarily Spain and Italy. Outside of Herzog's ''Nosferatu'' (1979) most of these films low-budget that focused on erotic themes over horrific turns in narrative.{{sfn|Halle|2003|p=284}} In the mid-1970s, ''[[Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons]]'' was tasked with protection of minors from violent, racist and pornographic content in literature and comic books which led to increased the code which became law in 1973.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=437}} These laws expanded to home video in 1985 following the release of titles such as [[Sam Raimi]]'s ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' (1981) and the political change when [[Helmut Kohl]] became chancellor in 1982.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=437-438}} The amount of West German film productions were already low in the 1980s, leaving the genre to be shot by amateurs who had  little to no budgets.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=438}} In the early 1980s, West Germany's government cracked down on graphic horror films similar to the United Kingdom's [[Video nasty]] panic.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=435}} A direct response to this led to West German independent directors in the late 1980s and early 1990s, West German indie directors to release a comparatively high number of what Kai-Uwe Werbeck described as low-budget "hyper-violent horror films" sometimes described as [[German underground horror]].{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=435}}{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=447}} Werbeck described the most prominent of these were of [[Jörg Buttgereit]], described by Werbeck as "arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s", one which Harald Harzheim claimed to be "the first German director since the 1920s to give the horror genre new impulses".{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=439}} Similar gory films such as [[Olaf Ittenbach]]'s ''[[The Burning Moon]]'' was the first, and last film to be made in Germany that is still banned there as of 2016.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=435}}{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=443}}
-German horror films made a comeback in what Werbeck described as a mainstream fashion in the 21st century.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=447}} This included the box office hit ''[[Anatomy (film)|Anatomy]]'' (2000) and ''[[Antibodies (film)|Antibodies]]'' (2005), who Odell and Le Blanc described as being a similar to the 1960s ''[[Films based on works by Edgar Wallace#The 1960s German "Krimi" film movement|krimi]]'' genre of crime films.{{sfn|Werbeck|2016|p=443}}{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=56-57}}  The second were films made for international markets such as ''[[Legion of the Dead (2001 film)|Legion of the Dead]]'' (2001) and the video game adaptations directed [[Uwe Boll]] such as ''[[House of the Dead (film)|House of the Dead]]'' (2003) and ''[[Alone in the Dark (2005 film)|Alone in the Dark]]'' (2005).{{sfn|Odell|Le Blanc|2007|p=56-57}}
-====Italy====
-{{see also|Giallo}}
-Early silent Italian ''[[fantastique]]'' films focused more on adventure and farce opposed to Germany's [[German Expressionism (cinema)|expressionism]].{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=11}} The [[National Fascist Party]] in Italy had forced film in the early sound era to "spread the civilization of Rome throughout the world as quickly as possible."{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=12}} Another influence was the Centro Cattolico Cinematografico (Catholic Cinematic Centre) that was described by Curti as "permissive towards propaganda and repressive against anything related to sexuality or morality."{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=12}} The [[Vatican City]]'s newspaper ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' for example, critiqued the circulation of films like ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935) in 1940.{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=12}}
-As [[Italian neorealism]] had monopolized Italian cinema in the 1940s, and as the average Italian standard for living increased, Italian critic and historian [[Gian Piero Brunetta]] stated that it would "appear legitimate to start exploring the fantastic."{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=15}} Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi echoed these statements, stating in 1963 that "ghosts, monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing, and are accompanied by a state of well-being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years"{{sfn|Shipka|2011|p=22}}{{sfn|Fofi|1963|p=80}} Initially, this was a rise in ''[[Sword-and-sandal|peplum]]'' films after the release of ''[[Hercules (1958 film)|Hercules]]'' (1958).{{sfn|Lucas|2013b|p=15}} Italy started moving beyond peplums making [[Western (genre)|Westerns]] and horror films which were less expensive to produce than the previous sword-and-sandal films.{{sfn|Heffernan|2004|p=141}}
-Italy's initial wave of horror films were [[gothic horror]] were rooted in popular cinema, and were often co-productions with other countries.{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=15}} Curti described the initial wave of the 1960s Italian gothic horror allowed directors like [[Mario Bava]], [[Riccardo Freda]] and [[Antonio Margheriti]] to helm what Curti described as "some of their very best works."{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=15-16}} Bava's ''Black Sunday'' (1960) was particularly influential.{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=38}} Many productions of this era were often written in a hurry, sometimes developed during filming production by production companies that often did not last very long, sometimes for only one film production.{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=16}} After 1966, the gothic cycle ended, primarily through a broader crisis that effected the Italian film industry with its audience rapidly shrinking.{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=17}} Some gothics continued to be produced into the beginning of the 1970s, while the influence of the genre was felt in other Italian genres like the [[Spaghetti Western]].{{sfn|Curti|2015|p=17-18}}
-[[File:Jessica Harper in Suspiria.jpg|thumb|Still from [[Dario Argento]]'s ''[[Suspiria]]'' (1977). Curti described the film as developing an "artistic rebirth" and "irrational dimension" to the Italian gothic from its "set pieces to the color and the music."{{sfn|Curti|2017|p=183}}]]
-The term ''[[giallo]]'', which means "yellow" in Italian, is derived from ''[[Il Giallo Mondadori]]'', a long-running series of mystery and crime novels identifiable by their distinctive uniform yellow covers, and is used in Italy to describe all mystery and thriller fiction. English-language critics use the term to describe more specific films within the genre, involving a murder mystery that revels in the details of the murder rather than the deduction of it or police procedural elements.{{sfn|Lucas|2013|p=542}} [[Tim Lucas]] deemed early films in the genre such as Bava's ''[[The Girl Who Knew Too Much (1963 film)|The Girl Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1963) while Curti described ''[[Blood and Black Lace]]'' (1964) as predominantly a series of violent, erotically charged set pieces that are "increasingly elaborate and spectacular" in their construction, and that Bava pushed these elements to the extreme which would solidify the genre.{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=20}}{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=21}}{{sfn|Lucas|2013|p=542}}  It was not until the success of [[Dario Argento]]'s 1970 film ''[[The Bird with the Crystal Plumage]]'' that the ''giallo'' genre started a major trend in Italian cinema.{{sfn|Lucas|2013|p=557}}{{sfn|Lucas|2013|p=558}}
-Other smaller trends permutated in Italy in the 1970s such as films involving [[Cannibal film|cannibals]], [[Zombie film|zombies]] and [[Nazi exploitation|Nazis]] which Newman described as "disreputable crazes".{{sfn|Marriott|Newman|2018|p=141}} In Italy entered the 1980s, the Italian film industry would gradually move towards making films for television.{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=4}} The decade started with a high-budgeted production of Argento's ''[[Inferno (1980 film)|Inferno]]'' (1980) and with the death of Mario Bava, Fulci became what historian Roberto Curti called "Italy's most prominent horror film director in the early 1980s".{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=6}}  Several zombie films were made in the country in the early 80s from Fulci and others while Argento would continue directing and producing films for others such as [[Lamberto Bava]].{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=6}} As Fulci's health deteriorated towards the end of the decade, many directors turned to making horror films for [[Joe D'Amato]]'s Filmirage company, independent films or works for television and home video.{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=8}}{{sfn|Curti|2019|p=191}}
-====Spain====
-The highest point of production of Spanish horror films took place during late Francoism, between 1968 and 1975,{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=7}} a period associated to the so-called Fantaterror, the local expression of Euro Horror, identifiable for its "disproportionate doses of sex and violence".{{sfn|Rodríguez Ortega|Romero Santos|2020|p=317}} During this period, several Spanish filmmakers appeared with unique styles and themes such as [[Jesús Franco]]'s ''[[The Awful Dr. Orloff]]'' (1962),  first internationally successful horror and exploitation film production from Spain.{{sfn|Shipka|2011|p=175}} [[Dr. Orloff]] would appears in other films of Franco's during the period.{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=8}} [[Paul Naschy]], the actor and screenwriter.,{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=8}} and [[Amando de Ossorio]] with his zombie like medieval knights in ''[[Tombs of the Blind Dead]]'' (1972).{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=8}} These directors adapted established monsters from popular films, comics and pulp fiction and imbuing them with what Lazaro-Reboll described as "certain local flavour and relevance."{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=8}} A partial overview of films from this era focused on classic monsters (''[[Frankenstein's Bloody Terror]]'' (1968), ''[[Dr. Jekyll y el Hombre Lobo]]'' (1972)) and films that grew from trends created by ''Night of the Living Dead'' and ''The Exorcist'' (''[[The Living Dead at the Manchester Morgue]]'' (1974), ''Exorcismo'' (1975)).{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=12}} Most films of the period were low-budget films with short shooting schedules, while occasional films had respectable budgets such as ''[[99 Women]]'' (1969) and others that had art house directors attempt commercial production such as [[Vicente Aranda]]'s ''[[The Blood Spattered Bride]]'' and [[Jorge Grau]]'s ''[[Bloody Ceremony]]'' (1973){{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=13}} Antonio Lazaro-Reboll wrote in 2012 that in the last forty years, the horror film has formed as a significant part of Spain's local transnational filmic production, that created its own ''auteurs'', stars and cycles.{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=3}} For decades, it was described by Beck and Rodríguez-Ortega in ''Contemporary Spanish Cinema and Genre'' that the view of the genre has been "almost exclusively been constructed negatively" and that the rise in horror film productions in the late 1960s and 1970s in Spain was "reviled by contemporary critics, film historians and scholars".{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=5}} In his 1974 book ''Cine español, cine de subgéneros'', author Román Gurbern saw contemporary Spanish horror films as "derivative of Authentic American and European traditions" that will "never make it into the histories of Spanish cinema, unless it is dealt with in a succinct footnote."{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=5-6}}
-Film production decreased dramatically in the late 1970s and 1980s for several reasons, including the boom in historical and political films in Spain during early year of democracy. The film legislation implemented by general director of cinematography [[Pilar Miró]] in 1983 introduced a selective subvention system, causing the overall number of annually made films (including horror films) to shrink, thereby dealing a heavy blow to horror industry and the Fantaterror craze.<ref>{{Cite book|page=201|title=Spanish Gothic|first=Xavier|last=Aldana Reyes|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|year=2017|isbn=978-1-137-30600-5|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-30601-2}}</ref> In addition, there were changing habits on audiences and the visual material they sought. It was not until the late 1990s and the 2000s that Spanish horror reached another production peak.{{sfn|Lazaro-Reboll|2012|p=7}}
-After the success of private television operator [[Canal+ (Spanish TV channel)|Canal+]] from the 1990s onward investing in the production of films by the likes of [[Álex de la Iglesia]] (''[[The Day of the Beast]]''; 1995) or [[Alejandro Amenábar]] (''[[Tesis]]''; 1996 and ''[[The Others (2001 film)|The Others]]''; 2001) through [[Sogecine]],{{Sfn|Rodríguez Ortega|Romero Santos|2020|pp=321; 330}} other television companies such as [[Antena 3 (Spanish TV channel)|Antena 3]] and [[Telecinco]] (through [[Telecinco Cinema]]) came to see horror as a profitable niche, and the genre thereby became a successful formula for box-office hits in the 2000s, underpinning the wider switch in the industry from the largely State-dependent model of the 1980s to the hegemony of mass media holdings in domestic film production.{{sfn|Rodríguez Ortega|Romero Santos|2020|p=330}} [[Jaume Balagueró]]'s ''[[The Nameless (film)|The Nameless]]'' (1999), which became a popular film both in Spain and abroad, paved the way for new Spanish horror films.{{Sfn|Aldana Reyes|2017|pp=210–211}} [[Filmax]] tried to capitalise on the success of the former film by creating the Fantastic Factory genre label{{Sfn|Aldana Reyes|2017|p=211}} and eventually came to develop one of the most successful Spanish film franchises with the [[Rec (film series)|''Rec'' film series]].{{sfn|Rodríguez Ortega|Romero Santos|2020|p=324}} The success of [[Juan Antonio Bayona]]'s ''[[The Orphanage (2007 film)|The Orphanage]]'' (2007) ensued with the release of ersatz gothic films featuring creepy children.{{Sfn|Aldana Reyes|2017|p=211}} Other key names for the development of the genre in the 21st-century Spanish industry include [[Juan Carlos Fresnadillo]] and [[Paco Plaza]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Spanish Horror Film: Genre, Television and a New Model of Production|first1=Vicente|last1=Rodríguez Ortega|first2=Rubén|last2=Romero Santos|year=2020|editor-first=I.|editor-last1=Lewis|editor-first2=L.|editor-last2=Canning|title=European Cinema in the Twenty-First Century|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-33436-9_18|page=331|isbn=978-3-030-33435-2 |s2cid=219469402 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341594380}}</ref>
-==== United Kingdom ====
-{{Further|British horror cinema}}
-=== Americas ===
+=== North America ===
 ==== Mexico ====
 {{Main|Horror films of Mexico}}
-After the 1931 release of a US-produced Spanish-language version of ''[[Dracula (1931 Spanish-language film)|Dracula]]'' by [[George Melford]] for the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme of [[Relationship between religion and science|science vs. religion conflict]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and similar films, 1957-1977|first=Doyle|last=Green|year=2005|publisher=[[McFarland & Company, Inc.]]|isbn=0-7864-2201-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niNzBgAAQBAJ}}</ref> Ushered by the release of ''[[El vampiro]]'', the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and aztec mummies.{{Sfn|Green|2005|pp=6-9}} A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly in [[Germán Robles]]-starred vampire films) was producer [[Abel Salazar (actor)|Abel Salazar]].<ref>{{Cite journal|page=17|first=Silvana|last=Flores|year=2018|url=https://revistas.uam.es/secuencias/article/view/secuencias2018.48.001/11722|journal=Secuencias|doi= 10.15366/secuencias2018.48.001|publisher=[[Autonomous University of Madrid|UAM Ediciones]]|location=Madrid|title=Entre monstruos, leyendas ancestrales y luchadores populares: La inserción del Santo en el cine fantástico mexicano|s2cid=213113335 |issn=1134-6795|hdl=10486/690219|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence of [[Carlos Enrique Taboada]] as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such as ''[[Hasta el viento tiene miedo]]'' (1967), ''[[El libro de piedra]]'' (1968), ''[[Más negro que la noche]]'' (1975) or ''[[Veneno para las hadas]]'' (1984).{{Sfn|García Ruiz|2019|pp=41–42}} Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as the [[Ranchería]] setting, the colonial past or the myth of [[La Llorona]] (shared with other Hispanic-American nations).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cine mexicano y filosofía|publisher=[[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]]|location=Ciudad de México|isbn=978-607-30-2039-8|chapter=El cine de terror mexicano: más que romanticismo y gótico|year=2019|url=http://ru.atheneadigital.filos.unam.mx/jspui/bitstream/FFYL_UNAM/33/2/cinemexicanoyfilosofia.pdf|page=40|first=Pedro Enrique|last=García Ruiz}}</ref>
+After the 1931 release of an American-produced Spanish-language version of ''[[Dracula (1931 Spanish-language film)|Dracula]]'' by [[George Melford]] for the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme of [[Relationship between religion and science|science vs. religion conflict]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Doyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niNzBgAAQBAJ |title=Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and similar films, 1957-1977 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company, Inc.]] |year=2005 |isbn=0-7864-2201-7}}</ref> Ushered by the release of ''[[El vampiro]]'', the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and Aztec mummies.{{Sfn |Green |2005 |pp=6-9}} A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly in [[Germán Robles]]-starred vampire films) was producer [[Abel Salazar (actor)|Abel Salazar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flores |first=Silvana |year=2018 |title=Entre monstruos, leyendas ancestrales y luchadores populares: La inserción del Santo en el cine fantástico mexicano |url=https://revistas.uam.es/secuencias/article/view/secuencias2018.48.001/11722 |journal=Secuencias |location=Madrid |publisher=[[Autonomous University of Madrid|UAM Ediciones]] |page=17 |doi=10.15366/secuencias2018.48.001 |hdl=10486/690219 |issn=1134-6795 |s2cid=213113335 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence of [[Carlos Enrique Taboada]] as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such as ''[[Hasta el viento tiene miedo]]'' (1967), ''[[El libro de piedra]]'' (1968), ''[[Más negro que la noche]]'' (1975) or ''[[Veneno para las hadas]]'' (1984).{{Sfn |García Ruiz |2019 |pp=41–42}} Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as the [[Ranchería]] setting, the colonial past or the myth of [[La Llorona]] (shared with other Hispanic-American nations).<ref>{{Cite book |last=García Ruiz |first=Pedro Enrique |url=http://ru.atheneadigital.filos.unam.mx/jspui/bitstream/FFYL_UNAM/33/2/cinemexicanoyfilosofia.pdf |title=Cine mexicano y filosofía |publisher=[[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-607-30-2039-8 |location=Ciudad de México |page=40 |chapter=El cine de terror mexicano: más que romanticismo y gótico}}</ref>
-Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://elpais.com/mexico/2022-08-26/que-dice-de-mexico-que-sea-el-primer-pais-del-mundo-que-mas-cine-de-terror-consume.html|website=[[El País]]|first=Angélica|last=Gallón|title=¿Qué dice de México que sea el primer país del mundo que más cine de terror consume?|date=26 August 2022}}</ref>
+Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gallón |first=Angélica |date=26 August 2022 |title=¿Qué dice de México que sea el primer país del mundo que más cine de terror consume? |url=https://elpais.com/mexico/2022-08-26/que-dice-de-mexico-que-sea-el-primer-pais-del-mundo-que-mas-cine-de-terror-consume.html |website=[[El País]]}}</ref>
 ==Effects on audiences==
+=== Psychological effects ===
-=== Psychological effects ===
+In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed via [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI). This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results. It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hasson |first1=Uri |last2=Landesman |first2=Ohad |last3=Knappmeyer |first3=Barbara |last4=Vallines |first4=Ignacio |last5=Rubin |first5=Nava |last6=Heeger |first6=David J. |date=2008-06-01 |title=Neurocinematics: The Neuroscience of Film |url=https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/projections/2/1/proj020102.xml |journal=Projections |language=en-US |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.3167/proj.2008.020102 |issn=1934-9696 |s2cid=5680951 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
-{{unreferenced section|date=November 2019}}
-In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed via [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI). This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results. It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hasson|first1=Uri|last2=Landesman|first2=Ohad|last3=Knappmeyer|first3=Barbara|last4=Vallines|first4=Ignacio|last5=Rubin|first5=Nava|last6=Heeger|first6=David J.|date=2008-06-01|title=Neurocinematics: The Neuroscience of Film|url=https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/projections/2/1/proj020102.xml|journal=Projections|language=en-US|volume=2|issue=1|pages=1–26|doi=10.3167/proj.2008.020102|issn=1934-9696}}</ref>
-In another study done by John Greene & Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience the [[Excitation-transfer theory|excitation transfer process]] (ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members. The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film. In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence. Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified. Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
+In another study done by John Greene and Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience the [[Excitation-transfer theory|excitation transfer process]] (ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members. The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film. In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence. Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified. Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=John O. |last2=Sparks |first2=Glenn G. |date=1983 |title=The role of outcome expectations in the experience of a state of communication apprehension |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01463378309369506 |journal=Communication Quarterly |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=212–219 |doi=10.1080/01463378309369506 |issn=0146-3373|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
-Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films. The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] if the environment reminds them of particular scenes.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}
+Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin-risepoint |date=2020-07-13 |title=The Psychology of Fear |url=https://online.csp.edu/resources/article/pyschology-of-fear/ |access-date=2025-03-06 |website=CSP Global |language=en-US}}</ref> The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] if the environment reminds them of particular scenes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Araújo |first1=Alexandre Xavier Gomes |last2=Luz |first2=Mariana Pires |last3=Berger |first3=William |last4=Pagotto |first4=Luiz Felipe |last5=Figueira |first5=Ivan |last6=Mendlowicz |first6=Mauro V. |date=2019 |title=Can horror movies induce PTSD-like syndrome? |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1415-47142019000200360&tlng=en |journal=Revista Latinoamericana de Psicopatologia Fundamental |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=360–375 |doi=10.1590/1415-4714.2019v22n2p360.11 |issn=1984-0381}}</ref>
-A 2021 study suggested horror films that explore [[grief]] can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Millar|first1=Becky|last2=Lee|first2=Jonny|date=2021-07-01|title=Horror Films and Grief|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17540739211022815|journal=Emotion Review|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=171–182|doi=10.1177/17540739211022815|s2cid=235779574|issn=1754-0739}}</ref>
+A 2021 study suggested horror films that explore [[grief]] can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Millar |first1=Becky |last2=Lee |first2=Jonny |date=2021-07-01 |title=Horror Films and Grief |journal=Emotion Review |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=171–182 |doi=10.1177/17540739211022815 |issn=1754-0739 |s2cid=235779574 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 === Physical effects ===
-In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure to [[infrasound]] and low-frequency noise (<500&nbsp;Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonanca |first1=Iris |last2=Caetano |first2=Marlene |last3=Castelo Branco |first3=NunoA.A. |last4=Ferraria |first4=Renata |last5=Graca |first5=Andreia |last6=Jorge |first6=Ana |last7=Mendes |first7=Ana P |last8=Oliveira |first8=Nadia |last9=Santos |first9=Carolina |last10=Alves-Pereira |first10=Mariana |title=Voice acoustic profile of males exposed to occupational infrasound and low-frequency noise |journal=Journal of Laryngology and Voice |year=2014 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12 |doi=10.4103/2230-9748.141460 |hdl=10400.26/14507|s2cid=53399379 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another study by Baliatsas et al. observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baliatsas |first1=Christos |last2=van Kamp |first2=Irene |last3=van Poll |first3=Ric |last4=Yzermans |first4=Joris |title=Health effects from low-frequency noise and infrasound in the general population: Is it time to listen? A systematic review of observational studies |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=July 2016 |volume=557-558 |pages=163–169 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.065 |pmid=26994804 |bibcode=2016ScTEn.557..163B |url=https://www.nivel.nl/nl/publicaties/6138 }}</ref> Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30&nbsp;Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.<ref name=":03"/>
+In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure to [[infrasound]] and low-frequency noise (<500&nbsp;Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonanca |first1=Iris |last2=Caetano |first2=Marlene |last3=Castelo Branco |first3=NunoA.A. |last4=Ferraria |first4=Renata |last5=Graca |first5=Andreia |last6=Jorge |first6=Ana |last7=Mendes |first7=Ana P |last8=Oliveira |first8=Nadia |last9=Santos |first9=Carolina |last10=Alves-Pereira |first10=Mariana |year=2014 |title=Voice acoustic profile of males exposed to occupational infrasound and low-frequency noise |journal=Journal of Laryngology and Voice |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12 |doi=10.4103/2230-9748.141460 |hdl=10400.26/14507 |s2cid=53399379 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Another study by Baliatsas et al. observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baliatsas |first1=Christos |last2=van Kamp |first2=Irene |last3=van Poll |first3=Ric |last4=Yzermans |first4=Joris |date=July 2016 |title=Health effects from low-frequency noise and infrasound in the general population: Is it time to listen? A systematic review of observational studies |url=https://www.nivel.nl/nl/publicaties/6138 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=557-558 |pages=163–169 |bibcode=2016ScTEn.557..163B |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.065 |pmid=26994804}}</ref> Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30&nbsp;Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.<ref name="Ranker"/>
-Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience is [[cognitive dissonance]], which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Dissonance+theory|title=Dissonance theory|website=TheFreeDictionary.com|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.<ref>{{Citation|title=dissonance|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/dissonance|work=The Free Dictionary|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> A study by Prete et al. identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |last1=Prete |first1=Giulia |last2=Fabri |first2=Mara |last3=Foschi |first3=Nicoletta |last4=Brancucci |first4=Alfredo |last5=Tommasi |first5=Luca |title=The 'consonance effect' and the hemispheres: A study on a split-brain patient |journal=Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition |date=4 May 2015 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=257–269 |doi=10.1080/1357650X.2014.959525 |pmid=25256169 |s2cid=31138548 }}</ref> There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.<ref name=":12" /> Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.<ref name=":12" />
+Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience is [[cognitive dissonance]], which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dissonance theory |url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Dissonance+theory |access-date=2019-11-22 |website=TheFreeDictionary.com}}</ref> Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.<ref>{{Citation |title=dissonance |work=The Free Dictionary |url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/dissonance |access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> A study by Prete et al. identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.<ref name="Prete-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Prete |first1=Giulia |last2=Fabri |first2=Mara |last3=Foschi |first3=Nicoletta |last4=Brancucci |first4=Alfredo |last5=Tommasi |first5=Luca |date=4 May 2015 |title=The 'consonance effect' and the hemispheres: A study on a split-brain patient |journal=Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=257–269 |doi=10.1080/1357650X.2014.959525 |pmid=25256169 |s2cid=31138548}}</ref> There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.<ref name="Prete-2015" /> Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.<ref name="Prete-2015" />
-[[Skin conductance response]]s (SCRs), heart rate (HR), and [[Electromyography|electromyographic]] (EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher for [[negative emotion]]s in what is known as the "negative bias."<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Dellacherie |first1=Delphine |last2=Roy |first2=Mathieu |last3=Hugueville |first3=Laurent |last4=Peretz |first4=Isabelle |last5=Samson |first5=Séverine |title=The effect of musical experience on emotional self-reports and psychophysiological responses to dissonance: Psychophysiology of musical emotion |journal=Psychophysiology |date=March 2011 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=337–349 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01075.x |pmid=20701708 }}</ref> When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.<ref name=":2" /> The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).<ref name=":2" /> This initial response can sometimes result in a [[fight-or-flight response]], which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers.<ref name=":03" />
+[[Skin conductance response]]s (SCRs), heart rate (HR), and [[Electromyography|electromyographic]] (EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher for [[negative emotion]]s in what is known as the "negative bias."<ref name="Dellacherie-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Dellacherie |first1=Delphine |last2=Roy |first2=Mathieu |last3=Hugueville |first3=Laurent |last4=Peretz |first4=Isabelle |last5=Samson |first5=Séverine |date=March 2011 |title=The effect of musical experience on emotional self-reports and psychophysiological responses to dissonance: Psychophysiology of musical emotion |journal=Psychophysiology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=337–349 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01075.x |pmid=20701708}}</ref> When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.<ref name="Dellacherie-2011" /> The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).<ref name="Dellacherie-2011" /> This initial response can sometimes result in a [[fight-or-flight response]], which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers.<ref name="Ranker" />
 == Reception ==
@@ Line 234: / Line 194: @@
 === In film criticism ===
 {{See also|Vulgar auteurism}}
-Critic [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his article ''Return of the Repressed'' in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=7}} Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive "historic importance" intellectual views of the film genre.{{sfn|Peirse|Martin|2013|p=7}} William Paul in his book ''Laughing Screaming'' comments that "the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres. More positively, it could be said that they are more direct. Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection. Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry."{{sfn|Paul|1994|p=32}}
+Critic [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his article ''Return of the Repressed'' in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.{{sfn |Peirse |Martin |2013 |p=7}} Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive "historic importance" intellectual views of the film genre.{{sfn |Peirse |Martin |2013 |p=7}} William Paul in his book ''Laughing Screaming'' comments that "the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres. More positively, it could be said that they are more direct. Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection. Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry."{{sfn |Paul |1994 |p=32}}
-Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had "always operated under duress" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding "career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention".{{sfn|Hantke|2007}}
+Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had "always operated under duress" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding "career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention".{{sfn |Hantke |2007}}
-Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy of [[film criticism]] and major films awards.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barber|first=Nicholas|title=Is horror the most disrespected genre?|url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180614-is-horror-the-most-disrespected-genre|access-date=2021-12-20|publisher=BBC|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Davis|first=Clayton|date=2020-10-02|title=Horror and the Academy: 13 Times the Oscars Could Have Embraced the Genre|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/awards/academy-awards-horror-movies-the-exorcist-1234786184/|access-date=2021-12-20|website=Variety|language=en-US}}</ref> As of 2021, only six horror films have been nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]], with [[The Silence of the Lambs (film)|''The Silence of the Lambs'']] being the sole winner.<ref>{{cite web |last=Durkan|first=Deirdre|date=2018-03-01|title='Jaws' to 'Get Out': The Only 6 Horror Films Ever Nominated for Oscar's Best Picture|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/jaws-get-6-horror-films-ever-nominated-oscars-best-picture-1088677/|access-date=2021-12-20|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2021-04-08|title=The only 6 horror films ever nominated for Best Picture at the Oscars|url=https://www.vogue.in/culture-and-living/content/the-only-horror-movies-ever-nominated-for-best-picture-at-the-oscars|access-date=2021-12-20|website=Vogue India|language=en-IN}}</ref> However, horror films have still won major awards.<ref>{{cite web |date=2020-02-25|title=15 Horror Films That Won Major Awards|url=https://screenrant.com/horror-films-won-major-awards-get-out-rosemarys-baby/|access-date=2021-12-20|website=ScreenRant|language=en-US}}</ref>
+Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy of [[film criticism]] and major films awards.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barber |first=Nicholas |date=14 June 2018 |title=Is horror the most disrespected genre? |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180614-is-horror-the-most-disrespected-genre |access-date=2021-12-20 |publisher=BBC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Davis |first=Clayton |date=2020-10-02 |title=Horror and the Academy: 13 Times the Oscars Could Have Embraced the Genre |url=https://variety.com/2020/film/awards/academy-awards-horror-movies-the-exorcist-1234786184/ |access-date=2021-12-20 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref> As of 2025, only seven horror films have been nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]], with [[The Silence of the Lambs (film)|''The Silence of the Lambs'']] being the sole winner.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-23 |title=Oscars 2025: Is the Academy finally taking horror seriously? |url=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/oscars-2025-academy-taking-horror-seriously/ |access-date=2025-01-23 |website=faroutmagazine.co.uk |language=en-US}}</ref> However, horror films have still won major awards.<ref>{{cite web |date=2020-02-25 |title=15 Horror Films That Won Major Awards |url=https://screenrant.com/horror-films-won-major-awards-get-out-rosemarys-baby/ |access-date=2021-12-20 |website=ScreenRant |language=en-US}}</ref>
-Critics have also commented on the [[Gender in horror films|representation of women]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Linz|first1=Daniel G.|last2=Donnerstein|first2=Edward|last3=Penrod|first3=Steven|year=1988|title=Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=55|issue=5|pages=758–768|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758|pmid=3210143|issn=1939-1315}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Clover|first=Carol J.|date=1987-10-01|title=Her Body, Himself: Gender in the Slasher Film|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/representations/article/doi/10.2307/2928507/82266/Her-Body-Himself-Gender-in-the-Slasher-Film|journal=Representations|language=en|volume=20|issue=20|pages=187–228|doi=10.2307/2928507|jstor=2928507|issn=0734-6018}}</ref><ref name="Spines">{{cite magazine|last=Spines|first=Christine|title=Chicks dig scary movies |url=https://www.ew.com/article/2009/07/24/chicks-dig-scary-movies|magazine=Entertainment Weekly|access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Nowell">{{cite journal|last1=Nowell|first1=Richard|year=2011|title='There's More Than One Way to Lose Your Heart': The American Film Industry, Early Teen Slasher Films, and Female Youth|journal=Cinema Journal|volume=51|issue=1|pages=115–140|doi=10.1353/cj.2011.0073|jstor=41342285|s2cid=144874450 |id={{Gale|A277106285}}}}</ref> and [[Disability in horror films|disability]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sutton |first=Travis |title=Avenging the Body: Disability in the Horror Film |date=2014-09-09 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118883648.ch5 |work=A Companion to the Horror Film |pages=73–89 |editor-last=Benshoff |editor-first=Harry M. |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118883648.ch5 |isbn=978-0-470-67260-0 |access-date=2022-09-30}}</ref> in horror films, as well as the [[Racism in horror films|prevalence of racial stereotypes]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2019-02-07|title=From Blacula to Get Out: the documentary examining black horror|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2019/feb/07/horror-noire-documentary-black-horror|access-date=2021-12-21|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Means Coleman|first=Robin R.|url=http://archive.org/details/horrornoireblack0000mean|title=Horror noire : blacks in American horror films from the 1890s to present|date=2011|publisher=New York : Routledge|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-415-88019-0}}</ref>
+Critics have also commented on the [[Gender in horror films|representation of women]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Linz |first1=Daniel G. |last2=Donnerstein |first2=Edward |author-link2=Edward Donnerstein |last3=Penrod |first3=Steven |year=1988 |title=Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=758–768 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758 |issn=1939-1315 |pmid=3210143 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Clover |first=Carol J. |date=1987-10-01 |title=Her Body, Himself: Gender in the Slasher Film |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/representations/article/doi/10.2307/2928507/82266/Her-Body-Himself-Gender-in-the-Slasher-Film |journal=Representations |language=en |volume=20 |issue=20 |pages=187–228 |doi=10.2307/2928507 |issn=0734-6018 |jstor=2928507 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Spines">{{cite magazine |last=Spines |first=Christine |title=Chicks dig scary movies |url=https://www.ew.com/article/2009/07/24/chicks-dig-scary-movies |access-date=15 April 2012 |magazine=Entertainment Weekly}}</ref><ref name="Nowell">{{cite journal |last1=Nowell |first1=Richard |year=2011 |title='There's More Than One Way to Lose Your Heart': The American Film Industry, Early Teen Slasher Films, and Female Youth |journal=Cinema Journal |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=115–140 |doi=10.1353/cj.2011.0073 |jstor=41342285 |s2cid=144874450 |id={{Gale|A277106285}}}}</ref> and [[Disability in horror films|disability]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutton |first=Travis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118883648.ch5 |title=A Companion to the Horror Film |date=2014-09-09 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-67260-0 |editor-last=Benshoff |editor-first=Harry M. |edition=1 |pages=73–89 |language=en |chapter=Avenging the Body: Disability in the Horror Film |doi=10.1002/9781118883648.ch5 |access-date=2022-09-30 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> in horror films, as well as the [[Race in horror films|prevalence of racial stereotypes]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2019-02-07 |title=From Blacula to Get Out: the documentary examining black horror |url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2019/feb/07/horror-noire-documentary-black-horror |access-date=2021-12-21 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Means Coleman |first=Robin R. |url=http://archive.org/details/horrornoireblack0000mean |title=Horror noire : blacks in American horror films from the 1890s to present |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge  |isbn=978-0-415-88019-0 |location=New York |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
 === Censorship ===
@@ Line 246: / Line 206: @@
 Many horror films have been the subject of [[moral panic]], [[Film censorship|censorship]] and legal controversy.
-In the United Kingdom, [[Film censorship in the United Kingdom|film censorship]] has frequently been applied to horror films.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kermode|first=Mark|chapter=The British censors and horror cinema|date=2001|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203996768-5/british-censors-horror-cinema-mark-kermode|title=British Horror Cinema|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203996768|isbn=978-0-203-99676-8|access-date=2021-12-22|editor=Steve Chibnall, Julian Petley}}</ref> A moral panic over several [[Slasher film|slasher]] films in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape; the phenomenon became popularly termed "[[Video nasty|video nasties]]".<ref>{{cite web |date=2014-07-11|title=Film censorship: How moral panic led to a mass ban of 'video nasties'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/film-censorship-how-moral-panic-led-to-a-mass-ban-of-video-nasties-9600998.html|access-date=2021-12-22|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Looking Back at Britain's Moral Panic Over Slasher Flicks|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/qbe57m/video-nasty-frankie-mullin-045|access-date=2021-12-22|website=Vice (magazine)|date=9 December 2014 |language=en}}</ref> Constraints on permitted subject matter in [[Cinema of Indonesia|Indonesian films]] has also influenced [[Indonesian horror|Indonesian horror films]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heeren|first=Katinka van|date=2007-06-01|title=Return of the Kyai: representations of horror, commerce, and censorship in post‐Suharto Indonesian film and television|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13583880701238688|journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies|volume=8|issue=2|pages=211–226|doi=10.1080/13583880701238688|s2cid=145086314|issn=1464-9373}}</ref> In March 2008, [[Film censorship in China|China banned]] all horror films from its market.<ref>[http://www.shanghaidaily.com/article/shdaily_opinion.asp?id=353593&type=Opinion China Bans Horror Movies] – ''Shanghai Daily'', March 2008.</ref>
+In the United Kingdom, [[Film censorship in the United Kingdom|film censorship]] has frequently been applied to horror films.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kermode |first=Mark |title=British Horror Cinema |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-99676-8 |editor=Steve Chibnall, Julian Petley |chapter=The British censors and horror cinema |doi=10.4324/9780203996768 |access-date=2021-12-22 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203996768-5/british-censors-horror-cinema-mark-kermode}}</ref> A moral panic over several [[Slasher film|slasher]] films in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape; the phenomenon became popularly termed "[[Video nasty|video nasties]]".<ref>{{cite web |date=2014-07-11 |title=Film censorship: How moral panic led to a mass ban of 'video nasties' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/film-censorship-how-moral-panic-led-to-a-mass-ban-of-video-nasties-9600998.html |access-date=2021-12-22 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9 December 2014 |title=Looking Back at Britain's Moral Panic Over Slasher Flicks |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/video-nasty-frankie-mullin-045/ |access-date=2021-12-22 |website=Vice (magazine) |language=en}}</ref> Constraints on permitted subject matter in [[Cinema of Indonesia|Indonesian films]] has also influenced [[Indonesian horror|Indonesian horror films]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heeren |first=Katinka van |date=2007-06-01 |title=Return of the Kyai: representations of horror, commerce, and censorship in post-Suharto Indonesian film and television |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13583880701238688 |journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=211–226 |doi=10.1080/13583880701238688 |issn=1464-9373 |s2cid=145086314 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> In March 2008, [[Film censorship in China|China banned]] all horror films from its market.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-03-25 |title=Feature: China bans horror movies |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-03/25/content_6564049.htm |website=China Daily}}</ref>
-In the U.S., the [[Motion Picture Production Code]] which was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by the [[Motion Picture Association of America film rating system|MPAA film rating system]])<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hunt |first1=Kristin |title=The End of American Film Censorship |url=https://daily.jstor.org/end-american-film-censorship/ |website=JSTOR Daily |access-date=June 30, 2022 |date=February 28, 2018}}</ref> offered more freedom to the movie industry.
+In the U.S., the [[Motion Picture Production Code]] which was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by the [[Motion Picture Association of America film rating system|MPAA film rating system]])<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hunt |first1=Kristin |date=February 28, 2018 |title=The End of American Film Censorship |url=https://daily.jstor.org/end-american-film-censorship/ |access-date=June 30, 2022 |website=JSTOR Daily}}</ref> offered more freedom to the movie industry.
 == References ==
@@ Line 255: / Line 215: @@
 ===Bibliography===
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+{{refbegin|30em}}
-* {{cite book|title=Introduction to Japanese Horror Film|last=Balmain|first=Colette|year=2008|isbn=9780748630592|publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Aston |first1=James |title=To See the Saw Movies |last2=Walliss |first2=John |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7864-7089-1}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Baumgartner |first1=Holly Lynn |last2=Davis |first2=Roger |year=2008 |title=Hosting the Monster |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-0-7864-0988-4 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Balmain |first=Colette |title=Introduction to Japanese Horror Film |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780748630592}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Bettinson |first1=Gary |last2=Martin |first2=Daniel |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel |year=2018 |chapter=Introduction |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Baumgartner |first1=Holly Lynn |title=Hosting the Monster |last2=Davis |first2=Roger |publisher=Rodopi |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7864-0988-4}}
-* {{cite magazine|magazine=[[Sight & Sound]]|title=Beyond North America: Three International Horror Hotspots from the Last Decade|last=Bitel|first=Anton|date=November 2020|volume=30|issue=9|publisher=British Film Institute}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Bettinson |first1=Gary |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |last2=Martin |first2=Daniel |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8 |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel}}
-* {{cite magazine|magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|title=This Was the Decade Horror Got "Elevated"|last=Bradley|first=Laura|date=December 17, 2019|access-date=January 2, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123194425/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2019/12/rise-of-elevated-horror-decade-2010s|archive-date=November 23, 2020|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2019/12/rise-of-elevated-horror-decade-2010s}}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Bitel |first=Anton |date=November 2020 |title=Beyond North America: Three International Horror Hotspots from the Last Decade |magazine=[[Sight & Sound]] |publisher=British Film Institute |volume=30 |issue=9}}
-* {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Felicia |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel|year=2018 |chapter=Performing (Comic) Abjection in the Hong Kong Ghost Story |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8}}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Bradley |first=Laura |date=December 17, 2019 |title=This Was the Decade Horror Got "Elevated" |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2019/12/rise-of-elevated-horror-decade-2010s |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123194425/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2019/12/rise-of-elevated-horror-decade-2010s |archive-date=November 23, 2020 |access-date=January 2, 2021 |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Chibnall |first1=Steve |last2=Petley |first2=Julian |year=2002 |title=British horror cinema |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-23004-7 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Benshoff |first=Harry M. |title=A Companion to the Horror Film |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |year=2014 |isbn=9780470672600 |editor-last=Benshoff |editor-first=Harry M. |chapter=Horror Before "The Horror Film"}}
-* {{cite news|last=Collins|first=Charlie|title=The Stage|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=December 1, 1930}}
+* {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Felicia |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8 |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |chapter=Performing (Comic) Abjection in the Hong Kong Ghost Story |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel}}
-* {{cite book|title=Horror International (Contemporary Approaches to Film and Television)|year=2005|publisher=Wayne State University Press|chapter=Kiwi Gothic: New Zealand's Cinema of a Perilous Paradise|last=Conrich|first=Ian|isbn=9780814331019}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Chibnall |first1=Steve |title=British horror cinema |last2=Petley |first2=Julian |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-23004-7}}
-* {{cite book|title=American Horror Film: The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium|year=2010|isbn=9781604734546|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|last1=Craig|first1=Pamela|last2=Fradley|first2=Matin}}
+* {{cite news |last=Collins |first=Charlie |date=December 1, 1930 |title=The Stage |newspaper=Chicago Tribune}}
-* {{cite book|last=Chung|first=Hye Seung|title=Korean Horror Cinema|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|editor-first1=Alison|editor-last1=Peirse|editor-first2=Martin|editor-last2=Daniel|year=2013|chapter=Acacia and Adoption Anxiety in Korean Horror Cinema}}
+* {{cite book |last=Conrich |first=Ian |title=Horror International (Contemporary Approaches to Film and Television) |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780814331019 |chapter=Kiwi Gothic: New Zealand's Cinema of a Perilous Paradise}}
-* {{cite book
+* Corrigan, Timothy; White, Patricia (2021). ''The'' ''Film Experience : An Introduction'' (Sixth edition.). Bedford/St. Martin's. {{ISBN|9781319208189}}.
-| last= Curti
+* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Pamela |title=American Horror Film: The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium |last2=Fradley |first2=Matin |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |year=2010 |isbn=9781604734546}}
-| first= Roberto
+* {{cite book |last=Chung |first=Hye Seung |title=Korean Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |editor-last1=Peirse |editor-first1=Alison |chapter=Acacia and Adoption Anxiety in Korean Horror Cinema |editor-last2=Daniel |editor-first2=Martin}}
-| title= Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1957–1969
+* {{cite book |last=Curti
-| publisher= [[McFarland & Company|McFarland]]
+ |first=Roberto
-| isbn= 978-1-4766-1989-7
+ |title=Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1957–1969
-| year= 2015
+ |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]]
+ |year=2015
+ |isbn=978-1-4766-1989-7
 }}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |last=Curti |first=Roberto |title=Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1970–1979 |publisher=McFarland |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4766-2960-5}}
- |last=Curti
+* {{cite book |last=Curti |first=Roberto |title=Riccardo Freda: The Life and Works of a Born Filmmaker |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1476628387 |ref=FredaBook}}
- |first=Roberto
+* {{cite book |last=Curti |first=Roberto |title=Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1980-1989 |publisher=McFarland |year=2019  |isbn=978-1-4766-7243-4}}
- |title=Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1970–1979
+* {{cite journal |last=Dhusiya |first=Mithuraaj |date=February 2014 |title=Let the Ghost Speak: A Study of Contemporary Indian Horror Cinema |journal=Wide Screen |volume=5 |issue=1 |issn=1757-3920}}
- |publisher=McFarland
+* {{Cite book |last=DuPée |first=Matthew C. |title=A Scary Little Christmas: A History of Yuletide Horror Films, 1972–2020 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-4766-7999-0}}
- |isbn=978-1-4766-2960-5
+* {{cite web |last=Ebert |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Ebert |date=March 12, 2006 |title=Cat People (1942) |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-cat-people-1942 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828234320/https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-cat-people-1942 |archive-date=August 28, 2014 |work=[[Chicago Sun-Times]] |location=Chicago, Illinois}}
- |year=2017
+* {{cite book |last=Elsaesser |first=Thomas |title=Expressionism in the Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4744-1119-6 |editor-last1=Brill |editor-first1=Olaf |chapter=Expressionist Cinema - Style and Design in Film History |editor-last2=Rhodes |editor-first2=Gary D. |authorlink=Thomas Elsaesser}}
- }}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Fofi |first=Goffredo |date=September 1963 |title=Terreur in Italie |magazine=Midi-Minuit Fantastique |issue=7}}
-* {{cite book |last=Curti |first=Roberto |title=Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1980-1989 |publisher=McFarland |year= 2019 |isbn=978-1-4766-7243-4}}
+* {{cite book |last=Fujiwara |first=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/jacquestourneurc00fuji |title=Jacques Tourneur: The Cinema of Nightfall |publisher=McFarland |year=2000 |isbn=0-8018-6561-1 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |orig-date=1st pub. 1998}}
-* {{cite journal|journal=Wide Screen|volume=5|issue=1|date=February 2014|issn=1757-3920|title=Let the Ghost Speak: A Study of Contemporary Indian Horror Cinema|last=Dhusiya|first=Mithuraaj}}
+* {{cite book |last=Galbraith IV |first=Stuart |title=The Toho Studios Story: A History and Complete Filmography |date=2008 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4616-7374-3}}
-* {{cite web|last=Ebert|first=Roger|author-link=Roger Ebert|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-cat-people-1942|title=Cat People (1942)|location=Chicago, Illinois|work=[[Chicago Sun-Times]]|date=March 12, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828234320/https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-cat-people-1942|archive-date=August 28, 2014}}
+* {{cite web |last=Gibron |first=Bill |date=July 31, 2013 |title=What Exactly is a "Psychological" Horror Film? |url=https://www.popmatters.com/173980-what-exactly-is-psychological-horror-2495736567.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817231014/https://www.popmatters.com/173980-what-exactly-is-psychological-horror-2495736567.html |archivedate=August 17, 2018 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |work=[[PopMatters]]}}
-* {{cite magazine|title=Terreur in Italie|magazine=Midi-Minuit Fantastique|issue=7|date=September 1963|last=Fofi|first=Goffredo}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Gregersdotter |first1=Katarina |title=Animal Horror Cinema: Genre, History and Criticism |last2=Hoglund |first2=Johan |last3=Hallen |first3=Nicklas |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-349-55349-5}}
-*{{cite book|last=Fujiwara|first=Chris|year=2000|orig-date=1st pub. 1998|title=Jacques Tourneur: The Cinema of Nightfall|location=Baltimore, Maryland|publisher=McFarland|isbn=0-8018-6561-1|url=https://archive.org/details/jacquestourneurc00fuji}}
+* {{cite book |last=Halle |first=Randall |title=Light Motives: German Popular Film in Perspective |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-8143-3044-4 |chapter=Unification Horror: Queer Desire and Uncanny Visions}}
-* {{cite book |last=Galbraith IV |first=Stuart |title=The Toho Studios Story: A History and Complete Filmography |publisher=Scarecrow Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4616-7374-3 }}
+* {{cite book |last1=Hand |first1=Richard J. |title=Gothic Film: An Edinburgh Companion |last2=McRoy |first2=Richard J. |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4744-4804-8 |chapter=Introduction}}
-* {{cite book|last1=Gregersdotter|first1=Katarina|last2=Hoglund|first2=Johan|last3=Hallen|first3=Nicklas|title=Animal Horror Cinema: Genre, History and Criticism|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2015|isbn=978-1-349-55349-5}}
+* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-ehQgAACAAJ&q=overlook+film+encyclopedia |title=The Overlook Film Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Overlook Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=0-87951-624-0 |editor-last=Hardy |editor-first=Phil |editor-link=Phil Hardy (journalist) |volume=3}}
-* {{cite book|title=Light Motives: German Popular Film in Perspective|year=2003|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-3044-4|chapter=Unification Horror: Queer Desire and Uncanny Visions|last=Halle|first=Randall}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Hantke |first=Steffan |year=2007 |title=Academic Film Criticism, the Rhetoric of Crisis, and the Current State of American Horror Cinema: Thoughts on Canonicity and Academic Anxiety |journal=College Literature |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=191–202 |doi=10.1353/lit.2007.0045 |s2cid=170518242}}
-* {{cite book|last1=Hand|first1=Richard J.|last2=McRoy|first2=Richard J.|chapter=Introduction|year=2020|title=Gothic Film: An Edinburgh Companion|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-4804-8}}
+* {{cite book |last=Hawkins |first=Joan |title=Cutting Edge: Art-horror and the Horrrific Avant-garde |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=2000}}
-* {{cite book |editor-last=Hardy |editor-first=Phil |editor-link=Phil Hardy (journalist) |year=1995 |title=The Overlook Film Encyclopedia |volume=3 |publisher=[[Overlook Press]] |isbn=0-87951-624-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-ehQgAACAAJ&q=overlook+film+encyclopedia }}
+* {{cite book |last=Heffernan
-* {{cite journal|journal=College Literature|volume=34|issue=4|last=Hantke|first=Steffan|year=2007|title=Academic Film Criticism, the Rhetoric of Crisis, and the Current State of American Horror Cinema: Thoughts on Canonicity and Academic Anxiety|pages=191–202|doi=10.1353/lit.2007.0045|s2cid=170518242 }}
+  |first=Kevin
-* {{cite book|last=Hawkins|first=Joan|title=Cutting Edge: Art-horror and the Horrrific Avant-garde|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2000}}
+  |title=Ghouls, Gimmicks, and Gold: Horror Films and the American Movie Business, 1953–1968
-*{{cite book
+  |publisher=[[Duke University Press]]
- | last= Heffernan
+  |year=2004
- | first= Kevin
+  |isbn=0822385554
- | title= Ghouls, Gimmicks, and Gold: Horror Films and the American Movie Business, 1953–1968
- |publisher= [[Duke University Press]]
- |year= 2004
- |isbn= 0822385554
 }}
-* {{cite book|title=Found Footage Horror Films|last=Heller-Nicholas|first=Alexandra|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7864-7077-8|year=2014}}
+* {{cite book |last=Heller-Nicholas |first=Alexandra |title=Found Footage Horror Films |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7864-7077-8}}
-* {{cite book|title=Horror|last=Jancovich|first=Mark|year=1992|isbn=0-7134-6820-3|publisher=B. T. Batsford Ltd.}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jancovich |first=Mark |title=Horror |publisher=B. T. Batsford Ltd. |year=1992 |isbn=0-7134-6820-3}}
-* {{cite book|title=American Horror From 1951 to the Present|last=Jancovich|first=Mark|year=1994|isbn=1-85331-149-9|publisher=Keele University Press}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jancovich |first=Mark |title=American Horror From 1951 to the Present |publisher=Keele University Press |year=1994 |isbn=1-85331-149-9}}
-* {{cite journal|title='A Real Shocker': authenticity, genre and the struggle for distinction|last=Jancovich|first=Mark|issn=1030-4312|volume=14|issue=1|journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies|year=2000|pages=23–35|doi=10.1080/713657675|s2cid=144833572}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Jancovich |first=Mark |year=2000 |title='A Real Shocker': Authenticity, Genre and the Struggle for Distinction |journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=23–35 |doi=10.1080/713657675 |issn=1030-4312 |s2cid=144833572}}
-* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Steve|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2013|title=Torture Porn: Popular Horror After Saw|isbn=978-0-230-31941-7}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jancovich |first=Mark |title=The Shifting Definitions of Genre: Essays on Labeling Films, Television Shows and Media |publisher=McFarland |year=2008 |editor-last1=Geraghty |editor-first1=Lincoln |chapter=Pale Shadows; Narrative Hierarchies in the Historiography of 1940s Horror |editor-last2=Janovich |editor-first2=Mark}}
-* {{cite web|url=https://www.screenslate.com/articles/julia-ducournau-titane|work=Screen Slate|last=LaCava|first=Stephanie|title=Julia Ducournau on Titane|date=October 7, 2021|access-date=January 20, 2021}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Steve |title=Torture Porn: Popular Horror After Saw |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-230-31941-7}}
-* {{cite book|title=Spanish Horror Film|year=2012|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-3638-9|last=Lazaro-Reboll|first=Antonio}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Jurgess |first=Todd |year=2022 |title=Videotape, Guinea Pig, and the Horror of Privacy |journal=JCMS: Journal of Cinema and Media Studies |publisher=Michigan Publishing |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=88–109 |doi=10.1353/cj.2022.0017 |s2cid=246436799}}
-* {{cite book|title=Mario Bava - All the Colors of the Dark|last=Lucas|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Lucas|isbn=978-0-9633756-1-2|year=2013|publisher=Video Watchdog}}
+* {{Cite book |last1=Kuhn |first1=Annette |title=A dictionary of film studies |last2=Westwell |first2=Guy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-174442-6 |edition=1st |location=Oxford}}
-* {{Cite AV media notes
+* {{cite journal |last=La Marca |first=Paolo |year=2024 |title=Horror Manga: Themes and Stylistics of Japanese Horror Comics |journal=[[List of MDPI academic journals|Humanities]] |volume=13 |issue=8}}
-| title       = The Two Faces of Black Sabbath
+* {{cite web |last=LaCava |first=Stephanie |date=October 7, 2021 |title=Julia Ducournau on Titane |url=https://www.screenslate.com/articles/julia-ducournau-titane |access-date=January 20, 2021 |work=Screen Slate}}
-| year        = 2013b
+* {{cite book |last=Lazaro-Reboll |first=Antonio |title=Spanish Horror Film |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7486-3638-9}}
-| page        = 15
+* {{cite book |last=Lucas |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Lucas |title=Mario Bava - All the Colors of the Dark |publisher=Video Watchdog |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-9633756-1-2}}
-| last      = Lucas |first=Tim
+* {{Cite AV media notes |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Lucas
-|author-link= Tim Lucas
+ |title       =The Two Faces of Black Sabbath
-| type        = booklet
+ |year        =2013b
-| publisher   = Arrow Films
+ |page        =15
-| id          = FCD778
+ |last      =Lucas  |type        =booklet
+ |publisher   =Arrow Films
+ |id          =FCD778
 }}
-* {{cite book|title=Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff: The Expanded Story of a Haunting Collaboration, with a Complete Filmography of Their Films Together|last=Mank|first=Gregory William|year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5472-3}}
+* {{cite book |last=Mank |first=Gregory William |title=Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff: The Expanded Story of a Haunting Collaboration, with a Complete Filmography of Their Films Together |publisher=McFarland |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7864-5472-3}}
-* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Daniel |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel|year=2018 |chapter=The Enduring Cult of The Bride with White Hair: Chivalry and the monstrous Other in the Hong Kong Fantasy-Horror |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8}}
+* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Daniel |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8 |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |chapter=The Enduring Cult of The Bride with White Hair: Chivalry and the monstrous Other in the Hong Kong Fantasy-Horror |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel}}
-* {{cite book|title=The Definitive Guide to Horror Movies|last1=Marriott|first1=James|last2=Newman|first2=Kim|author-link1=James Marriott (author)|author-link2=Kim Newman|year=2018|orig-date=1st pub. 2006|publisher=[[Carlton Publishing Group|Carlton Books]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-78739-139-0}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Marriott |first1=James |author-link1=James Marriott (author) |title=The Definitive Guide to Horror Movies |last2=Newman |first2=Kim |author-link2=Kim Newman |publisher=[[Carlton Publishing Group|Carlton Books]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78739-139-0 |location=London |orig-date=1st pub. 2006}}
-* {{cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/film/97782112/what-are-you-afraid-of-the-new-horror-movie-renaissance|title=What are You Afraid of? The New Horror Movie Renaissance|date=October 30, 2017|last=Matthews|first=Philip|work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]]|access-date=January 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130080610/https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/film/97782112/what-are-you-afraid-of-the-new-horror-movie-renaissance|archive-date=November 30, 2017}}
+* {{cite web |last=Matthews |first=Philip |date=October 30, 2017 |title=What are You Afraid of? The New Horror Movie Renaissance |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/film/97782112/what-are-you-afraid-of-the-new-horror-movie-renaissance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130080610/https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/film/97782112/what-are-you-afraid-of-the-new-horror-movie-renaissance |archive-date=November 30, 2017 |access-date=January 21, 2021 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]]}}
-* {{cite web|last=Mendelson|first=Scott|date=September 11, 2017|title=Box Office: Stephen King's 'It' Scared Up A Monstrous $123M Weekend.|access-date=July 13, 2018|work=[[Forbes]]|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2017/09/11/it-box-office-pennywise-is-bigger-than-jesus-with-a-123m-weekend/?sh=f19faa15c855}}
+* {{Cite book |last=Means Coleman |first=Robin R |title=Horror Noire: A History of Black American Horror from the 1890s to Present |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-367-76719-8 |location=Oxford}}
-* {{cite book|title=Horror Films of the 1980s|isbn=978-0-7864-2821-2|last=Muir|first=John Kenneth|year=2007|publisher=McFarland & Company}}
+* {{cite web |last=Mendelson |first=Scott |date=September 11, 2017 |title=Box Office: Stephen King's 'It' Scared Up A Monstrous $123M Weekend. |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2017/09/11/it-box-office-pennywise-is-bigger-than-jesus-with-a-123m-weekend/?sh=f19faa15c855 |access-date=July 13, 2018 |work=[[Forbes]]}}
-* {{cite book|title=Horror Films of the 1990s|last=Muir|first=John Kenneth|year=2011|publisher=McFarland & Company|isbn=978-0-7864-4012-2}}
+* {{cite book |last=Muir |first=John Kenneth |title=Horror Films of the 1980s |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7864-2821-2}}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |last=Muir |first=John Kenneth |title=Horror Films of the 1990s |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7864-4012-2}}
- |last=Muir
+* {{cite book |last=Muir |first=John Kenneth |title=Horror Films of the 1970s |publisher=McFarland |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-9156-8}}
- |first=John Kenneth
+* {{cite journal |last=Nair |first=Kartik |year=2012 |title=Taste, Taboo, Trash: The Story of the Ramsay Brothers |journal=BioScope |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=123–145 |doi=10.1177/097492761200300203 |s2cid=144146193}}
- |title=Horror Films of the 1970s
+* {{Cite web |last=Newby |first=Richard |date=2018-12-21 |title=The Strange Appeal of Christmas Horror |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/why-christmas-horror-movies-appeal-audiences-1171409/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203141537/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/why-christmas-horror-movies-appeal-audiences-1171409/ |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |language=en-US}}
- |publisher=McFarland
+* {{cite book |last=Newman |first=Kim |title=Cat People |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-85170-741-9 |orig-date=1st pub. 1999}}
- |isbn=978-0-7864-9156-8
+* {{cite book |last=Newman |first=Kim |title=Nightmare Movies |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4088-0503-9 |orig-date=1st pub. 1988}}
- |year=2012
+* {{cite magazine |last=Newman |first=Kim |date=November 2020 |title=Planet Terror: The Year in Horror |magazine=Sight & Sound |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] |volume=30 |issue=9}}
- }}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Newman |first=Kim |date=January 2020c |title=This Year in Horror |magazine=Sight & Sound |publisher=British Film Institute |volume=30 |issue=1}}
-* {{cite journal|title=Taste, Taboo, Trash: The Story of the Ramsay Brothers|last=Nair|first=Kartik|journal=BioScope|doi= 10.1177/097492761200300203|year=2012|volume=3|issue=2|pages=123–145|s2cid=144146193}}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Newman |first=Kim |date=November 2020b |title=Wide Angle: Exploring the Bigger Picture |magazine=Sight & Sound |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] |volume=30 |issue=9}}
-* {{cite book|title=Cat People|last=Newman|first=Kim|year=2009|orig-date=1st pub. 1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-85170-741-9}}
+* {{cite web |last1=Nguyen |first1=Hanh |date=31 December 2018 |title='One Cut of the Dead': A Bootleg of the Japanese Zombie Comedy Mysteriously Appeared on Amazon |url=https://www.indiewire.com/2018/12/amazon-one-cut-of-the-dead-zombie-bootleg-movie-pirated-1202031415/ |access-date=2 March 2019 |work=[[IndieWire]]}}
-* {{cite book|last=Newman|first=Kim|title=Nightmare Movies|isbn=978-1-4088-0503-9|year=2011|orig-date=1st pub. 1988|publisher=Bloomsbury}}
+* {{cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Daniel |title=Spooky Encounters: A Gwailo's Guide to Hong Kong Horror |publisher=Critical Vision |year=2003 |isbn=1-900486-31-8}}
-* {{cite magazine|magazine=Sight & Sound|title=Planet Terror: The Year in Horror|last=Newman|first=Kim|date=November 2020|volume=30|issue=9|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Odell |first1=Colin |author1-link=Michelle Le Blanc and Colin Odell |title=Horror Films |last2=Le Blanc |first2=Michelle |author2-link=Michelle Le Blanc and Colin Odell |publisher=[[Kamera Books]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84243-218-1}}
-* {{cite magazine|magazine=Sight & Sound|title=This Year in Horror|last=Newman|first=Kim|date=January 2020c|publisher=British Film Institute|volume=30|issue=1}}
+* {{cite book |last=Olney |first=Ian |title=Euro Horror: Classic European Horror Cinmea in Contemporary American Culture |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-253-00648-6}}
-* {{cite magazine|magazine=Sight & Sound|title=Wide Angle: Exploring the Bigger Picture|last=Newman|first=Kim|date=November 2020b|volume=30|issue=9|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]}}
+* {{cite book |last=Paul |first=William |title=Laughing Screaming: Modern Hollywood Horror and Comedy |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1994}}
-* {{cite book|title=Spooky Encounters: A Gwailo's Guide to Hong Kong Horror|last=O'Brien|first=Daniel|publisher=Critical Vision|year=2003|isbn=1-900486-31-8}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Peirse |first1=Alison |title=Korean Horror Cinema |last2=Martin |first2=Daniel |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7486-4310-3 |chapter=Introduction}}
-* {{cite book|title=Horror Films|last1=Odell|first1=Colin|last2=Le Blanc|first2=Michelle|publisher=[[Kamera Books]]|isbn=978-1-84243-218-1|year=2007}}
+* {{Cite book |last=Pinedo |first=Isabel |title=Recreational Terror: Women and the Pleasures of Horror Film Viewing. |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1997 |isbn=0791434427}}
-* {{cite book|title=Euro Horror: Classic European Horror Cinmea in Contemporary American Culture|last=Olney|first=Ian|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-253-00648-6}}
+* {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Anna |title=Deleuze and Horror Film |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |year=2005}}
-* {{cite book|last=Paul|first=William|year=1994|title=Laughing Screaming: Modern Hollywood Horror and Comedy|publisher=Columbia University Press}}
+* {{cite book |last=Prawer |first=Siegbert Solomon |title=Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror |publisher=Da Capo |year=1989 |isbn=0-306-80347-X |orig-date=1st pub. 1980}}
-* {{cite book|last1=Peirse|first1=Alison|last2=Martin|first2=Daniel|year=2013|title=Korean Horror Cinema|isbn=978-0-7486-4310-3|chapter=Introduction}}
+* {{cite book |last=Prince |first=Stephen |title=The Horror Film |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-8135-3363-5}}
-* {{cite book|title=Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror|last=Prawer|first=Siegbert Solomon|publisher=Da Capo|orig-date=1st pub. 1980|year=1989|isbn=0-306-80347-X}}
+* {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Gary D. |author-link=Gary D. Rhodes |title=Tod Browning's Dracula |publisher=Tomahawk Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-9566834-5-8}}
-* {{cite book |last=Prince |first=Stephen |year=2004 |title=The Horror Film |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=0-8135-3363-5 }}
+* {{cite book |last1=Rhodes |first1=Gary D. |title=No Traveler Returns: The Lost Years of Bela Lugosi |last2=Kaffenberger |first2=Bill |publisher=BearManor Media |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-59393-285-5 |edition=Kindle}}
-* {{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Gary D.|title=Tod Browning's Dracula|publisher=Tomahawk Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-9566834-5-8|author-link=Gary D. Rhodes}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Rhodes |first=Gary D. |year=2018b |title="Horror Film": How the Term Came to Be |url=https://www.monstrum-society.ca/uploads/4/1/7/5/41753139/rhodes_-_horror_film_-_monstrum_1.pdf |journal=Monstrum |volume=1 |issue=1 |issn=2561-5629 |access-date=October 14, 2022}}
-* {{cite book|title=No Traveler Returns: The Lost Years of Bela Lugosi|last1=Rhodes|first1=Gary D.|last2=Kaffenberger|first2=Bill|publisher=BearManor Media|year=2016|edition=Kindle|isbn=978-1-59393-285-5}}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Rockoff |first=Adam |date=November–December 2003 |title=Yuletide Terror |magazine=[[Rue Morgue (magazine)|Rue Morgue]] |publisher=Marrs Media Inc |issue=36 |issn=1481-1103}}
-*{{cite journal|title="Horror Film": How the Term Came to Be|last=Rhodes|first=Gary D.|journal=Monstrum|volume=1|issue=1|year=2018b|issn=2561-5629|url=https://www.monstrum-society.ca/uploads/4/1/7/5/41753139/rhodes_-_horror_film_-_monstrum_1.pdf|accessdate=October 14, 2022}}
+* {{cite web |last=Salvi |first=Pooja |date=October 28, 2018 |title=Have you ever wondered what the Ramsays are doing? We find out |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/just-before-monday/report-have-you-ever-wondered-what-the-ramsays-are-doing-we-find-out-2680042 |publisher=DNA India}}
-* {{cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/just-before-monday/report-have-you-ever-wondered-what-the-ramsays-are-doing-we-find-out-2680042|title=Have you ever wondered what the Ramsays are doing? We find out|first=Pooja|last=Salvi|date=October 28, 2018|publisher=DNA India}}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Sélavy |first=Virginie |date=November 2020 |title=The Psychedelic Renaissance: The Enduring Influence of 1970s Horror |magazine=Sight & Sound |publisher=British Film Institute |volume=30 |issue=9}}
-* {{cite magazine|magazine=Sight & Sound|title=The Psychedelic Renaissance: The Enduring Influence of 1970s Horror|last=Sélavy|first=Virginie|date=November 2020|volume=30|issue=9|publisher=British Film Institute}}
+* {{cite book |last=Shary |first=Timothy |title=Teen Movies: American Youth on Screen |publisher=Wallflower |year=2005 |isbn=1 904764-49-5}}
-* {{cite book|title=Teen Movies: American Youth on Screen|publisher=Wallflower|year=2005|last=Shary|first=Timothy|isbn=1 904764-49-5}}
+* {{Cite book |last=Shelley |first=Peter |title=Australian Horror Films, 1973-2010 |publisher=McFarland |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-6167-7}}
-* {{Cite book|last=Shelley|first=Peter|title=Australian Horror Films, 1973-2010|year=2012|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-6167-7}}
+* {{cite book |last=Shipka |first=Danny |title=Perverse Titillation: The Exploitation Cinema of Italy, Spain and France, 1960–1980 |date=2011 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-4888-3}}
-* {{cite book |last=Shipka |first=Danny |title=Perverse Titillation: The Exploitation Cinema of Italy, Spain and France, 1960–1980 |publisher=McFarland |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7864-4888-3 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Tsang |first=Raymond |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8 |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |chapter=What Can a ''Neoi Gwei'' Teach Us? Adaptation as Reincarnation in Hong Kong Horror of the 1950s |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel}}
-* {{cite book |last=Tsang |first=Raymond |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel|year=2018 |chapter=What Can a ''Neoi Gwei'' Teach Us? Adaptation as Reincarnation in Hong Kong Horror of the 1950s |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8}}
+* {{cite book |last=Tudor |first=Andrew |title=Monsters and Mad Scientists : A Cultural History of the Horror Movie |date=1991 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=063116992X}}
-* {{cite book|title=Monsters and Mad Scientists : A Cultural History of the Horror Movie|last=Tudor|first=Andrew|isbn=063116992X|date=1991|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell}}
+* {{Cite web |last=Ulaby |first=Neda |date=12 December 2015 |title=Oh Holy Fright: Christmas Horror Movies That Slay |url=https://www.npr.org/2015/12/12/459204220/oh-holy-fright-christmas-horror-movies-that-slay |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115193643/https://www.npr.org/2015/12/12/459204220/oh-holy-fright-christmas-horror-movies-that-slay |archive-date=November 15, 2023 |website=[[NPR]]}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Weaver |first1=Tom |last2=Brunas |first2=Michael |last3=Brunas |first3=John|year=2007 |orig-date=1990 |title=Universal Horrors |edition=2 |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-2974-5 }}
+* {{cite book |last1=Weaver |first1=Tom |title=Universal Horrors |last2=Brunas |first2=Michael |last3=Brunas |first3=John |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7864-2974-5 |edition=2 |orig-date=1990}}
-* {{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts|volume=27|issue=3|year=2016|title=The State vs. Buttgereit and Ittenbach: Censorship and Subversion in German No-Budget Horror Film|last=Werbeck|first=Kai-Uwe}}
+* {{cite book |last=Walker |first=Johnny |title=Italian Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7486-9353-5 |editor-last1=Baschiera |editor-first1=Stefano |chapter=4. Knowing the Unknown Beyond 'Italianate' and 'Italian' Horror Cinema in the Twenty-First Century |editor-last2=Hunter |editor-first2=Russ}}
-* {{cite book|title=Films of the New French Extremity|last=West|first=Alexandra|publisher=McFarland|year=2016|isbn=9781476663487}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Werbeck |first=Kai-Uwe |year=2016 |title=The State vs. Buttgereit and Ittenbach: Censorship and Subversion in German No-Budget Horror Film |journal=Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts |volume=27 |issue=3}}
-* {{cite book|title=The 1990s Teen Horror Cycle: Final Girls and a New Hollywood Formula|publisher=McFarland & Company|year=2018|last=West|first=Alexandra|isbn=978-1-4766-7064-5}}
+* {{cite book |last=West |first=Alexandra |title=Films of the New French Extremity |publisher=McFarland |year=2016 |isbn=9781476663487}}
-* {{cite book |last=Willis |first=Andy |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel|year=2018 |chapter=From Killer Snakes to Taxi Hunters: Hong Kong Horror in an Exploitation Context |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8}}
+* {{cite book |last=West |first=Alexandra |title=The 1990s Teen Horror Cycle: Final Girls and a New Hollywood Formula |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4766-7064-5}}
-* {{Cite book|chapter=An Introduction to the Continental Horror Film|first=Kevin|last=Wynter|page=44|title=Transnational Horror Cinema. Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque|editor-first=Sophia|editor-last=Siddique|editor-first2=Raphael|editor-last2=Raphael|year=2016|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-1-137-58416-8|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5}}
+* {{cite book |last=Willis |first=Andy |title=Hong Kong Horror Cinema |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4744-2460-8 |editor-last1=Bettinson |editor-first1=Gary |chapter=From Killer Snakes to Taxi Hunters: Hong Kong Horror in an Exploitation Context |editor-last2=Martin |editor-first2=Daniel}}
-* {{cite web|url=http://www.tasteofcinema.com/2016/the-10-best-australian-films-of-the-21st-century/|work=Taste of Cinema|access-date=January 21, 2021|title=The 10 Best Australian Films of The 21st Century|last=Withers|first=Ned Athol|date=January 18, 2016}}
+* {{Cite book |last=Wynter |first=Kevin |title=Transnational Horror Cinema. Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-137-58416-8 |editor-last=Siddique |editor-first=Sophia |page=44 |chapter=An Introduction to the Continental Horror Film |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-58417-5 |editor-last2=Raphael |editor-first2=Raphael}}
-* {{cite book |last=Worland |first=Rick |year=2007 |title=The Horror Film: A Brief Introduction |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1-4051-3902-1 }}
+* {{cite web |last=Withers |first=Ned Athol |date=January 18, 2016 |title=The 10 Best Australian Films of The 21st Century |url=http://www.tasteofcinema.com/2016/the-10-best-australian-films-of-the-21st-century/ |access-date=January 21, 2021 |work=Taste of Cinema}}
+* {{cite book |last=Worland |first=Rick |title=The Horror Film: A Brief Introduction |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4051-3902-1}}
+{{refend}}
 == Further reading ==
@@ Line 372: / Line 334: @@
 * Steffen Hantke, ed. ''American Horror Film: The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium'' (University Press of Mississippi; 2010), 253 pages.
 * Petridis, Sotiris (2014). "[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/intellect/fint/2014/00000012/00000001/art00007 A Historical Approach to the Slasher Film]". [[Film International]] 12 (1): 76–84.
+* Gooch, Joshua. ''Capitalism Hates You: Marxism and the New Horror Film''. (Minnesota University Press, 2025), {{ISBN|978-1-517917975}}
 == External links ==
-{{Sister project links|wikt=horror movie|commons=Category:Horror films|s=Portal:Horror films|v=no}}
+* [https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?genres=horror&explore=title_type,genres&ref_=tt_ov_inf Horror genre] on [[IMDb]]
-*[https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?genres=horror&explore=title_type,genres&ref_=tt_ov_inf Horror genre] on [[IMDb]]
-{{Horror film}}{{Film genres}}
+{{Horror film}}
+{{Film genres}}
 {{Filmsbygenre}}
 {{Horror fiction}}
 {{Goth subculture}}
+{{Sister bar|wikt=horror movie|commons=Category:Horror films|s=Portal:Horror films|auto=1}}
 {{Authority control}}
@@ Line 385: / Line 350: @@
 [[Category:Horror films| ]]
 [[Category:Horror fiction|*]]
-[[Category:Thrillers]]
 [[Category:Articles containing video clips]]