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| [[File:Infrared dog.jpg|thumb|right|Image of a [[Pomeranian (dog)|Pomeranian]] taken in mid-infrared ("thermal") light ([[false-color]])]] | |
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| A '''thermographic camera''' (also called an '''infrared camera''' or '''thermal imaging camera''', '''thermal camera''' or '''thermal imager''') is a device that creates an image using [[infrared]] (IR) radiation, similar to a normal [[camera]] that forms an image using [[optical spectrum|visible]] [[light]]. Instead of the 400–700 [[nanometre]] (nm) range of the visible light camera, infrared cameras are sensitive to [[wavelength]]s from about 1,000 nm (1 [[micrometre]] or μm) to about 14,000 nm (14 μm). The practice of capturing and analyzing the data they provide is called [[thermography]].
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| == History ==
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| === Discovery and research of infrared radiation ===
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| Infrared was discovered in 1800 by [[Sir William Herschel]] as a form of radiation beyond red light.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chilton|first=Alexander|date=2013-10-07|title=The Working Principle and Key Applications of Infrared Sensors|url=https://www.azosensors.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=339|access-date=2020-07-11|website=AZoSensors|language=en}}</ref> These "infrared rays" (infra is the Latin prefix for "below") were used mainly for thermal measurement.<ref>W. Herschel, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/107057 "Experiments on the refrangibility of the visible rays of the sun"], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 90, pp. 284–292, 1800.</ref> There are four basic laws of IR radiation: [[Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation]], [[Stefan–Boltzmann law]], [[Planck's law]], and [[Wien's displacement law]]. The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometers and [[bolometer]]s until [[World War I]]. A significant step in the development of detectors occurred in 1829, when [[Leopoldo Nobili]], using the [[Seebeck effect]], created the first known [[thermocouple]], fabricating an improved thermometer, a crude [[thermopile]]. He described this instrument to [[Macedonio Melloni]]. Initially, they jointly developed a greatly improved instrument. Subsequently, Melloni worked alone, creating an instrument in 1833 (a multielement [[thermopile]]) that could detect a person 10 metres away.<ref>Barr, E. S. (1962). [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0020089162900234 The infrared pioneers—II]. Macedonio Melloni. ''Infrared Physics, 2''(2), 67-74.</ref> The next significant step in improving detectors was the bolometer, invented in 1880 by [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Langley |first=S. P. |title=The bolometer |journal=Proceedings of the American Metrological Society|volume=2 |date=1880 |pages=184–190 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433090766035;view=1up;seq=283 }}</ref> Langley and his assistant [[Charles Greeley Abbot]] continued to make improvements in this instrument. By 1901, it could detect radiation from a cow from 400 metres away and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandths (0.00001 C) of a degree Celsius.<ref>Barr, E. S. (1962). [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0020089163900241 The infrared pioneers—III]. Samuel Pierpoint Langley. ''Infrared Physics, 3'' 195-206.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2000-05-03|title=Samuel Pierpont Langley|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Langley/langley_2.php|access-date=2021-05-12|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|language=en}}</ref> The first commercial thermal imaging camera was sold in 1965 for high voltage power line inspections.
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| The first advanced application of IR technology in the civil section may have been a device to detect the presence of icebergs and steamships using a mirror and thermopile, patented in 1913.<ref>L. Bellingham, "Means for detecting the presence at a distance of icebergs, steamships, and other cool or hot objects," US patent no. 1,158,967.</ref> This was soon outdone by the first accurate IR iceberg detector, which did not use thermopiles, patented in 1914 by R.D. Parker.<ref>Parker (R.D.)- [https://patents.google.com/patent/US1099199A/en Thermic balance or radiometer. U.S. Patent No 1,099,199] June 9, 1914</ref> This was followed by G.A. Barker's proposal to use the IR system to detect forest fires in 1934.<ref>Barker (G.A.) – Apparatus for detecting forest fires. U.S. Patent No 1,958,702 May 22, 1934</ref> The technique was not genuinely industrialized until it was used to analyze heating uniformity in hot steel strips in 1935.<ref>Nichols (G.T.) – Temperature measuring. U.S. Patent No 2,008,793 July 23, 1935</ref>
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| === First thermographic camera ===
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| In 1929, Hungarian physicist [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] invented the infrared-sensitive (night vision) electronic television camera for anti-aircraft defense in Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/tihanyi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031024102742/http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/tihanyi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 October 2003|title=Kalman Tihanyi (1897–1947)|last=Naughton|first=Russell|date=10 August 2004|publisher=Monash University|access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref> The first American thermographic camera developed was an infrared line scanner. This was created by the US military and [[Texas Instruments]] in 1947<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/company/history/timeline/defense/1960/docs/66-first_flir.htm|title=Texas Instruments - 1966 First FLIR units produced|work=ti.com}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=October 2015}} and took one hour to produce a single image. While several approaches were investigated to improve the speed and accuracy of the technology, one of the most crucial factors dealt with scanning an image, which the [[AGA company]] was able to commercialize using a cooled photoconductor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=405270|title=Uncooled infrared imaging arrays and systems|last1=Kruse|first1=Paul W|last2=Skatrud|first2=David Dale|date=1997|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780080864440|location=San Diego|language=en|oclc=646756485}}</ref>
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| The first infrared linescan system was the British [[Yellow Duckling]] of the mid-1950s.<ref name="Gibson, Yellow Duckling" >{{Cite book |title=Nimrod's Genesis |last=Gibson |first=Chris |publisher=Hikoki Publications |year=2015 |isbn=978-190210947-3 |pages=25–26 }}</ref> This used a continuously rotating mirror and detector, with Y-axis scanning by the motion of the carrier aircraft. Although unsuccessful in its intended application of submarine tracking by wake detection, it was applied to land-based surveillance and became the foundation of military IR linescan.
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| This work was further developed at the [[Royal Signals and Radar Establishment]] in the UK when they discovered that [[mercury cadmium telluride]] was a photoconductor that required much less cooling. [[Honeywell]] in the United States also developed arrays of detectors that could cool at a lower temperature,{{explain|date=September 2019}} but they scanned mechanically. This method had several disadvantages which could be overcome using an electronic scanning system. In 1969 [[Michael Francis Tompsett]] at [[English Electric Valve Company]] in the UK patented a camera that scanned pyro-electronically and which reached a high level of performance after several other breakthroughs during the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uspto.gov/about/nmti/recipients/tompsett.jsp|title=Michael F. Tompsett, TheraManager|work=uspto.gov}}</ref> Tompsett also proposed an idea for solid-state thermal-imaging arrays, which eventually led to modern hybridized single-crystal-slice imaging devices.<ref name=":0" />
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| === Smart sensors ===
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| One of the essential areas of development for security systems was for the ability to intelligently evaluate a signal, as well as warning of a threat's presence. Under the encouragement of the US [[Strategic Defense Initiative]], "smart sensors" began to appear. These are sensors that could integrate sensing, signal extraction, processing, and comprehension.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corsi|first=C.|date=1995-07-01|title=Smart sensors|journal=Microsystem Technologies|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=149–154|doi=10.1007/BF01294808|s2cid=86519711|issn=1432-1858}}</ref> There are two main types of smart sensors. One, similar to what is called a "[[vision chip]]" when used in the visible range, allow for preprocessing using smart sensing techniques due to the increase in growth of integrated microcircuitry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236015724|title=Vision Chips or Seeing Silicon|last=Moini|first=Alireza|date=March 1997|website=The Centre for High-Performance Integrated Technologies and Systems}}</ref> The other technology is more oriented to specific use and fulfills its preprocessing goal through its design and structure.<ref>National patent no. 47722◦/80.</ref>
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| Towards the end of the 1990s, the use of infrared was moving towards civilian use. There was a dramatic lowering of costs for uncooled arrays, which along with the significant increase in developments, led to a [[Dual-use technology|dual-use]] market encompassing both civilian and military uses.<ref>A. Rogalski, "IR detectors: status trends," Progress in Quantum Electronics, vol. 27, pp. 59–210, 2003.</ref> These uses include environmental control, building/art analysis, functional medical diagnostics, and car guidance and [[collision avoidance system]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/09500341003693011|bibcode = 2010JMOp...57.1663C|title = History highlights and future trends of infrared sensors|year = 2010|last1 = Corsi|first1 = Carlo|journal = Journal of Modern Optics|volume = 57|issue = 18|pages = 1663–1686|s2cid = 119918260}}</ref><ref>C. Corsi, "Rivelatori IR: stato dell’arte e trends di sviluppo futuro," Atti della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi, vol. XLVI, no.5, pp. 801–810, 1991.</ref><ref>L. J. Kozlowski and W. F. Kosonocky, "Infrared detector arrays," in Hand-Book of Optics, M. Bass, Ed., chapter 23, Williams,W. L.Wolfe, and McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref><ref>C. Corsi, "Future trends and advanced development in I.R. detectors," in Proceedings of 2nd Joint Conference IRIS-NATO,London, UK, June 1996.</ref><ref>M. Razeghi, "Current status and future trends of infrared detectors," Opto-Electronics Review, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 155–194, 1998.</ref><ref>Corsi, Carlo. "Infrared: A Key Technology for Security Systems." Advances in Optical Technologies 2012 (2012): 1-15.</ref>
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| == Theory of operation ==
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| [[File:Infarot 9.jpg|thumb|A thermal image showing temperature variation in a hot air balloon.]]
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| Infrared energy is just one part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], which encompasses radiation from [[gamma rays]], [[x-rays]], [[ultraviolet]], a thin region of [[visible light]], [[infrared]], [[Terahertz radiation|terahertz waves]], [[microwaves]], and [[radio waves]]. These are all related and differentiated in the length of their wave (wavelength). All objects emit a certain amount of [[black body]] radiation as a function of their temperature.
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| Generally speaking, the higher an object's temperature, the more infrared radiation is emitted as [[black-body radiation]]. A special [[camera]] can detect this radiation in a way similar to the way an ordinary camera detects visible light. It even works in total darkness because ambient light level does not matter. This makes it useful for rescue operations in smoke-filled buildings and underground.
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| A major difference with optical cameras is that the focusing lenses cannot be made of glass, as glass blocks long-wave infrared light. Typically the spectral range of thermal radiation is from 7 to 14 μm. Special materials such as [[Germanium dioxide#Uses|Germanium]], calcium fluoride, crystalline silicon or newly developed special type of chalcogenide glasses must be used. Except for calcium fluoride all these materials are quite hard and have high refractive index (for germanium n=4) which leads to very high [[Fresnel reflection]] from uncoated surfaces (up to more than 30%). For this reason most of the lenses for thermal cameras have antireflective coatings. The higher cost of these special lenses is one reason why thermographic cameras are more expensive.
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| == In use ==
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| [[File:Wiki ringtailed lemur.jpg|thumb|Thermographic image of a [[ring-tailed lemur]]]]
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| Images from infrared cameras tend to be [[monochrome]] because the cameras generally use an [[image sensor]] that does not distinguish different [[wavelength]]s of infrared radiation. Color image sensors require a complex construction to differentiate wavelengths, and color has less meaning outside of the normal visible spectrum because the differing wavelengths do not map uniformly into the system of [[color vision]] used by humans.
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| Sometimes these monochromatic images are displayed in [[pseudo-color]], where changes in color are used rather than changes in intensity to display changes in the signal. This technique, called [[False color#Density slicing|density slicing]], is useful because although humans have much greater [[dynamic range]] in intensity detection than color overall, the ability to see fine intensity differences in bright areas is fairly limited.
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| For use in temperature measurement the brightest (warmest) parts of the image are customarily colored white, intermediate temperatures reds and yellows, and the dimmest (coolest) parts black. A scale should be shown next to a false color image to relate colors to temperatures. Their resolution is considerably lower than that of optical cameras, mostly only 160 x 120 or 320 x 240 pixels, although more expensive cameras can achieve a resolution of 1280 x 1024 pixels. Thermographic cameras are much more expensive than their visible-spectrum counterparts, though low-performance add-on thermal cameras for [[smartphone]]s became available for hundreds of dollars in 2014.<ref>[http://www.stuff.tv/smartphone-clip-thermal-camera-answers-age-old-question/news Thermal camera answers age-old question] by Fraser Macdonald, 4 October 2014, Hot Stuff</ref> Higher-end models are often deemed as [[dual-use]] and export-restricted, particularly if the resolution is 640 x 480 or greater, unless the refresh rate is 9 Hz or less. The export of thermal cameras is regulated by [[International Traffic in Arms Regulations]]. A thermal camera was first built into a smartphone in 2016, into the [[Cat S60]].
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| In uncooled detectors the temperature differences at the sensor pixels are minute; a 1 °C difference at the scene induces just a 0.03 °C difference at the sensor. The pixel response time is also fairly slow, at the range of tens of milliseconds.<!-- Introduction to Electronic Defense Systems, page 540 -->
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| [[Thermography]] finds many other uses. For example, [[firefighter]]s use it to see through [[smoke]], find people, and localize hotspots of fires. With thermal imaging, [[electric power transmission|power line]] maintenance technicians locate overheating joints and parts, a telltale sign of their failure, to eliminate potential hazards. Where [[thermal insulation]] becomes faulty, [[building construction]] technicians can see heat leaks to improve the efficiencies of cooling or heating air-conditioning.
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| [[File:Infrared image of a cow with with foot-and-mouth disease.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Hot hooves indicate a sick cow]]
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| Thermal imaging cameras are also installed in some luxury cars to aid the driver ([[automotive night vision]]), the first being the 2000 [[Cadillac DeVille]].
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| Some physiological activities, particularly responses such as [[fever]], in human beings and other warm-blooded animals can also be monitored with thermographic imaging. Cooled infrared cameras can be found at major astronomy research [[telescope]]s, even those that are not [[infrared telescope]]s.
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| == Types ==
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| [[File:Wiki stranglesnake.jpg|thumb|A thermographic image of a snake around an arm, showing contrast between [[Warm-blooded|warm-]] and [[Ectotherm|cold]]-blooded creatures]]
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| Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types: those with cooled infrared image detectors and those with uncooled detectors.
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| === Cooled infrared detectors ===
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| [[File:Wiki lizards.jpg|thumb|A thermographic image of several lizards]]
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| [[File:Airport Thermographic Camera.jpg|thumb|Thermal imaging camera & screen, in an airport terminal in Greece. Thermal imaging can detect [[fever]], one of the signs of [[infection]].]]
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| Cooled detectors are typically contained in a vacuum-sealed case or [[Dewar Flask|Dewar]] and [[cryogenic]]ally cooled. The cooling is necessary for the operation of the semiconductor materials used. Typical [[operating temperature]]s range from {{Convert|4|K|C|0|abbr=on}} to just below room temperature, depending on the detector technology. Most modern cooled detectors operate in the 60 Kelvin (K) to 100 K range (-213 to -173 °C), depending on type and performance level.<ref>{{cite web|title=Infrared Technology|url=http://thermalscope.com/about-thermal-imaging|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108081407/http://thermalscope.com/about-thermal-imaging|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 November 2014|publisher=thermalscope.com|access-date=1 November 2014}}</ref>
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| Without cooling, these sensors (which detect and convert light in much the same way as common digital cameras, but are made of different materials) would be 'blinded' or flooded by their own radiation. The drawbacks of cooled infrared cameras are that they are expensive both to produce and to run. Cooling is both energy-intensive and time-consuming.
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| The camera may need several minutes to cool down before it can begin working. The most commonly used cooling systems are [[peltier cooler]]s which, although inefficient and limited in cooling capacity, are relatively simple and compact. To obtain better image quality or for imaging low temperature objects [[Applications of the Stirling engine#Stirling cryocoolers|Stirling engine cryocoolers]] are needed. Although the cooling apparatus may be comparatively bulky and expensive, cooled infrared cameras provide greatly superior image quality compared to uncooled ones, particularly of objects near or below room temperature. Additionally, the greater sensitivity of cooled cameras also allow the use of higher [[F-number]] lenses, making high performance long focal length lenses both smaller and cheaper for cooled detectors.
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| An alternative to Stirling engine coolers is to use gases bottled at high pressure, nitrogen being a common choice. The pressurised gas is expanded via a micro-sized orifice and passed over a miniature heat exchanger resulting in regenerative cooling via the [[Joule–Thomson effect]]. For such systems the supply of pressurized gas is a logistical concern for field use.
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| Materials used for cooled infrared detection include [[photodetector]]s based on a wide range of [[narrow gap semiconductor]]s including [[indium(III) antimonide|indium antimonide]] (3-5 μm), [[indium arsenide]], [[mercury(II) cadmium(II) telluride|mercury cadmium telluride]] (MCT) (1-2 μm, 3-5 μm, 8-12 μm), [[lead(II) sulfide|lead sulfide]], and [[lead(II) selenide|lead selenide]]
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| Infrared photodetectors can be created with structures of high bandgap semiconductors such as in [[quantum well infrared photodetector]]s.
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| A number of superconducting and non-superconducting cooled bolometer technologies exist.
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| In principle, [[Josephson junction|superconducting tunneling junction]] devices could be used as infrared sensors because of their very narrow gap. Small arrays have been demonstrated. They have not been broadly adopted for use because their high sensitivity requires careful shielding from the background radiation.
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| Superconducting detectors offer extreme sensitivity, with some able to register individual photons. For example, [[European Space Agency|ESA]]'s [[Superconducting camera|Superconducting camera (SCAM)]]. However, they are not in regular use outside of scientific research.
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| === Uncooled infrared detectors ===
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| Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor operating at ambient temperature, or a sensor stabilized at a temperature close to ambient using small temperature control elements. Modern uncooled detectors all use sensors that work by the change of [[electrical resistance|resistance]], [[voltage]] or [[current (electricity)|current]] when heated by infrared radiation. These changes are then measured and compared to the values at the operating temperature of the sensor.
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| Uncooled infrared sensors can be stabilized to an operating temperature to reduce image noise, but they are not cooled to low temperatures and do not require bulky, expensive, energy consuming cryogenic coolers. This makes infrared cameras smaller and less costly. However, their resolution and image quality tend to be lower than cooled detectors. This is due to differences in their fabrication processes, limited by currently available technology. An uncooled thermal camera also needs to deal with its own heat signature.
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| Uncooled detectors are mostly based on [[pyroelectric]] and [[ferroelectric]] materials or [[microbolometer]] technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spie.org/x27002.xml?highlight=x2412&ArticleID=x27002|title=Hot detectors|work=spie.org}}</ref> The material are used to form pixels with highly temperature-dependent properties, which are thermally insulated from the environment and read electronically.
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| [[File:ParowozIR.jpg|thumb|Thermal image of steam locomotive]]
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| Ferroelectric detectors operate close to [[phase transition]] temperature of the sensor material; the pixel temperature is read as the highly temperature-dependent polarization charge. The achieved [[noise equivalent temperature difference|NETD]] of ferroelectric detectors with [[F-number|f/1]] optics and 320x240 sensors is 70-80 mK. A possible sensor assembly consists of barium strontium titanate bump-bonded by [[polyimide]] [[thermal insulation|thermally insulated]] connection.<!-- Introduction to Electronic Defense Systems, page 540 -->
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| Silicon microbolometers can reach NETD down to 20 mK. They consist of a layer of [[amorphous silicon]], or a thin film [[vanadium(V) oxide]] sensing element suspended on [[silicon nitride]] bridge above the silicon-based scanning electronics. The electric resistance of the sensing element is measured once per frame.<!-- Introduction to Electronic Defense Systems, page 540 -->
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| Current improvements of uncooled focal plane arrays (UFPA) are focused primarily on higher sensitivity and pixel density. In 2013 [[DARPA]] announced a five-micron LWIR camera that uses a 1280 x 720 focal plane array (FPA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gizmag.com/lwir-thermal-camera-darpa/27125/|title=DARPA developing personal LWIR cameras to give soldiers heat vision|work=gizmag.com}}</ref>
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| Some of the materials used for the sensor arrays are [[amorphous silicon]] (a-Si), [[vanadium(V) oxide]] (VOx),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5990481.html|title=Thermal detector with preferentially-ordered thermally sensitive element and method - Raytheon Company|work=freepatentsonline.com}}</ref> lanthanum barium manganite (LBMO), [[lead zirconate titanate]] (PZT), [[lanthanum]] [[dopant|doped]] lead zirconate titanate (PLZT), [[lead scandium tantalate]] (PST), lead lanthanum titanate (PLT), [[lead titanate]] (PT), lead zinc niobate (PZN), lead strontium titanate (PSrT), [[barium strontium titanate]] (BST), [[barium titanate]] (BT), antimony sulfoiodide (SbSI), and [[polyvinylidene difluoride]] (PVDF).
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| ==Applications==
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| {{Prose|section|date=January 2018}}
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| [[File:2010-06-11 EC135 BPol EDDB 03.jpg|thumb|The thermographic camera on a [[Eurocopter EC135]] helicopter of the [[German Federal Police]].]]
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| Originally developed for military use during the [[Korean War]],{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=L.S.|first=Sabenina|title=Thermography In Our Life|url=http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/bitstream/handle/2311/3951/3101.pdf?sequence=1|journal=}}</ref> thermographic cameras have slowly migrated into other fields as varied as medicine and archeology. More recently, the lowering of prices has helped fuel the adoption of infrared viewing technology. Advanced optics and sophisticated software interfaces continue to enhance the versatility of IR cameras.
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| * [[Agriculture]], ''e.g.'', [[Seed-counting machine]]<ref name="Gemstone">{{cite web |url=https://automatic-seed-counter.com/products/Grain-Seed-Counter/2017-10-17/Automatic-Seed-Counting-Machine.html |title=DC-3 Automatic Electronic Seed Counting Machine for Seeds Medical Particles |publisher=Gemstone |accessdate=October 30, 2021}}</ref>
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| * [[Building inspection]]
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| * [[Fault diagnosis]] and [[troubleshooting]]
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| ** [[Energy audit]]ing of [[building insulation]] and detection of [[refrigerant]] leaks<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irtsurveys.co.uk/blog/thermal-imaging-highlights-westminsters-energy-waste/|title=Thermal imaging highlights Westminster's energy waste|date=19 February 2013|publisher=IRT Surveys|access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref>
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| ** [[Roof]] inspection
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| ** [[Home performance]]
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| ** [[Moisture]] detection in walls and roofs (and thus in turn often part of [[mold growth, assessment, and remediation|mold remediation]])
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| ** Masonry wall structural analysis
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| * [[Law enforcement]] and [[anti-terrorism]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bullard.com/V3/products/thermal_imaging/law_enforcement/TIs_on_the_job.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916150809/http://www.bullard.com/V3/products/thermal_imaging/law_enforcement/TIs_on_the_job.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 September 2008|title=Thermal Imaging Application Overview|publisher=Bullard|access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref>
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| ** [[Quarantine]] monitoring of visitors to a country
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| ** Military and police target detection and acquisition: [[forward-looking infrared]], [[infrared search and track]]
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| ** [[Condition monitoring]] and [[surveillance]]
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| ** [[Technical surveillance counter-measures]]
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| ** [[Thermal weapon sight]]
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| ** [[Search and rescue]] operations
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| ** [[Thermal imaging camera (firefighting)|Firefighting operations]]
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| * [[Thermography (medical)]] - Medical testing for diagnosis
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| ** [[Veterinary]] thermal imaging
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| * [[Program process monitoring]]
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| ** [[Quality control]] in production environments
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| ** [[Predictive maintenance]] (early failure warning) on mechanical and electrical equipment
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| [[File:418872main wise20100122-full.jpg|thumb|250px|Viewed from space by [[Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer|WISE]] using a [[thermal camera]], asteroid [[2010 AB78]] appears redder than the background stars as it emits most of its light at longer infrared wavelengths. In visible light and near-infrared it is very faint and difficult to see.]]
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| * [[Astronomy]], in telescopes such as [[UKIRT]], the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]], [[Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer|WISE]] and the [[James Webb Space Telescope]] (launch planned for December 18, 2021)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-readies-james-webb-space-telescope-for-december-launch/|title=NASA Readies James Webb Space Telescope for December Launch |website=NASA|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref>
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| * [[Automotive night vision]]
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| * Auditing of acoustic insulation for sound reduction
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| * [[Chemical imaging]]
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| * [[Data center]] monitoring
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| * Electrical distribution equipment diagnosis and maintenance, such as transformer yards and distribution panels
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| * [[Nondestructive testing]]
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| * Research and development of new products
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| * [[Pollution]] effluent detection
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| * Locating pest infestations
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| * [[Aerial archaeology]]
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| * [[Flame detector]]
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| * [[Meteorology]] (thermal images from [[weather satellite]]s are used to determine cloud temperature/height and water vapor concentrations, depending on the wavelength)
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| * [[Cricket]] [[Umpire Decision Review System]]. To detect faint contact of the ball with the bat (and hence a heat patch signature on the bat after contact).
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| * [[Autonomous navigation]]
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| * Malicious Applications
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| ** Thermal Attack is an approach that exploits heat traces left after interacting with interfaces, such as touchscreens or keyboards, to uncover the user's input <ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_attack|title=Thermal attacks|publisher=Wikipedia}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=May 2020}}.
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| * Nighttime [[wildlife photography]]
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| *Inspecting [[Photovoltaic power station|photovoltaic]] power plants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gallardo-Saavedra|first=Sara|last2=Hernández-Callejo|first2=Luis|last3=Duque-Perez|first3=Oscar|date=2018-10-01|title=Technological review of the instrumentation used in aerial thermographic inspection of photovoltaic plants|url=|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=93|pages=566–579|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.05.027|issn=1364-0321}}</ref>
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| == Specifications ==
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| Some [[Figure of merit|specification parameters]] of an infrared camera system are number of [[pixels]], [[frame rate]], [[responsivity]], [[noise-equivalent power]], [[noise-equivalent temperature]] difference (NETD), spectral band, distance-to-spot ratio (D:S), minimum focus distance, sensor lifetime, [[minimum resolvable temperature difference]] (MRTD), [[field of view]], [[dynamic range]], input power, and mass and volume.
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| == See also ==
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| {{Commons category}}
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| * [[Digital infrared thermal imaging in health care]]
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| * [[Hyperspectral imaging]]
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| * [[Infrared non-destructive testing of materials]]
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| * [[Infrared photography]]
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| * ''[[Ora (film)|Ora]]'', a 2011 3D film shot in HD thermography
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| * [[Passive infrared sensor]]
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| * [[Thermal imaging camera (firefighting)]]
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| * [[Thermal weapon sight]]
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| * [[Thermography]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}
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| {{Authority control}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Thermographic Camera}}
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| [[Category:Cameras by type]] | | [[Category:Cameras by type]] |
| [[Category:Astronomical imaging]] | | [[Category:Astronomical imaging]] |
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| [[Category:Infrared imaging]] | | [[Category:Infrared imaging]] |
| [[Category:Hungarian inventions]] | | [[Category:Hungarian inventions]] |
| | [[Category:Night vision devices]] |
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