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The '''Naga National Council''' (NNC) is a political organization of [[Naga people]], active from the late 1940s to the early 1950s. It evolved out the Naga Hills District Tribal Council, an organization established in 1945 by the Deputy Commissioner of the [[Naga Hills District, British India|Naga Hills district]]. The group was reorganized to form NNC in 1946 at Sanis (in present-day [[Wokha district]]), with Eno T. Aliba Imti Ao as the President, and other democratically elected Naga representatives as its members. Later, under the leadership of [[Angami Zapu Phizo|Phizo]], the NNC unsuccessfully campaigned for the secession of the [[Nagaland|Naga territory]] from [[India]] and creation for a sovereign Naga state.
{{Infobox political party
| name            =
| logo            =
| logo_alt        =
| colorcode        = <!-- HTML color code (e.g. "red", "#FF0000" or Party metadata color template) otherwise "transparent" -->
| leader          =
| president        =
| chairperson      =
| secretary        =
| general_secretary =
| first_secretary  =
| secretary_general =
| presidium        =
| governing_body  =
| standing_committee =
| predecessor      = Naga Hills District Tribal Council, Naga Club
| successor        = [[National Socialist Council of Nagaland]]
| spokesperson    =
| founder          =
| founded          = {{start date|1946}}
| headquarters    =
| ideology        = [[Naga nationalism]], [[Separatism]]
| international    =
| website          =
| country          =
}}
The '''Naga National Council''' ('''NNC''') was a political organization and a tribal government of [[Naga people]] in the erstwhile [[Naga Hills District, British India|Naga Hills district]] of [[Assam]] (present-day [[Nagaland]]) in [[Northeast India]]. It was active from the late 1940s to the early 1950s. It evolved out of the Naga Hills District Tribal Council, an organization established in 1945 by the Deputy Commissioner of the Naga Hills district. The group was reorganized to form NNC in 1946 at Sanis (in present-day [[Wokha district]]), with T. Aliba Imti Ao as the President, and other democratically elected Naga representatives as its members. The organisation consisted of modernist educated elites, who were also officials of the government in various capacities. They were edged out by the hardline Naga leader [[Zapu Phizo]] towards the end of 1949,{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|loc=p. 105: "The middle class youth which took over its leadership soon left the organisation to the extremist leadership of Phizo, who converted the Naga National Council into a central organisation of the 'traditional' authorities."}} who then took over the organisation
and turned it into a secessionist platform.


==History==
== Antecedents ==
In April 1945, the deputy commissioner of the [[Naga Hills District, British India|Naga Hills District]], [[Charles Pawsey|C. R. Pawsey]], established the Naga Hills District Tribal Council as a forum of the various Naga groups in the district.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=73–74}} This body replaced an earlier organization called [[Naga Club]], and in February 1946, it was reorganized as a political organization called Naga National Council (NNC).{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=73–74}} NNC's objective was to work out the terms of relationship with the [[Government of India]] after the [[British India|British]] withdrawal.


In April 1945, the deputy commissioner of the [[Naga Hills District, British India|Naga Hills District]], C. R. Pawsey, established the Naga Hills District Tribal Council as a forum of the various Naga groups in the district.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Hill_Genesis">{{cite book
== Organization ==
| last = Chaube
The  president of the NNC was T. Aliba Imti Ao. He was the son of an Imtilepden{{What?|date=April 2025}} of Lonjang village, he was the first teacher amongst the Nagas and also served as a pastor. Imti Ao was a graduate from St. Edmund's College, Shillong and had been the secretary of the Hills Students' Federation, an affiliate of the [[All India Students Federation]] (AISF).  The joint secretary of the NNC was [[T. Sakhrie]], an [[Angami people|Angami]].{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=150}}
| first = Shibani Kinkar
| title = Hill politics in Northeast India
| publisher = Orient Longman
| orig-year = 1973
| year = 1999
| oclc = 42913576
| isbn = 81-250-1695-3
| pages = 74–77
}}</ref> This body replaced an earlier organization called [[Naga Club]], and in February 1946, it was reorganized as a political organization called Naga National Council (NNC).<ref name="SK_Chaube_Hill_Genesis"/> NNC's objective was to work out the terms of relationship with the [[Government of India]] after the [[British India|British]] withdrawal.


The  president of the NNC was Imti Aliba Ao. The joint secretary of the NNC was an [[Angami Naga]], T. Sakhrie. Imti Alba, the son of a pastor, was a graduate and had been the secretary of the Hills Students' Federation, an affiliate of the [[All India Students Federation]] (AISF).<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics">{{cite book
NNC had two central councils, one each at [[Kohima]] and [[Mokokchung]]. Each central council was split into a number of tribal councils, which were further split into sub-tribal councils. Generally, a sub-tribal council was formed with five villages. Members were not elected, but chosen by the NNC leadership.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=149–150}}
| last = Chaube
| first = Shibani Kinkar
| title = Hill politics in Northeast India
| publisher = Orient Longman
| orig-year = 1973
| year = 1999
| oclc = 42913576
| isbn = 81-250-1695-3
| pages = 153–161
}}</ref>


==Organization==
The Kohima Central Council consisted of 12 members, of whom seven belonged to the [[Angami Naga|Angami]] tribe. It was presided over by a [[Liangmai Naga people|Liangmei]] school teacher of Kohima.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=150}}


NNC had two central councils, one each at [[Kohima]] and [[Mokokchung]]. Each central council was split into a number of tribal councils, which were further split into sub-tribal councils. Generally, a sub-tribal council was formed with five villages. Members were not elected, but chosen by the NNC leadership.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
The Mokokchung Central Council had 15 members, of whom five were [[Ao people|Ao]], four [[Sema (tribe)|Sema]], three [[Lotha Naga|Lotha]], two [[Sangtam Naga|Sangtam]], and one [[Chang Naga|Chang]]. The [[Konyak people|Konyak]]s had not attended the first meeting of the council, and were not represented. There was no representation from the unadministered area.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=150}}


The Kohima Central Council consisted of 12 members, of whom seven belonged to the [[Angami Naga|Angami]] tribe. It was presided over by a [[Liangmei]] school teacher of Kohima.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
== Demand for autonomy ==
In a memorandum presented to the British Government in June 1945, the NNC demanded an autonomous status for the Naga region.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}


The Mokokchung Central Council had 15 members, of whom five were [[Ao people|Ao]], four [[Sema (tribe)|Sema]], three [[Lotha Naga|Lotha]], two [[Sangtam Naga|Sangtam]], and one [[Chang Naga|Chang]]. The [[Konyak people|Konyak]]s had not attended the first meeting of the council, and were not represented. There was no representation from the unadministered area.
When the report of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] was published, NNC passed a resolution on 19 June 1946 at [[Wokha]] in Mokokchung division.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=73–74}} It stated that it was against grouping of [[Assam]] in [[Bengal]], and wanted the [[Naga Hills District, British India|Naga Hills District]] to be included in an autonomous Assam in the independent India. It further emphasized local autonomy for the Naga Hills District, and a separate electorate for the Naga tribes.


==Demand for autonomy==
In November 1946, [[Gopinath Bordoloi]], the Premier of Assam visited the district.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=74}} The Nagas respected the Assamese politicians like Gopinath Bordoloi and [[Bimala Prasad Chaliha]], and showed cordiality to Bordoloi in November 1946.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=151–152}}


In a memorandum presented to the British Government in June 1945, the NNC demanded an autonomous status for the Naga region. When the report of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] was published, NNC passed a resolution on 19 June 1946 at Wokha in Mokokchung division.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Hill_Genesis"/> It stated that it was against grouping of [[Assam]] in [[Bengal]], and wanted the [[Naga Hills District, British India|Naga Hills District]] to be included in an autonomous Assam in the independent India. It further emphasized local autonomy for the Naga Hills District, and a separate electorate for the Naga tribes.
In February 1947, the NNC council passed a resolution at [[Kohima]]. As a result of this resolution, on 20 February 1947, it submitted a proposal for interim Government of Nagas, under a "Guardian Power" for a period of ten years. They didn't explicitly state who the "Guardian Power" should be (Government of India, the Provincial Government or His Majesty's Government).{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=74}}


===Talks with the Bardoloi subcommittee===
In June 1947, Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] wrote to the Naga National Council (NNC) secretary, T. Sakhrie, saying that the Indian government is against the separate electorates, as they "limit and injure the small group by keeping it separated from rest of the nation."<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar">{{cite book
In November 1946, [[Gopinath Bardoloi]], the Premier of Assam visited the district. The Nagas respected the Assamese politicians like Gopinath Bardoloi and [[Bimala Prasad Chaliha]], and showed cordiality to Bardoloi in November 1946.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
| last = Samaddar
 
| first = Ranabir
In February 1947, the NNC council passed a resolution at Kohima. As a result of this resolution, on 20 February 1947, it submitted a proposal for interim Government of Nagas, under a "Guardian Power" for a period of ten years. They didn't explicitly state who the "Guardian Power" should be (Government of India, the Provincial Government or His Majesty's Government).<ref name="SK_Chaube_Hill_Genesis"/>
| title = The Politics of Dialogue: Living Under the Geopolitical Histories of War and Peace
| publisher = Ashgate
| year = 2004
| oclc = 56466278
| isbn = 978-0-7546-3607-6
| pages = 171–173
}}</ref>


In 1947, the Bardoloi sub-committee came to Kohima for discussions with the Naga leaders. The Kohima Central Council of NNC was reluctant to nominate a person for [[co-option]] to the Bordoloi subcommittee. The Bardoloi subcommittee was constituted with Mayangnokcha Ao as a member, but he did not accept the position. Hence, Aliba was taken in his place.
=== Talks with the Bordoloi subcommittee ===
In 1947, the Bordoloi subcommittee of the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]]{{efn|This subcommittee was tasked with recommending measures for the administration of the tribal areas of [[Northeast India]], in particular the "[[Excluded Area]]s" and "Partially Excluded Areas". Its members included the Khasi leader [[J. J. M. Nichols-Roy]] and Bodo leader [[Rupnath Brahma]].{{sfn|Choudhury, Northeast India|2023|pp=82–83}} The subcommittee eventually formulated the [[Sixth Schedule to the Constitution of India]].}} came to Kohima for discussions with the Naga leaders. The Kohima Central Council of NNC was reluctant to nominate a person for [[co-option]] to the Bordoloi subcommittee. The Bordoloi subcommittee was constituted with Mayangnokcha Ao as a member, but he did not accept the position. Hence, Aliba was taken in his place.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=151–152}}


When the subcommittee reached Kohima, NNC did not have a permanent president. The committee had received a list of organizations to be interviewed by Pawsey, the deputy subcommissioner, Pawsey. However, Pawsey had left Kohima shortly before the arrival of the subcommittee, on an investigation into a headhunting report received from the unadministered area. Kevichusa Angami, the senior extra assistant commissioner at Kohima, acted as the guardian angel of the NNC.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
When the subcommittee reached Kohima, NNC did not have a permanent president. The committee had received a list of organizations to be interviewed from the deputy commissioner Pawsey, but Pawsey himself was away. [[Kevichüsa Angami]], the senior extra assistant commissioner at Kohima, acted as the guardian angel of the NNC.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=150–151}}


The secretary of the subcommittee observed:<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
The secretary of the subcommittee observed:{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=150–151}}
{{cquote|On the whole, the attitude of the NNC and the general atmosphere seemed to have taken an unpleasant turn, since the (Assam) Premier's visit (in November 1946). It was clearly perceived that the Council was now dominated by certain Angami leaders like Kevichusa and Lungalong and the more reasonable elements were prevented from asserting themselves
{{cquote|On the whole, the attitude of the NNC and the general atmosphere seemed to have taken an unpleasant turn, since the (Assam) Premier's visit (in November 1946). It was clearly perceived that the Council was now dominated by certain Angami leaders like Kevichüsa and Lungalang and the more reasonable elements were prevented from asserting themselves
(a) on account of the Naga system of not deciding matters by a majority but by a general agreement only, and
(a) on account of the Naga system of not deciding matters by a majority but by a general agreement only, and
(b) by the threat of force which seemed to hold the NNC together.}}
(b) by the threat of force which seemed to hold the NNC together.}}


The non-Naga groups of [[Dimapur]] were also presented before the subcommittee, and spoke against the NNC.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/> The subcommittee did not visit the other subdivision, Mokokchung. The Bordoloi report was vetoed by the Angami member, Kezehol, but accepted by the Sema member, Khetloushe. Khetloushe replaced Kezehol, when the latter resigned during the last meeting of the subcommittee. The Bordoloi subcommittee concluded that "many of them (Naga leaders) were inclined to take moderate views on the lines of the original resolution passed at Wokha, but in view of the intrasigence of certain other members, probably of the Angami group, they were prevented from doing so."<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
The non-Naga groups of [[Dimapur]] were also presented before the subcommittee, and spoke against the NNC. The subcommittee did not visit the other subdivision, Mokokchung.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=151}} The Bordoloi report was vetoed by the Angami member, Kezehol, but accepted by the Sema member, Khetloushe. Khetloushe replaced Kezehol, when the latter resigned during the last meeting of the subcommittee.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=151}} The Bordoloi subcommittee concluded that "many of them (Naga leaders) were inclined to take moderate views on the lines of the original resolution passed at Wokha, but in view of the intransigence of certain other members, probably of the Angami group, they were prevented from doing so."{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=151–152}}
 
===Nine-Points Agreement===


=== Nine-Points Agreement ===
Aliba Imti continued to strive for a settlement between the Government and the NNC members. As a result of his efforts, on 26 June 1947, Sir [[Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari]], the Governor of Assam, reached a Nine-Points Agreement with the Naga leaders.<ref>{{cite book
Aliba Imti continued to strive for a settlement between the Government and the NNC members. As a result of his efforts, on 26 June 1947, Sir [[Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari]], the Governor of Assam, reached a Nine-Points Agreement with the Naga leaders.<ref>{{cite book
  | last = Chadha
  | last = Chadha
  | first = Vivek
  | first = Vivek
  | title = Low Intensity Conflicts In India: An Analysis
  | title = Low Intensity Conflicts In India: An Analysis
  | publisher = [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]
  | publisher = [[SAGE Publishing|SAGE]]
  | year = 2005
  | year = 2005
  | oclc = 56356140
  | oclc = 56356140
Line 71: Line 87:
}}</ref> It was decided that the Nagas would be granted judicial, executive and legislative powers, as well as autonomy in land-related matters. There was a ten-year guarantee of these provisions at the end of which the Nagas could choose between extending the agreement or a new agreement. The Naga leaders were also promised unification of Naga territories from nearby districts into the Naga Hills District. However, the Constituent Assembly refused to ratify the Hydari accord.<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/> The Naga leaders envisaged a sovereign state with India as a "Guardian Power" for ten years, while the Indian Constituent Assembly concluded that the Nine Points Agreement guaranteed only a "district autonomy within the Indian Constitution".
}}</ref> It was decided that the Nagas would be granted judicial, executive and legislative powers, as well as autonomy in land-related matters. There was a ten-year guarantee of these provisions at the end of which the Nagas could choose between extending the agreement or a new agreement. The Naga leaders were also promised unification of Naga territories from nearby districts into the Naga Hills District. However, the Constituent Assembly refused to ratify the Hydari accord.<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/> The Naga leaders envisaged a sovereign state with India as a "Guardian Power" for ten years, while the Indian Constituent Assembly concluded that the Nine Points Agreement guaranteed only a "district autonomy within the Indian Constitution".


==Rise of Phizo and the secessionist ideology==
== Rise of Phizo and the secessionist ideology ==
 
Until 1949, the hardline Naga leader [[Angami Zapu Phizo]] did not have an important role in NNC. He led a separate organisation called People's Independence League, working towards a demand of independence.{{sfn|Choudhury, Northeast India|2023|pp=84–85}} He met the [[Assamese people|Assamese]], [[Garo people|Garos]], [[Khasi people|Khasis]], [[Lushai]]s, [[Galo tribe|Abors]], [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]]s and [[Meitei people|Meiteis]] leaders in an attempt to convince them to form independent countries of their own, instead of joining the Union of India. However, his efforts failed.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}
In June 1947, Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] wrote to the Naga National Council (NNC) secretary, T. Sakhrie, saying that the Indian government is against the separate electorates, as they "limit and injure the small group by keeping it separated from rest of the nation."<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar">{{cite book
| last = Samaddar
| first = Ranabir
| title = The Politics of Dialogue: Living Under the Geopolitical Histories of War and Peace
| publisher = Ashgate
| year = 2004
| oclc = 56466278
| isbn = 978-0-7546-3607-6
| pages = 171–173
}}</ref>
 
The hardline NNC leader [[Angami Zapu Phizo]] separately met the [[Assamese people|Assamese]], [[Garo people|Garos]], [[Khasi people|Khasis]], [[Lushai]]s,
[[Galo tribe|Abors]], [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]]s and [[Meitei people|Meiteis]] leaders in an attempt to convince them to form independent countries of their own, instead of joining the Union of India. However, his efforts failed.  


On 19 July, an eleven-member Naga delegation led by A Z Phizo, Viselie, Khrehie and Seto met the Indian nationalist leader [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] at [[Delhi]] to discuss the issue of Naga autonomy. The NNC secretary T. Sakhrie had expressed fears in his letter to Gandhi that the Indian government might use military force to occupy the Naga territory by force. Gandhi assured the Naga delegation that he would go to Kohima, and he would be "the first to be shot before any Naga is killed".<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/>
In July 1947, as Phizo had set out to take a delegation to Delhi to meet national leaders, the Deputy Commissioner Pawsey sent a telegram, via Governor Hydari, stating that they represent an "unimportant minority" and that they should be ignored.{{sfn|Choudhury, Northeast India|2023|p=84}} Perhaps the telegram arrived too late, the delegation did meet Gandhi and stated their intention to declare independence. According to one version, Gandhi is said to have replied, "I feel that Naga Hills is mine just as it is yours. But if you say that it is not mine, the matter must stop there... If you do not wish to join the Union of India nobody will force you to that."{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=153–154}}


===After independence of India===
The NNC secretary T. Sakhrie had expressed fears in a letter to Gandhi that the Indian government might use military force to occupy the Naga territory by force. Gandhi assured the Naga delegation that he would go to Kohima, and he would be "the first to be shot before any Naga is killed".<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/>


On 14 August 1947, one day before India gained its independence, Nagas declared the independence of Naga region.<ref name="UNPO_Yearbook_1996">{{cite book
=== Declaration of independence ===
| editor = Christopher A Mullen
On 14 August 1947, one day before India gained its independence, Phizo sent a telegram to United Nations and Delhi announcing his organisation's resolve to lead a free Naga nation. The telegram was intercepted by the district administration and never delivered.{{sfn|Choudhury, Northeast India|2023|pp=67, 84–85}}
| title = [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization|UNPO]] Yearbook, 1996
On 15 August, Phizo declared the independence of Nagaland.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=154}} Scholar Shibani Chaube states that there is nothing to indicate that NNC as a party had anything to do with the declaration.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=154}}
| publisher = Kluwer Law International
| year = 1997
| oclc = 39055035
| isbn = 978-90-411-0439-7
}}</ref>


An agreement recognizing the right to self-determination of the Naga people was concluded between the NNC and the Government of India in 1948.<ref name="UNPO_Yearbook_1996"/> However, the hardliners led by Phizo gradually increased their influence over the NNC. Phizo became the 4th NNC Chairman in October–November 1949 after defeating Vizar Angami of Zakhama village by a margin of one vote, the vote was held in the absence of most of the other leaders.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/> Under his leadership, the NNC inclined towards seeking secession from India.
The hardliners led by Phizo gradually increased their influence over the NNC. Phizo became the 4th NNC president in October–November 1949 after defeating Vizar Angami of Zakhama village by a margin of one vote; the vote was held in the absence of most of the other leaders.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=154}} Under his leadership, the NNC inclined towards seeking secession from India.


The Government of independent India continued the British policy of isolating the North-East. The Naga Hills District was placed in Part A tribal areas category, as an Autonomous District administered by the Government of Assam, with a limited representation in the Assam State Legislative Assembly and in the National Parliament. The Naga Tribal Area ([[Tuensang district|Tuensang]]) was placed in the Part B tribal areas category, which was administered by the Governor of Assam acting as Agent of the President of India.<ref name="integration_north_east">{{cite web
The Government of independent India continued the British policy of isolating the North-East. The Naga Hills District was placed in Part A tribal areas category, as an Autonomous District administered by the Government of Assam, with a limited representation in the Assam State Legislative Assembly and in the National Parliament. The Naga Tribal Area ([[Tuensang district|Tuensang]]) was placed in the Part B tribal areas category, which was administered by the Governor of Assam acting as Agent of the President of India.<ref name="integration_north_east">{{cite web
  | url = http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Jrp/pdf/jrp_133_01.pdf
  | last = Inoue | first = Kyoko
  | title = Integration of the North East: the State Formation Process
  | title = Integration of the North East: the State Formation Process
  | publisher = Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization
  | publisher = Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization
| url = http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Jrp/pdf/jrp_133_01.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-03-20
  | access-date = 2008-03-20
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071030212058/http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Jrp/pdf/jrp_133_01.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-10-30}}</ref>
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071030212058/http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Jrp/pdf/jrp_133_01.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-10-30}}</ref>


=== Plebiscite ===
In February 1950, the NNC declared that it would hold a referendum to decide the issue of Naga sovereignty. The Government of India condemned NNC as "the voice of the misguided", and rejected NNC's proposal. Nevertheless, NNC decided to conduct a plebiscite on 16 May 1951 and claimed that 99.9% of the Nagas wanted independence from India. Since it is not clear who actually participated in the plebiscite, the inflated percentage is doubtful.<ref>
In February 1950, the NNC declared that it would hold a referendum to decide the issue of Naga sovereignty. The Government of India condemned NNC as "the voice of the misguided", and rejected NNC's proposal. Nevertheless, NNC decided to conduct a plebiscite on 16 May 1951 and claimed that 99.9% of the Nagas wanted independence from India. Since it is not clear who actually participated in the plebiscite, the inflated percentage is doubtful.<ref>
{{cite web
{{cite web
Line 120: Line 120:
</ref> Several of the Naga people inhabited the territory outside the region in which NNC was active. Also, the bulk of the educated Naga people worked outside the region, and the Indian Government had banned its employees from participating in the plebiscite. The Indian Government and the Government of Assam rejected the result.
</ref> Several of the Naga people inhabited the territory outside the region in which NNC was active. Also, the bulk of the educated Naga people worked outside the region, and the Indian Government had banned its employees from participating in the plebiscite. The Indian Government and the Government of Assam rejected the result.


Phizo met Nehru in December 1951 near Tezpur in Assam, in March 1952 at Delhi, and in July 1952 at Dibrugarh.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/> He was arrested in Burma for [[illegal entry]].
Phizo met Nehru in December 1951 near Tezpur in Assam, in March 1952 at Delhi, and in July 1952 at Dibrugarh.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=154}} He was arrested in Burma for [[illegal entry]].
 
The first Indian general elections were held in 1952, which were boycotted by the separatist leaders.<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/> The NNC vice-president, Imkongmeren Ao, submitted a memorandum to Nehru on 18 October 1952, complaining against killing of a Naga, and reminding him of Nagas' desire for independence.


In 1953, a meeting was organized between the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the Burmese Prime Minister U Nu, to decide on borders between India and Burma. The separatist leaders termed the meeting as the process of dividing Naga territory between the two countries. Nehru and U Nu visited the Naga areas in India and Burma. On 30 March 1953, when they visited [[Kohima]], the deputy commissioner of the district disallowed the NNC delegation from meeting Nehru, apparently without Nehru's knowledge.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/> Consequently, Nehru's public meeting was boycotted by NNC and its sympathizers.
The first Indian general elections were held in 1952, which were boycotted by the separatist leaders.<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/> The NNC vice-president, Imkongmeren Ao, submitted a memorandum to Nehru on 18 October 1952, complaining against killing of a Naga, and reminding him of Nagas' desire for independence.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=154}}


After NNC's decision to boycott the Government of India, many posters and letters threatening Government employees (especially the Nagas) appeared. As a result, the Government launched a widespread police action against the NNC. On 4 April 1953, the police raided the house of T. Sakhrie. On 7 April, guns were seized from several villages in raids. On 3 May, the Assam police and the Assam Rifles launched a massive raid on Khonoma, the village of Phizo. On 26 May 1953, the Assam Maintenance of Public Order (Autonomous Districts) was enacted and on 14 July, it was applied in the Naga Hills District.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
In 1953, a meeting was organized between the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the Burmese Prime Minister U Nu, to decide on borders between India and Burma. The separatist leaders termed the meeting as the process of dividing Naga territory between the two countries. Nehru and U Nu visited the Naga areas in India and Burma. On 30 March 1953, when they visited [[Kohima]], the deputy commissioner of the district disallowed the NNC delegation from meeting Nehru, apparently without Nehru's knowledge.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=154–155}} Consequently, Nehru's public meeting was boycotted by NNC and its sympathizers.


On 12 August 1953, the Naga tribal councils and the tribal courts were dissolved. A few days later, the Kohima Government School was temporarily closed after 19 students boycotted the Indian Independence Day celebrations on 15 August, and threatened to assault the teachers and students who joined the celebrations.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
After NNC's decision to boycott the Government of India, many posters and letters threatening Government employees (especially the Nagas) appeared. As a result, the Government launched a widespread police action against the NNC. On 4 April 1953, the police raided the house of T. Sakhrie. On 7 April, guns were seized from several villages in raids. On 3 May, the Assam police and the Assam Rifles launched a massive raid on Khonoma, the village of Phizo. On 26 May 1953, the Assam Maintenance of Public Order (Autonomous Districts) was enacted and on 14 July, it was applied in the Naga Hills District.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=155}}


Some days later, a goodwill mission of APCC led by its President Bimala Prasada Chaliha visited Naga Hills District. It was followed by another goodwill mission of the Assam Unit of the [[Praja Socialist Party]] (PSP), led by its President, Hareswar Goswami. In return, Naga Goodwill mission led by Phizo's niece Rano M. Iralu (the President of Naga Women's Federation) visited Assam from 30 November to 15 December 1953.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/>
On 12 August 1953, the Naga tribal councils and the tribal courts were dissolved. A few days later, the Kohima Government School was temporarily closed after 19 students boycotted the Indian Independence Day celebrations on 15 August, and threatened to assault the teachers and students who joined the celebrations.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=155}}


===Decline===
Some days later, a goodwill mission of [[Assam Pradesh Congress Committee|APCC]] led by its President Bimala Prasada Chaliha visited Naga Hills District. It was followed by another goodwill mission of the Assam Unit of the [[Praja Socialist Party]] (PSP), led by its president, Hareswar Goswami. In return, Naga Goodwill mission led by Phizo's niece Rano M. Iralu (the President of Naga Women's Federation) visited Assam from 30 November to 15 December 1953.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|p=156}}


In September 1954, Phizo formed the "People's Sovereign Republic of Free Nagaland", with the support of Chang chiefs of Tuensang.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/> He reorganized the NNC setup, as the chances of a peaceful settlement declined. In 1955, the Angami leaders T. Sakhrie (who had served the secretary of NNC since its inception) and Zasokie broke off with Phizo at a meeting in the Khonoma village. Phizo got Sakhrie murdered in January 1956.<ref name="SK_Chaube_Naga_Politics"/> Other leaders who dissented with Phizo, such as [[John Bosco Jasokie|Jasokie]] and Silie, had to ask for refuge from the Indian Government.<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/> Thus, the NNC virtually collapsed.
=== Decline ===
In September 1954, Phizo formed the "People's Sovereign Republic of Free Nagaland", with the support of Chang chiefs of Tuensang.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=156–157}} He reorganized the NNC setup, as the chances of a peaceful settlement declined. In 1955, the Angami leaders T. Sakhrie (who had served the secretary of NNC since its inception) and Zasokie broke off with Phizo at a meeting in the Khonoma village. Phizo got Sakhrie murdered in January 1956.{{sfn|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999|pp=156–157}} Other leaders who dissented with Phizo, such as [[John Bosco Jasokie|Jasokie]] and Silie, had to ask for refuge from the Indian Government.<ref name="Ranabir_Samaddar"/> Thus, the NNC virtually collapsed.


In January 1956, the Naga Hills District was declared a "Disturbed Area", putting it under the Indian Army's command. On 22 March 1956 Phizo formed the "Naga Central Government", which was later renamed to "Federal Government of Nagaland" (FGN) in 1959. The new organization had a military wing to encounter the Indian soldiers, who were accused of human rights violations by the separatists. Phizo escaped to [[East Pakistan]] in December 1956, from where he went to [[London]].<ref name="integration_north_east"/>
In January 1956, the Naga Hills District was declared a "Disturbed Area", putting it under the Indian Army's command. On 22 March 1956 Phizo formed the "Naga Central Government", which was later renamed to "Federal Government of Nagaland" (FGN) in 1959.<ref name="integration_north_east" /> The new organization had a military wing to encounter the Indian soldiers, who were accused of human rights violations by the separatists.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} Phizo escaped to [[East Pakistan]] in December 1956, from where he went to [[London]].<ref name="integration_north_east"/>


The secessionist movement declined to a great extent after the formation of [[Nagaland]] as a new state of India in 1963, with the Naga leader [[P. Shilu Ao]] as its chief minister. Several Naga rebel groups continued the insurgency, but the scale of violence decreased considerably. On 11 November 1975, a 6-member delegation, which included Phizo's brother Kevi Yallay, signed the [[Shillong Accord of 1975|Shillong Peace Accord]] with the Government of India.<ref name="RV_2000">{{cite book |author=Reisang Vashum |title=Nagas' Rights to Self Determination: An Anthropological-historical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MiHhNkvrWvwC&pg=PA93 |year=2000 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-774-0 |pages=93–94 }}</ref>
The secessionist movement declined to a great extent after the formation of [[Nagaland]] as a new state of India in 1963, with the Naga leader [[P. Shilu Ao]] as its chief minister. Several Naga rebel groups continued the insurgency, but the scale of violence decreased considerably. On 11 November 1975, a 6-member delegation, which included Phizo's brother Kevi Yallay, signed the [[Shillong Accord of 1975|Shillong Peace Accord]] with the Government of India.<ref name="RV_2000">{{cite book |author=Reisang Vashum |title=Nagas' Rights to Self Determination: An Anthropological-historical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MiHhNkvrWvwC&pg=PA93 |year=2000 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-774-0 |pages=93–94 }}</ref>
Line 142: Line 141:
NNC's Vice President [[Isak Chishi Swu]] and General Secretary [[Thuingaleng Muivah]] denounced the Accord, calling it a "complete sellout of the Naga rights".<ref name="RV_2000"/> On 21 November, Isak, Muivah, Lorho, Venuh, Moire and Pamrei officially condemned the Accord, dubbing its supporters as traitors. However, on 2 December, the FGN endorsed the Accord at a meeting held at Dihoma. Both the factions sought Phizo's views. But Phizo, who was in London, neither endorsed nor condemned the Accord.<ref name="ASAShimray_2005">{{cite book |author=A. S. Atai Shimray |title=Let Freedom Ring?: Story of Naga Nationalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQSV50-O5-IC&pg=PA103 |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=Bibliophile South Asia |isbn=978-81-85002-61-3 |pages=103–104 }}</ref>
NNC's Vice President [[Isak Chishi Swu]] and General Secretary [[Thuingaleng Muivah]] denounced the Accord, calling it a "complete sellout of the Naga rights".<ref name="RV_2000"/> On 21 November, Isak, Muivah, Lorho, Venuh, Moire and Pamrei officially condemned the Accord, dubbing its supporters as traitors. However, on 2 December, the FGN endorsed the Accord at a meeting held at Dihoma. Both the factions sought Phizo's views. But Phizo, who was in London, neither endorsed nor condemned the Accord.<ref name="ASAShimray_2005">{{cite book |author=A. S. Atai Shimray |title=Let Freedom Ring?: Story of Naga Nationalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQSV50-O5-IC&pg=PA103 |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=Bibliophile South Asia |isbn=978-81-85002-61-3 |pages=103–104 }}</ref>


Subsequently, in 1980, a faction led by Isak, Muviah and SS Khaplang broke away from NNC to form the [[National Socialist Council of Nagaland]] (NSCN), which continued the secessionist activities.<ref>{{cite book |author=Professor Ranabir Samaddar |title=Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ON_DCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA139 |date=28 May 2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-4724-3493-7 |page=139 }}</ref>
Subsequently, in 1980, a faction led by Isak, Muivah and SS Khaplang broke away from NNC to form the [[National Socialist Council of Nagaland]] (NSCN), which continued the secessionist activities.<ref>{{cite book |author=Professor Ranabir Samaddar |title=Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ON_DCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA139 |date=28 May 2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-4724-3493-7 |page=139 }}</ref>


==See also==
== Notes ==
* [[Angami Zapu Phizo]]
{{notelist}}


==References==
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Chaube |first=Shibani Kinkar |title=Hill Politics in Northeast India |publisher=Orient Longman |orig-year=1973 |year=1999  |isbn=81-250-1695-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/hillpoliticsinno0000chau |via=archive.org |url-access=registration |ref={{sfnref|Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India|1999}}}}
* {{citation |first=Samrat |last=Choudhury |title=Northeast India: A Political History |publisher=Hurst |year=2023 |isbn=9781787389526 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jerIEAAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Choudhury, Northeast India|2023}}}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Politics of Nagaland]]
[[Category:Politics of Nagaland]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1945]]
[[Category:Political organizations established in 1945]]
[[Category:Naga nationalism]]
[[Category:Naga nationalism]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in India]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in India]]

Latest revision as of 10:23, 22 October 2025

Naga National Council
Founded1946 (1946)
Preceded byNaga Hills District Tribal Council, Naga Club
Succeeded byNational Socialist Council of Nagaland
IdeologyNaga nationalism, Separatism

The Naga National Council (NNC) was a political organization and a tribal government of Naga people in the erstwhile Naga Hills district of Assam (present-day Nagaland) in Northeast India. It was active from the late 1940s to the early 1950s. It evolved out of the Naga Hills District Tribal Council, an organization established in 1945 by the Deputy Commissioner of the Naga Hills district. The group was reorganized to form NNC in 1946 at Sanis (in present-day Wokha district), with T. Aliba Imti Ao as the President, and other democratically elected Naga representatives as its members. The organisation consisted of modernist educated elites, who were also officials of the government in various capacities. They were edged out by the hardline Naga leader Zapu Phizo towards the end of 1949,[1] who then took over the organisation and turned it into a secessionist platform.

Antecedents[edit | edit source]

In April 1945, the deputy commissioner of the Naga Hills District, C. R. Pawsey, established the Naga Hills District Tribal Council as a forum of the various Naga groups in the district.[2] This body replaced an earlier organization called Naga Club, and in February 1946, it was reorganized as a political organization called Naga National Council (NNC).[2] NNC's objective was to work out the terms of relationship with the Government of India after the British withdrawal.

Organization[edit | edit source]

The president of the NNC was T. Aliba Imti Ao. He was the son of an Imtilepden[clarification needed] of Lonjang village, he was the first teacher amongst the Nagas and also served as a pastor. Imti Ao was a graduate from St. Edmund's College, Shillong and had been the secretary of the Hills Students' Federation, an affiliate of the All India Students Federation (AISF). The joint secretary of the NNC was T. Sakhrie, an Angami.[3]

NNC had two central councils, one each at Kohima and Mokokchung. Each central council was split into a number of tribal councils, which were further split into sub-tribal councils. Generally, a sub-tribal council was formed with five villages. Members were not elected, but chosen by the NNC leadership.[4]

The Kohima Central Council consisted of 12 members, of whom seven belonged to the Angami tribe. It was presided over by a Liangmei school teacher of Kohima.[3]

The Mokokchung Central Council had 15 members, of whom five were Ao, four Sema, three Lotha, two Sangtam, and one Chang. The Konyaks had not attended the first meeting of the council, and were not represented. There was no representation from the unadministered area.[3]

Demand for autonomy[edit | edit source]

In a memorandum presented to the British Government in June 1945, the NNC demanded an autonomous status for the Naga region.[citation needed]

When the report of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India was published, NNC passed a resolution on 19 June 1946 at Wokha in Mokokchung division.[2] It stated that it was against grouping of Assam in Bengal, and wanted the Naga Hills District to be included in an autonomous Assam in the independent India. It further emphasized local autonomy for the Naga Hills District, and a separate electorate for the Naga tribes.

In November 1946, Gopinath Bordoloi, the Premier of Assam visited the district.[5] The Nagas respected the Assamese politicians like Gopinath Bordoloi and Bimala Prasad Chaliha, and showed cordiality to Bordoloi in November 1946.[6]

In February 1947, the NNC council passed a resolution at Kohima. As a result of this resolution, on 20 February 1947, it submitted a proposal for interim Government of Nagas, under a "Guardian Power" for a period of ten years. They didn't explicitly state who the "Guardian Power" should be (Government of India, the Provincial Government or His Majesty's Government).[5]

In June 1947, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru wrote to the Naga National Council (NNC) secretary, T. Sakhrie, saying that the Indian government is against the separate electorates, as they "limit and injure the small group by keeping it separated from rest of the nation."[7]

Talks with the Bordoloi subcommittee[edit | edit source]

In 1947, the Bordoloi subcommittee of the Constituent Assembly[lower-alpha 1] came to Kohima for discussions with the Naga leaders. The Kohima Central Council of NNC was reluctant to nominate a person for co-option to the Bordoloi subcommittee. The Bordoloi subcommittee was constituted with Mayangnokcha Ao as a member, but he did not accept the position. Hence, Aliba was taken in his place.[6]

When the subcommittee reached Kohima, NNC did not have a permanent president. The committee had received a list of organizations to be interviewed from the deputy commissioner Pawsey, but Pawsey himself was away. Kevichüsa Angami, the senior extra assistant commissioner at Kohima, acted as the guardian angel of the NNC.[9]

The secretary of the subcommittee observed:[9]

On the whole, the attitude of the NNC and the general atmosphere seemed to have taken an unpleasant turn, since the (Assam) Premier's visit (in November 1946). It was clearly perceived that the Council was now dominated by certain Angami leaders like Kevichüsa and Lungalang and the more reasonable elements were prevented from asserting themselves

(a) on account of the Naga system of not deciding matters by a majority but by a general agreement only, and

(b) by the threat of force which seemed to hold the NNC together.

The non-Naga groups of Dimapur were also presented before the subcommittee, and spoke against the NNC. The subcommittee did not visit the other subdivision, Mokokchung.[10] The Bordoloi report was vetoed by the Angami member, Kezehol, but accepted by the Sema member, Khetloushe. Khetloushe replaced Kezehol, when the latter resigned during the last meeting of the subcommittee.[10] The Bordoloi subcommittee concluded that "many of them (Naga leaders) were inclined to take moderate views on the lines of the original resolution passed at Wokha, but in view of the intransigence of certain other members, probably of the Angami group, they were prevented from doing so."[6]

Nine-Points Agreement[edit | edit source]

Aliba Imti continued to strive for a settlement between the Government and the NNC members. As a result of his efforts, on 26 June 1947, Sir Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari, the Governor of Assam, reached a Nine-Points Agreement with the Naga leaders.[11] It was decided that the Nagas would be granted judicial, executive and legislative powers, as well as autonomy in land-related matters. There was a ten-year guarantee of these provisions at the end of which the Nagas could choose between extending the agreement or a new agreement. The Naga leaders were also promised unification of Naga territories from nearby districts into the Naga Hills District. However, the Constituent Assembly refused to ratify the Hydari accord.[7] The Naga leaders envisaged a sovereign state with India as a "Guardian Power" for ten years, while the Indian Constituent Assembly concluded that the Nine Points Agreement guaranteed only a "district autonomy within the Indian Constitution".

Rise of Phizo and the secessionist ideology[edit | edit source]

Until 1949, the hardline Naga leader Angami Zapu Phizo did not have an important role in NNC. He led a separate organisation called People's Independence League, working towards a demand of independence.[12] He met the Assamese, Garos, Khasis, Lushais, Abors, Mishmis and Meiteis leaders in an attempt to convince them to form independent countries of their own, instead of joining the Union of India. However, his efforts failed.[citation needed]

In July 1947, as Phizo had set out to take a delegation to Delhi to meet national leaders, the Deputy Commissioner Pawsey sent a telegram, via Governor Hydari, stating that they represent an "unimportant minority" and that they should be ignored.[13] Perhaps the telegram arrived too late, the delegation did meet Gandhi and stated their intention to declare independence. According to one version, Gandhi is said to have replied, "I feel that Naga Hills is mine just as it is yours. But if you say that it is not mine, the matter must stop there... If you do not wish to join the Union of India nobody will force you to that."[14]

The NNC secretary T. Sakhrie had expressed fears in a letter to Gandhi that the Indian government might use military force to occupy the Naga territory by force. Gandhi assured the Naga delegation that he would go to Kohima, and he would be "the first to be shot before any Naga is killed".[7]

Declaration of independence[edit | edit source]

On 14 August 1947, one day before India gained its independence, Phizo sent a telegram to United Nations and Delhi announcing his organisation's resolve to lead a free Naga nation. The telegram was intercepted by the district administration and never delivered.[15] On 15 August, Phizo declared the independence of Nagaland.[16] Scholar Shibani Chaube states that there is nothing to indicate that NNC as a party had anything to do with the declaration.[16]

The hardliners led by Phizo gradually increased their influence over the NNC. Phizo became the 4th NNC president in October–November 1949 after defeating Vizar Angami of Zakhama village by a margin of one vote; the vote was held in the absence of most of the other leaders.[16] Under his leadership, the NNC inclined towards seeking secession from India.

The Government of independent India continued the British policy of isolating the North-East. The Naga Hills District was placed in Part A tribal areas category, as an Autonomous District administered by the Government of Assam, with a limited representation in the Assam State Legislative Assembly and in the National Parliament. The Naga Tribal Area (Tuensang) was placed in the Part B tribal areas category, which was administered by the Governor of Assam acting as Agent of the President of India.[17]

Plebiscite[edit | edit source]

In February 1950, the NNC declared that it would hold a referendum to decide the issue of Naga sovereignty. The Government of India condemned NNC as "the voice of the misguided", and rejected NNC's proposal. Nevertheless, NNC decided to conduct a plebiscite on 16 May 1951 and claimed that 99.9% of the Nagas wanted independence from India. Since it is not clear who actually participated in the plebiscite, the inflated percentage is doubtful.[18] Several of the Naga people inhabited the territory outside the region in which NNC was active. Also, the bulk of the educated Naga people worked outside the region, and the Indian Government had banned its employees from participating in the plebiscite. The Indian Government and the Government of Assam rejected the result.

Phizo met Nehru in December 1951 near Tezpur in Assam, in March 1952 at Delhi, and in July 1952 at Dibrugarh.[16] He was arrested in Burma for illegal entry.

The first Indian general elections were held in 1952, which were boycotted by the separatist leaders.[7] The NNC vice-president, Imkongmeren Ao, submitted a memorandum to Nehru on 18 October 1952, complaining against killing of a Naga, and reminding him of Nagas' desire for independence.[16]

In 1953, a meeting was organized between the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the Burmese Prime Minister U Nu, to decide on borders between India and Burma. The separatist leaders termed the meeting as the process of dividing Naga territory between the two countries. Nehru and U Nu visited the Naga areas in India and Burma. On 30 March 1953, when they visited Kohima, the deputy commissioner of the district disallowed the NNC delegation from meeting Nehru, apparently without Nehru's knowledge.[19] Consequently, Nehru's public meeting was boycotted by NNC and its sympathizers.

After NNC's decision to boycott the Government of India, many posters and letters threatening Government employees (especially the Nagas) appeared. As a result, the Government launched a widespread police action against the NNC. On 4 April 1953, the police raided the house of T. Sakhrie. On 7 April, guns were seized from several villages in raids. On 3 May, the Assam police and the Assam Rifles launched a massive raid on Khonoma, the village of Phizo. On 26 May 1953, the Assam Maintenance of Public Order (Autonomous Districts) was enacted and on 14 July, it was applied in the Naga Hills District.[20]

On 12 August 1953, the Naga tribal councils and the tribal courts were dissolved. A few days later, the Kohima Government School was temporarily closed after 19 students boycotted the Indian Independence Day celebrations on 15 August, and threatened to assault the teachers and students who joined the celebrations.[20]

Some days later, a goodwill mission of APCC led by its President Bimala Prasada Chaliha visited Naga Hills District. It was followed by another goodwill mission of the Assam Unit of the Praja Socialist Party (PSP), led by its president, Hareswar Goswami. In return, Naga Goodwill mission led by Phizo's niece Rano M. Iralu (the President of Naga Women's Federation) visited Assam from 30 November to 15 December 1953.[21]

Decline[edit | edit source]

In September 1954, Phizo formed the "People's Sovereign Republic of Free Nagaland", with the support of Chang chiefs of Tuensang.[22] He reorganized the NNC setup, as the chances of a peaceful settlement declined. In 1955, the Angami leaders T. Sakhrie (who had served the secretary of NNC since its inception) and Zasokie broke off with Phizo at a meeting in the Khonoma village. Phizo got Sakhrie murdered in January 1956.[22] Other leaders who dissented with Phizo, such as Jasokie and Silie, had to ask for refuge from the Indian Government.[7] Thus, the NNC virtually collapsed.

In January 1956, the Naga Hills District was declared a "Disturbed Area", putting it under the Indian Army's command. On 22 March 1956 Phizo formed the "Naga Central Government", which was later renamed to "Federal Government of Nagaland" (FGN) in 1959.[17] The new organization had a military wing to encounter the Indian soldiers, who were accused of human rights violations by the separatists.[citation needed] Phizo escaped to East Pakistan in December 1956, from where he went to London.[17]

The secessionist movement declined to a great extent after the formation of Nagaland as a new state of India in 1963, with the Naga leader P. Shilu Ao as its chief minister. Several Naga rebel groups continued the insurgency, but the scale of violence decreased considerably. On 11 November 1975, a 6-member delegation, which included Phizo's brother Kevi Yallay, signed the Shillong Peace Accord with the Government of India.[23]

NNC's Vice President Isak Chishi Swu and General Secretary Thuingaleng Muivah denounced the Accord, calling it a "complete sellout of the Naga rights".[23] On 21 November, Isak, Muivah, Lorho, Venuh, Moire and Pamrei officially condemned the Accord, dubbing its supporters as traitors. However, on 2 December, the FGN endorsed the Accord at a meeting held at Dihoma. Both the factions sought Phizo's views. But Phizo, who was in London, neither endorsed nor condemned the Accord.[24]

Subsequently, in 1980, a faction led by Isak, Muivah and SS Khaplang broke away from NNC to form the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), which continued the secessionist activities.[25]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ This subcommittee was tasked with recommending measures for the administration of the tribal areas of Northeast India, in particular the "Excluded Areas" and "Partially Excluded Areas". Its members included the Khasi leader J. J. M. Nichols-Roy and Bodo leader Rupnath Brahma.[8] The subcommittee eventually formulated the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution of India.

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 105: "The middle class youth which took over its leadership soon left the organisation to the extremist leadership of Phizo, who converted the Naga National Council into a central organisation of the 'traditional' authorities.".
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 73–74.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 150.
  4. ↑ Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 149–150.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 74.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 151–152.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Samaddar, Ranabir (2004). The Politics of Dialogue: Living Under the Geopolitical Histories of War and Peace. Ashgate. pp. 171–173. ISBN 978-0-7546-3607-6. OCLC 56466278.
  8. ↑ Choudhury, Northeast India 2023, pp. 82–83.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 150–151.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 151.
  11. ↑ Chadha, Vivek (2005). "Appendix M - 10 Year Akbar Hydari Agreement: June 1947". Low Intensity Conflicts In India: An Analysis. SAGE. p. 477. ISBN 0-7619-3325-5. OCLC 56356140.
  12. ↑ Choudhury, Northeast India 2023, pp. 84–85.
  13. ↑ Choudhury, Northeast India 2023, p. 84.
  14. ↑ Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 153–154.
  15. ↑ Choudhury, Northeast India 2023, pp. 67, 84–85.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 154.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Inoue, Kyoko. "Integration of the North East: the State Formation Process" (PDF). Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
  18. ↑ Jassal, R. S. "The Truth And Naga Issue". Archived from the original on 15 December 2004. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
  19. ↑ Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 154–155.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 155.
  21. ↑ Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, p. 156.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Chaube, Hill Politics in Northeast India 1999, pp. 156–157.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Reisang Vashum (2000). Nagas' Rights to Self Determination: An Anthropological-historical Perspective. Mittal Publications. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-81-7099-774-0.
  24. ↑ A. S. Atai Shimray (1 January 2005). Let Freedom Ring?: Story of Naga Nationalism. Bibliophile South Asia. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-81-85002-61-3.
  25. ↑ Professor Ranabir Samaddar (28 May 2015). Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of Peace. Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-4724-3493-7.

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

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