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| {{Short description|Medieval Muslim dynasty and state}}
| | #REDIRECT [[Ghaznavid Empire]] |
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| {{Infobox country
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| | conventional_long_name = Ghaznavid Empire
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| | common_name = Ghaznavids
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| | native_name = {{lang|fa|غزنویان}} ''Ġaznaviyān''
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| | era = Medieval
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| | status = [[Empire]]
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| | status_text =
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| | empire =
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| | government_type = [[Hereditary monarchy]]
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| | year_start = 977
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| | year_end = 1186
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| | event_start =
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| | date_start =
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| | event_end =
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| | date_end =
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| | p1 = Samanids
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| | flag_p1 = Map_of_the_Samanid_amirate_at_the_death_of_Nasr_II,_943.svg
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| | p2 = Saffarid dynasty
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| | flag_p2 = Saffarid_dynasty_861-1003.png
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| | p3 = Ma'munids
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| | p4 = Farighunids
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| | p5 = Hindu Shahi
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| | p6 = Emirate of Multan
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| | flag_p6 = Map_of_the_Multan_Emirate.png
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| | s2 = Ghurid dynasty
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| | flag_s2 = Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png
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| | s1 = Seljuk Empire
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| | flag_s1 = Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg
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| | image_flag = <!--see [[Flag_of_Iran#Ghaznavid_dynasty]] for discussion-->
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| | flag_type =
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| | image_coat =
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| | image_map =
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| {{Location map+
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| | Ghaznavid Empire
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| | width=300 <!-- DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (300) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS -->
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| | float = center
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| | border=none
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| | nodiv= 1 | mini= 1 | relief= yes
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| | places =
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| {{Annotation|270|05|[[AD 1000|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">1030</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|140|20|[[Kara-Khanid Khanate|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KARAKHANID KHANATE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|50|85|[[Buyid dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">BUYIDS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|35|75|[[Kakuyid dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KAKUYIDS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|25|5|[[Khazars|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KHAZARS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|88|10|[[Oghuz Yabgu State|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">OGHUZ<br/>YABGUS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|200|150|[[Western Chalukya Empire|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">WESTERN<br/>CHALUKYAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|245|115|[[Pala Empire|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">PALA<br/>EMPIRE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|185|113|[[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">CHAHAMANAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|260|30|[[Qocho|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">QOCHO</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
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| {{Annotation|272|203|[[Template:Continental Asia in 800 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ◁ </span>]] [[Template:Continental Asia in 1100 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
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| |caption=
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| }}
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| | image_map_caption = {{center|Ghaznavid Empire at its greatest extent in 1030 CE under [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]].{{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=146}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C.E. |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |pages=430–431 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA430 |language=en}}</ref>}}
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| | capital = [[Ghazni]]<br/><small>(977–1163)</small><br/>[[Lahore]]<br/><small>(1163–1186)</small>
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| | common_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]]{{efn|"''Indeed, since the formation of the Ghaznavids state in the tenth century until the fall of Qajars at the beginning of the twentieth century, most parts of the Iranian cultural regions were ruled by Turkic-speaking dynasties most of the time. At the same time, the official language was Persian, the court literature was in Persian, and most of the chancellors, ministers, and mandarins were Persian speakers of the highest learning and ability.''"{{sfn|Katouzian|2003|p=128}}}} (<small>official and court language; lingua franca</small>)<br/>[[Arabic language|Arabic]] (<small>theology</small>)<br/> [[Turkic language|Turkic]] (<small>military</small>){{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=134}}
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| | religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
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| | currency =
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| | leader1 = [[Sabuktigin]] <small>(first)</small>
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| | leader2 = [[Khusrau Malik]] <small>(last)</small>
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| | year_leader1 = 977–997 | |
| | year_leader2 = 1160–1186
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| | title_leader = [[Sultan]]
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| | title_deputy = [[Vizier]]
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| | deputy1 = [[Abu'l-Hasan Isfaraini]] <small>(first mentioned)</small>
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| | year_deputy1 = 998–1013
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| | deputy2 = [[Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah]] <small>(last mentioned)</small>
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| | year_deputy2 = 12th century
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| | stat_year1 = 1029 estimate{{sfn|Turchin|Adams|Hall|2006|p=223}}{{sfn|Taagepera|1997|p=496}}
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| | stat_area1 = 3400000
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| | today =
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| }} | | }} |
| The '''Ghaznavid dynasty''' ({{lang-fa|غزنویان}} ''Ġaznaviyān'') or the '''Ghaznavid Empire''', was a [[Persianate]] [[Muslim]] dynasty and empire of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ''[[mamluk]]'' origin,{{efn|name=b|The Ghaznavids also claimed ancestry from the last [[Sassanid]] Shah, [[Yazdgerd III]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peacock |first=A. C. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xj9haotAapcC&pg=PA33 |title=Early Seljuq History: A New Interpretation |date=2013-02-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-15369-4 |language=en|page=33|quote="The Ghaznavids claimed descent from the last Sasanian shah, Yazdagird III..."}}</ref> but this was "a fictitious genealogy" they themselves had promulgated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Kane |first1=Bernard |title=The Appearance of Persian on Islamic Art |publisher=Persian Heritage Foundation |isbn=978-1-934283-16-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPU3AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en|quote="a fictitious genealogy connecting them with the Sasanian monarch Yazdegerd III had been promulgated"}}</ref>}} ruling at its greatest extent, large parts of [[Persia]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], much of [[Transoxiana]] and the northwest [[Indian subcontinent]] from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by [[Sabuktigin]] upon his succession to the rule of [[Ghazni Province|Ghazna]] after the death of his father-in-law, [[Alp Tigin]], who was an ex-general of the [[Samanid Empire]] from [[Balkh]], north of the [[Hindu Kush]] in [[Greater Khorasan]].
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| Sabuktigin's son, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the [[Amu Darya]], the [[Indus River]] and the [[Indian Ocean]] in the east and to [[Rey, Iran|Rey]] and [[Hamadan]] in the west. Under the reign of [[Mas'ud I of Ghazni|Mas'ud I]], the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the [[Seljuk Empire]] after the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] in 1040, resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India.
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| In 1151, Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid]] sultan [[Ala al-Din Husayn]]. The Ghaznavids retook Ghazni, but lost the city to the [[Ghuzz Turks]] who in turn lost it to [[Muhammad of Ghor]]. In response, the Ghaznavids fled to Lahore, their regional capital. In 1186, Lahore was conquered by the Ghurid sultan, [[Muhammad of Ghor]], with its Ghaznavid ruler, [[Khusrau Malik]], [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|imprisoned and later executed]].
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| ==Rise to power==
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| [[File:Portrait from the Palace courtroom, Lashkari Bazar.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ghaznavid portrait, Palace of [[Lashkari Bazar]]. [[Daniel Schlumberger|Schlumberger]] noted that the [[turban]], the small mouth and the strongly slanted eyes were characteristically Turkic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlumberger |first1=Daniel |title=Le Palais ghaznévide de Lashkari Bazar |journal=Syria |volume=29 |issue=3/4 |page=263 & 267|doi=10.3406/syria.1952.4789 |jstor=4390312 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4390312 |issn=0039-7946}}</ref>]]
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| Two military families arose from the Turkic slave-guards of the [[Samanid Empire]], the [[Simjurids]] and Ghaznavids, who ultimately proved disastrous to the Samanids. The Simjurids received an [[appanage]] in the [[Quhistan|Kohistan]] region of eastern Khorasan. The Samanid generals Alp Tigin and [[Abu al-Hasan Simjuri]] competed for the governorship of Khorasan and control of the Samanid Empire by placing on the throne [[emir]]s they could dominate after the death of [[Abd al-Malik I (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik I]] in 961. His death created a succession crisis between his brothers.
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| A court party instigated by men of the scribal class – civilian ministers rather than Turkic generals – rejected the candidacy of Alp Tigin for the Samanid throne. [[Mansur I]] was installed instead, and Alp Tigin prudently retired to south of the [[Hindu Kush]], where he captured Ghazna and became the ruler of the city as a Samanid authority.{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} The Simjurids enjoyed control of Khorasan south of the [[Amu Darya]] but were hard-pressed by a third great Iranian dynasty, the [[Buyid dynasty]], and were unable to survive the collapse of the Samanids and the subsequent rise of the Ghaznavids.
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| [[File:Fighting between Mahmud of Ghazni and Abu 'Ali Simjuri.jpg|thumb|Fight between Mahmud of Ghazni and [[Abu 'Ali Simjuri]] of the [[Samanid Empire]].]]
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| The struggles of the Turkic slave generals for mastery of the throne with the help of shifting allegiance from the court's ministerial leaders both demonstrated and accelerated the Samanid decline. Samanid weakness attracted into Transoxiana the [[Karluks]], a Turkic people who had recently converted to Islam. They occupied [[Bukhara]] in 992, establishing in Transoxania the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]].{{citation needed}}
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| Alp Tigin's died in 963, and after two ghulam governors and three years, his slave [[Sabuktigin]] became the governor of Ghazna.
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| ==Domination==
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| ===Sabuktigin===
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| {{Main|Sabuktigin}}
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| [[File:Ghaznavid ruins of Lashkari Bazar (northern view, composite).jpg|thumb|400px|Ghaznavid fortress of [[Lashkari Bazar]] in [[Lashkargah]], ancient Bost, southern [[Afghanistan]]. It was founded by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in 998-1030 CE.]]
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| Sabuktigin lived as a [[mamluk]], Turkic slave-soldier,{{sfn|Levi|Sela|2010|p=83}}{{efn|The Ghaznavids were a dynasty of Turkic slave-soldiers...''{{sfn|Levi|Sela|2010|p=83}}}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=4}} during his youth and later married the daughter of his master [[Alp Tigin|Alptigin]],{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=19}} who fled to [[Ghazni|Ghazna]] following a failed coup attempt, and conquered the city from the local [[Lawik dynasty|Lawik rulers]] in 962.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=37}} After Alptigin death, his son Abu Ishaq Ibrahim governed Ghazna for three years.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=38}} His death was followed by the reign of a former ghulam of Alptigin, Bilgetigin. Bilgetigin's rule was so harsh the populace invited [[Abu Bakr Lawik]] back.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=38}} It was through Sabuktigin's military ability that Lawik was removed, Bilgetigin was exiled, and Sabuktigin gained the governorship.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=39}}
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| Once established as governor of Ghazna, Sabuktigin was asked to intervene in Khurasan, at the insistence of the Samanid emir, and after a victorious campaign received the governorships of Balkh, Tukharistan, Bamiyan, Ghur and Gharchistan.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=44}} Sabuktigin inherited a governorship in turmoil.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=42}} In Zabulistan, the typical military fief system(''mustaghall'') were being changed into permanent ownership(''tamlik'') which resulted in the Turkic soldiery unwilling to take up arms.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=42}} Sabuktigin reformed the system making them all a ''mustaghall''-type fief.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=42}} In 976, he ended the conflict between two Turkic ghulams at Bust and restored the original ruler.{{sfn|Bosworth|1994|p=203}} Later that same year, Sabuktigin campaigned against Qusdar, catching the ruler(possibly Mu'tazz b. Ahmad) off guard and obtaining an annual tribute from him.{{sfn|Bosworth|1994|p=203}}
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| After the death of Sabuktigin, his son by Alptigin's daughter, [[Ismail of Ghazni|Ismail]], was given Ghazna.{{efn|Kaushik Roy states Turkic nobles at Balkh chose Ismail as Emir.{{sfn|Roy|2015|p=88}}}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=45}} Another son, Abu'l-Muzaffar Nasr, was given the governorship of Bust, while in Khorasan, the eldest son Mahmud, was given command of the army.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=44}} Sabuktigin's intent was to ensure governorships for his family, despite the decaying influence of the Samanid Empire, and did not consider his dynasty as independent.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=44}} Ismail, upon gaining his inheritance, quickly traveled to Bust and did homage to Emir Abu'l-Harith Mansur b. Nuh.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=45}} Mahmud, who had been left out of any significant inheritance, proposed a division of power, to which Ismail refused.{{sfn|Bosworth|1975|p=169}} Mahmud marched on Ghazna and subsequently Ismail was defeated and captured in 998 at the [[Battle of Ghazni (998)|Battle of Ghazni]].{{sfn|Roy|2015|p=88}}
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| ===Mahmud, son of Sabuktigin===
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| {{Main|Mahmud of Ghazni}}
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| [[File:Mahmud in robe from the caliph.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mahmud of Ghazni at his court (center) receives a robe from Caliph [[Al-Qadir]]; painting by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]].]]
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| In 998, [[Mahmud of Ghaznavid|Mahmud]], son of Sebuktigin, succeeded to the governorship, and Ghazni and the Ghaznavid dynasty became perpetually associated with him. He emphasized his loyalty in a letter to the caliph, saying that the Samanids had only been replaced because of their treason.{{sfn|Kennedy|1986|p=301}} Mahmud received the governorship of Khurasan and titles of Yamin al-Dawla and Amin al-Milla.{{sfn|Kennedy|1986|p=301}} As a representative of caliphal authory, he championed Sunni Islam by campaigning against the Ismaili and Shi'ite Buyids.{{sfn|Kennedy|1986|p=301}} He completed the conquest of the Samanid and [[Hindu Shahi|Shahi]] territories, including the [[Ismaili]] [[Emirate of Multan|Kingdom of Multan]], [[Sindh]], as well as some [[Buyid dynasty|Buwayhid]] territory.
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| By all accounts, the rule of Mahmud was the golden age and height of the Ghaznavid Empire. Mahmud carried out seventeen expeditions through northern India to establish his control and set up tributary states, and his raids also resulted in the looting of a great deal of plunder. He established his authority from the borders of [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] to [[Samarkand]], from the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Yamuna]].
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| During Mahmud's reign (997–1030), the Ghaznavids settled 4,000 [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] families near Farana in Khorasan. By 1027, due to the Turkmen raiding neighbouring settlements, the governor of Tus, Abu l'Alarith Arslan Jadhib, led military strikes against them. The Turkmen were defeated and scattered to neighbouring lands.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=224}} Still, as late as 1033, Ghaznavid governor [[Tash Farrash]] executed fifty Turkmen chiefs for raids into Khorasan.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=225}}
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| ====Indian conquests====
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| [[File:Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute (Majmu al-Tawarikh, Hafiz i-Abru, Herat, 1425).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute (''Majmu al-Tawarikh'', Hafiz i-Abru, Herat, 1425).<ref>{{cite web |title=An Indian Embassy before Sultan Mahmud of Ghanzna, from the "Majmal al-Tawarikh" of Hafiz-e Abru |url=https://worcester.emuseum.com/objects/11449/an-indian-embassy-before-sultan-mahmud-of-ghanzna-from-the|website=worcester.emuseum.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr B. |title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18074-8 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |language=en}}</ref>]]
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| Mahmud of Ghazni led incursions deep into [[India]], as far as [[Mathura]], [[Kannauj]] and [[Somnath]]. In 1001, he defeated the [[Hindu Shahi]] in the [[Battle of Peshawar (1001)|Battle of Peshawar]]. In 1004-5, he invaded the [[Bhera|Principality of Bhatiya]] and in 1006 the neighbouring [[Emirate of Multan]].<ref name="DAA">{{cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Dr Aijaz |title=New Dimensions of Indian Historiography : Historical Facts and Hindutva Interpretation |publisher=K.K. Publications |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AttiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 |language=en}}</ref> In 1008-9, he again vanquished the [[Hindu Shahis]] at the [[Battle of Chach]], and established Governors in the conquered areas.<ref name="DAA"/> In India, the Ghaznavids were called ''Turushkas'' ("Turks") or ''Hammiras'' (from the Arabic ''Amir'' "Commander").{{sfn|Eaton|2019|p=29}}
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| In 1018, he laid waste to the city of [[Mathura]], which was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grousset |first1=René |title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC&pg=PA146 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sethi |first1=R. R. |last2=Saran |first2=Parmatma |last3=Bhandari |first3=D. R. |title=The March of Indian History |publisher=Ranjit Printers & Publishers |page=269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbNGAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> According to [[Firishta|Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah]], writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, [[Art of Mathura|"all the idols" were burnt and destroyed]] during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Firishtah |first1=Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū Shāh Astarābādī |title=The history of Hindustan. Vol. 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-1994-8 |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bTyRYXtxMSEC&pg=PA60 |language=en}}</ref> In 1018 Mahmud also captured [[Kanauj]], the capital of the [[Gurjara-Pratiharas]], and then confronted the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandelas]], from whom he obtained the payment of tribute.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitra |first1=Sisir Kumar |title=The Early Rulers of Khajur |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1997-9 |pages=81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA81 |language=en|edition=Second Revised }}</ref> In 1026, he raided and plundered the [[Somnath temple]], taking away a booty of 20 million dinars.{{sfn|Yagnik|Sheth|2005|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=36–37}}
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| The wealth brought back from Mahmud's [[India]]n expeditions to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (''e.g.'', [[Abolfazl Beyhaghi]], [[Ferdowsi]]) give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of the capital and of the conqueror's munificent support of literature.<ref>{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Ghazni|volume=11|pages=917–918}}</ref> Mahmud died in April 1030 and had chosen his son, Mohammed, as his successor.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=228}}
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| ==Decline==
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| ===Twin sons of Mahmud===
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| [[File:Mahmud coin minted in Ghazni.jpg|thumb|Coin of Mahmud minted in Ghazni.]]
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| Mahmud left the empire to his son Mohammed, who was mild, affectionate and soft. His brother, [[Mas'ud I of Ghazni|Mas'ud]], asked for three provinces that he had won by his sword, but his brother did not consent. Mas'ud had to fight his brother, and he became king, blinding and imprisoning Mohammed as punishment. Mas'ud was unable to preserve the empire and following a disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] in 1040, he lost all the Ghaznavid lands in [[Persia]] and Central Asia to the Seljuks, plunging the realm into a "time of troubles".{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}}{{sfn|Amirsoleimani|1999|p=243}}{{sfn|Spuler|1991|p=1051}} His last act was to collect all his treasures from his forts in hope of assembling an army and ruling from India, but his own forces plundered the wealth and he proclaimed his blind brother as king again. The two brothers now exchanged positions: Mohammed was elevated from prison to the throne, while Mas'ud was consigned to a dungeon after a reign of ten years and was assassinated in 1040. Mas'ud's son, Madood, was governor of Balkh, and in 1040, after hearing of his father's death, he came to Ghazni to claim his kingdom. He fought with the sons of the blind Mohammed and was victorious. However, the empire soon disintegrated and most kings did not submit to Madood. In a span of nine years, four more kings claimed the throne of Ghazni.
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| ===Ibrahim===
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| {{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
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| | header=Ghaznavids in Lashkari Bazar
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| | image1 = Lashkari_Bazar_guard_drawing.jpg
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| | image2 = Ghaznavid figures in the wall paintings from one of the Ghaznavid palaces at Laškarī Bāzār in central Afghanistan, probably built by Masud I (1030-41).jpg
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| | footer=Figures in the wall paintings from the Ghaznavid palace of [[Lashkari Bazar]] in central Afghanistan, probably built by Masud I (1030-41); with black-and-white [[Line art|line drawing]] of the left figure, by the discoverer [[Daniel Schlumberger]] (1978).<ref>Daniel Schlumberger, Lashkari Bazar: une Résidence Royale Ghaznévide et Ghoride, Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique Française, XVIII (Paris: Boccard, 1978) vol. 1, plate 123</ref> The figures wear the typical Turkic attire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr Barry |title=A Turk in the Dukhang? Comparative Perspectives on Elite Dress in Medieval Ladakh and the Caucasus |journal=Interaction in the Himalayas and Central Asia |date=2017 |publisher=Austrian Academy of Science Press |page=233, Fig 14 |url=https://www.academia.edu/35061254}}</ref>
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| In 1058, Mas'ud's son [[Ibrahim of Ghazna|Ibrahim]], a great calligrapher who wrote the Koran with his own pen, became king. Ibrahim re-established a truncated empire on a firmer basis by arriving at a peace agreement with the Seljuks and a restoration of cultural and political linkages.{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} Under Ibrahim and his successors the empire enjoyed a period of sustained tranquility. Shorn of its western land, it was increasingly sustained by riches accrued from raids across Northern India, where it faced stiff resistance from Indian rulers such as the [[Paramara]] of [[Malwa]] and the [[Gahadvala]] of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} He ruled until 1098.
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|
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| ===Mas'ud III===
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| [[Mas'ud III of Ghazni|Mas'ud III]] became king for sixteen years, with no major event in his lifetime. Mas'ud built the [[Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III]] and one of the [[Ghazni Minarets]]. Signs of weakness in the state became apparent when he died in 1115, with internal strife between his sons ending with the ascension of Sultan [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Bahram Shah]] as a Seljuk vassal.{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} Bahram Shah defeated his brother [[Arslan ibn Mas'ud|Arslan]] for the throne at the [[Battle of Ghazni (1117)|Battle of Ghazni]] in 1117.
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|
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| ===Sultan Bahram Shah===
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| [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Sultan Bahram Shah]] was the last Ghaznavid King, ruling [[Ghazna|Ghazni]], the first and main Ghaznavid capital, for thirty-five years. In 1148 he was [[Battle of Ghazni (1148)|defeated in Ghazni]] by [[Sayf al-Din Suri]], but he recaptured the capital the next year. [[Ala al-Din Husayn]], a [[Ghorid]] King, [[Battle of Ghazni (1151)|conquered the city]] in 1151, in revenge for his brother Kutubbuddin's death, who was son-in-law of the king but was publicly punished and killed for a minor offence. Ala al-Din Husayn then razed the city, burning it for 7 days, after which he became known as ''"Jahānsuz"'' (''World Burner''). Ghazni was restored to the Ghaznavids by the intervention of the Seljuks, who came to the aid of Bahram.{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} Ghaznavid struggles with the Ghurids continued in subsequent years as they nibbled away at Ghaznavid territory, and Ghazni and [[Zabulistan]] were lost to a group of [[Oghuz Turks]] before being captured by the Ghurids.{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} [[Ghazni]] fell to the Ghurids around 1170.<ref name="CEB299">{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C. Edmund |title=Historic Cities of the Islamic World |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2383-6 |page=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CgawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=[[Mohammad Habib]]|editor=[[K. A. Nizami]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iQ1uAAAAMAAJ |title=Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib |publisher=People's Publishing House|page=109|language=en}}</ref>
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| ===Late Ghaznavids===
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| {{Main|Siege of Lahore (1186)}}
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| {{South Asia in 1175|right|{{center|The last Ghaznavid king [[Khusrau Malik]] had his capital in [[Lahore]], [[Punjab]], until the [[Ghurid Empire|Ghurid]] invasion of the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |date=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref>{{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=32, 146}}}}|<!-- {{location map~ |South Asia |lat=31.549722|N |long=74.343611|E |label=|position=right |label_size=60|mark=|marksize=7}} --> {{Annotation|76|56|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|50px]]}}}}
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| After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, the Ghaznavids established themselves in [[Lahore]], their regional capital for Indian territories since its conquest by Mahmud of Ghazni, which became the new capital of the Late Ghaznavids.<ref name="CEB299"/> Ghaznavid power in northwestern India continued until the Ghurid conquest of [[Lahore]] by [[Muhammad of Ghor]] in 1186, [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}} Both [[Khusrau Malik]] and his son were imprisoned and summarily executed in [[Firuzkuh]] in 1191, extinguishing the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid lineage]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=131}}
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|
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| ==Military and tactics==
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| The core of the Ghaznavid army was primarily made up of Turks,{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=114}} as well as thousands of native [[Afghans|Afghan]]s who were trained and assembled from the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] in what is now Afghanistan.{{sfn|Houtsma|1987|p=151}} During the rule of Sultan Mahmud, a new, larger military training center was established in Bost (now [[Lashkar Gah]]). This area was known for [[blacksmith]]s where war weapons were made. After capturing and conquering the [[Punjab region]], the Ghaznavids began to employ [[Hindus]] in their army.{{sfn|Roy|2016|p=24}}
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|
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| [[File:The Kara-Khanid ruler Ilig Khan on horse submitting to Mahmud of Ghazni riding an elephant, Persian painting, 1306-14.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|The [[Kara-Khanid]] ruler "Ilig Khan" on horse, submitting to Mahmud of Ghazni, who is riding an elephant, in 1017. They agreed to partition former [[Samanid Empire|Samanid]] territory along the [[Oxus river]].<ref name="Bos106">{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C. E. |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |page=106 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18eABeokpjEC&pg=PA99 |language=en|quote="An agreement was reached at this point with the Karakhanid Ilig Nasr [[Ali Arslan Khan|b. Ali]] making the Oxus the boundary between the two empires [the Karakhanids and the Ghaznavids], for the shrunken Samanid amirate came to an inglorious end when the Ilig occupied Bukhara definitively in 999"}}</ref> Persian painting published circa 1306-14.]]
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|
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| Like the other dynasties that rose out of the remains of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the Ghaznavid administrative traditions and military practice came from the Abbasids. The [[Arabian horse]]s, at least in the earliest campaign, were still substantial in Ghaznavid military incursions, especially in dashing raids deep into hostile territory. There is a record of '6000 Arab horse' being sent against king Anandapala in 1008, and evidence of this Arabian cavalry persists until 1118 under the Ghaznavid governor in [[Lahore]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=111-112}}
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| Due to their access to the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Indus-Ganges plains]], the Ghaznavids, during the 11th and 12th centuries, developed the first Muslim army to use [[war elephants]] in battle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raza |first1=S. Jabir |title=Indian Elephant Corps Under the Ghaznavids |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=73 |pages=212–222 |jstor=44156208 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156208 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> The elephants were protected by [[armour plating]] on their fronts. The use of these elephants was a foreign weapon in other regions that the Ghaznavids fought in, particularly in Central Asia.{{sfn|Lewis|1992|p=205}}
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| ==State and culture==
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| {{See also|List of Ghaznavid Viziers}}
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| [[File:Mas'ud III b. Ibrahim minaret, Ghazni, built between 1099 and 1115 CE (graphical reconstruction, colorized).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mas'ud III of Ghazni|Mas'ud III]]'s [[Ghazni minaret|minaret in Ghazni]] was at least 44 meters tall, before its top half crumbled in 1902 due to an earthquake. It was built between 1099 and 1115 CE. It stood next to the [[Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III]].<ref name="RPW">Ralph Pinder-Wilson (2001) Ghaznavid and Ghūrid Minarets, Iran, 39:1, 155-186, DOI: 10.1080/05786967.2001.11834389</ref>]]
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| Although the dynasty was of [[Central Asian]] Turkic origin, it was thoroughly [[Persianised]] in terms of language, culture, literature and habits{{efn|"The Ghaznavids inherited Samanid administrative, political, and cultural traditions and laid the foundations for a Persianate state in northern India. ..."{{sfn|Ziad|2006|p=294}}}}{{sfn|Ziad|2006|p=294}}{{efn|Nizam al-Mulk also attempted to organise the Saljuq administration according to the Persianate Ghaznavid model..{{sfn|Meisami|1999|p=143}}}}{{sfn|Meisami|1999|p=143}} and has been regarded as a "Persian dynasty".{{efn|Firdawsi was writing his Shah-nama. One of the effects of the renaissance of the Persian spirit
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| evoked by this work was that the Ghaznavids were also persianized and thereby became a Persian dynasty"{{sfn|Spuler|1970|p=147}}}}
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| According to [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth]]:{{blockquote|The Ghaznavid sultans were ethnically [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]], but the sources, all in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] or [[Persian language|Persian]], do not allow us to estimate the persistence of Turkish practices and ways of thought amongst them. Yet given the fact that the essential basis of the Ghaznavids' military support always remained their Turkish soldiery, there must always have been a need to stay attuned to their troops' needs and aspirations; also, there are indications of the persistence of some Turkish literary culture under the early Ghaznavids (Köprülüzade, pp. 56–57). The sources do make it clear, however, that the sultans' exercise of political power and the administrative apparatus which gave it shape came very speedily to be within the Perso-Islamic tradition of statecraft and monarchical rule, with the ruler as a distant figure, buttressed by divine favor, ruling over a mass of traders, artisans, peasants, etc., whose prime duty was obedience in all respects but above all in the payment of taxes. The fact that the personnel of the [[bureaucracy]] which directed the day-to-day running of the state, and which raised the revenue to support the sultans' life-style and to finance the professional army, were [[Persian people|Persians]] who carried on the administrative traditions of the Samanids, only strengthened this conception of secular power.
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| <br/>
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| [[File:Vessel with bull's head spout, Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century, bronze - Linden-Museum - Stuttgart, Germany - DSC03872.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Vessel with bull's head spout, Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century, bronze. Linden-Museum – Stuttgart, Germany]]
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| [[Persianization|Persianisation]] of the state apparatus was accompanied by the Persianisation of high culture at the Ghaznavid court... The level of literary creativity was just as high under Ebrāhīm and his successors up to Bahrāmšāh, with such poets as Abu’l-Faraj Rūnī, Sanāʾī, ʿOṯmān Moḵtārī, Masʿūd-e Saʿd-e Salmān, and Sayyed Ḥasan Ḡaznavī.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=75-77, 107-110}} We know from the biographical dictionaries of poets (taḏkera-ye šoʿarā) that the court in Lahore of Ḵosrow Malek had an array of fine poets, none of whose dīvāns has unfortunately survived, and the translator into elegant Persian prose of Ebn Moqaffaʿ’s Kalīla wa Demna, namely Abu’l-Maʿālī Naṣr-Allāh b. Moḥammad, served the sultan for a while as his chief secretary.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=127-128}} The Ghaznavids thus present the phenomenon of a dynasty of Turkish slave origin which became culturally Persianised to a perceptibly higher degree than other contemporary dynasties of Turkish origin such as [[Seljuq Empire|Saljuqs]] and [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Qarakhanids]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2006}}}}
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|
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| Persian literary culture enjoyed a renaissance under the Ghaznavids during the 11th century.{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|p=44}}{{sfn|Sharlet|2011|p=46}}{{sfn|Rowson|1998|p=251}} The Ghaznavid court was so renowned for its support of Persian literature that the poet [[Farrukhi Sistani|Farrukhi]] traveled from his home province to work for them.{{sfn|Sharlet|2011|p=27}} The poet Unsuri's short collection of poetry was dedicated to [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Sultan Mahmud]] and his brothers Nasr and Yaqub.{{sfn|Sharlet|2011|p=52}} Another poet of the Ghaznavid court, [[Manuchehri]], wrote numerous poems about the merits of drinking wine.{{sfn|Yarshater|1960|p=44}}
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|
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| [[File:Detail of the Intricate Brickwork on the Mas'ud III Tower.jpg|thumb|Detail of the Intricate Brickwork on the Mas'ud III [[Ghazni minaret]].]]
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| [[File:MNAO-GhazniPalMasudIII-Lastra1.jpg|thumb|Marble wall border, [[Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III]], Ghazni, Afghanistan, 12th century CE.]]
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| Sultan Mahmud, modelling the Samanid Bukhara as a cultural center, made Ghazni into a center of learning, inviting Ferdowsi and al-Biruni. He even attempted to persuade [[Avicenna]], but was refused.{{sfn|Spooner|Hanaway|2012|p=284}} Mahmud preferred that his fame and glory be publicized in Persian and hundreds of poets assembled at his court.{{sfn|Notghi|Sabri-Tabrizi|1994|p=244}} He brought whole libraries from Rayy and Isfahan to Ghazni and even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=132}} Due to his invasion of Rayy and Isfahan, Persian literary production was inaugurated in [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]] and [[Persian Iraq|Iraq]].{{sfn|Ahmadi|2004|p=146}}
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|
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| The Ghaznavids continued to develop historical writing in Persian that had been initiated by their predecessors, the [[Samanid Empire]].{{sfn|Meisami|1993|p=247}} The historian [[Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi]]'s ''[[Tarikh-e Beyhaqi]]'', written in the latter half of the 11th century, is an example.{{sfn|Poliakova|1984|p=241}}
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|
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| Although the Ghaznavids were Turkic and their military leaders were generally of the same stock,{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=4|loc="In this book I have discussed the Ghaznavids as a Turkish dynasty, of slave origin, who established themselves on the eastern margins of the Iranian world [...] these Turkish condotierri became rulers of what was, at Mahmud's death in 1030, the most extensive empire known in the eastern Islamic world, since the dismemberment of the Abassid Caliphate"}} as a result of the original involvement of [[Sebuktigin]] and [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in Samanid affairs and in the Samanid cultural environment, the dynasty became thoroughly Persianized, so that in practice one cannot consider their rule over Iran one of foreign domination. They also copied their administrative system from the Samanids.{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|p=36}} In terms of cultural championship and the support of Persian poets, they were more Persian than their ethnically-Iranian rivals, the [[Buyid dynasty]], whose support of Arabic letters in preference to Persian is well known.{{sfn|Yarshater|2008}}
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|
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| The 16th century Persian historian, [[Firishta]], records Sabuktigin's [[genealogy]] as descended from the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian kings]]: "Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of [[Yazdegerd III|Yezdijird]], king of Persia." However, modern historians believe this was an attempt to connect himself with the history of old Persia.{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|p=40}}
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|
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| Historian Bosworth explains: "In fact with the adoption of Persian administrative and cultural ways the Ghaznavids threw off their original Turkish steppe background and became largely integrated with the Perso-Islamic tradition."{{sfn|Bosworth|1996|p=297}} As a result, [[Ghazni]] developed into a great centre of Arabic learning.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=134}}
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|
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| With Sultan Mahmud's invasions of [[North India]], Persian culture was established at Lahore, which later produced the famous poet, [[Masud Sa'd Salman]].{{sfn|Ziad|2006|p=294}} Lahore, under Ghaznavid rule in the 11th century, attracted Persian scholars from Khorasan, India and Central Asia and became a major Persian cultural centre.{{sfn|Alam|Nalini|Gaborieau|2000|p=24}}{{sfn|Spooner|Hanaway|2012|p=284}} It was also during Mahmud's reign that Ghaznavid coinage began to have bilingual legends consisting of Arabic and Devanagari script.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=44}} The entire range of Persianate institutions and customs that would come to characterize the political economy of most of India would be implemented by the later Ghaznavids.{{sfn|Eaton|2019|p=35}}
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|
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| The Persian culture established by the Ghaznavids in Ghazna and Eastern Afghanistan survived the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century and endured until the invasion of the Mongols.{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|p=39}}
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|
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| ==Legacy==
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| {{Continental Asia in 1100 CE|left|{{center|The Ghaznavids and other polities in continental Asia {{circa}} 1100}}|{{Annotation|100|75|[[File:Rectangle (plain).svg|55px]]}}}}
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| At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of northwest India. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the [[Indian subcontinent]].
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|
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| [[File:MassudOfGhazniCoin.jpg|thumb|Coinage of [[Mas'ud I of Ghazni]] (1030–1041), derived from [[Hindu Shahi]] designs, with the name of Mas'ud ({{lang-fa|مسعود}}) around the head of the horserider.]]
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| In addition to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian [[raja]]s, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China and the [[Mediterranean]].
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|
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| They were, however, unable to hold power for long and by 1040 the [[Seljuk Empire]] had taken over their [[Persian Empire|Persian]] domains and a century later the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] took over their remaining sub-continental lands.
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|
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| ==List of rulers==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;"
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| |-
| |
| ! width="5%" | #
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| ! width="20%" | Laqab
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| ! width="20%" | Personal Name
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| ! width="15%" | Reign
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| ! width="15%" | Succession right
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| ! width="25%" | Notes
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| |-
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| | 1
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| | Nasir-ud-din
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| {{Nastaliq|{{Nastaliq|نصر الدين}}}}<br/>''Defender of the Faith''
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| | [[Sabuktigin]]
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| | 977–997
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 2
| |
| | No title
| |
| | [[Ismail of Ghazni|Ismail]]
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| | 997–998
| |
| | son of Sabuktigin
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 3
| |
| | Yamin ad-Dawlah Abu Qasim<br/>{{Nastaliq|یمین الدولہ ابو لقاسم}}<br/>''Right-hand man of the State''
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| | [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]]
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| | 998–1030
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| | first son of Sabuktigin
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 4
| |
| | Jalal ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|جلال الدولہ}}<br/>''Dignity of the State''
| |
| | [[Mohammad Ghaznavi|Muhammad]]
| |
| | 1030<br/>''1st reign''
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| | second son of Mahmud
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 5
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| | Shihab ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|شھاب الدولہ}}<br/>''Star of the State''
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| | [[Ma'sud I of Ghazni|Masud I]]
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| | 1030–1041
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| | first son of Mahmud
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| | Was overthrown, imprisoned and executed, following the [[battle of Dandanaqan]]
| |
| |-
| |
| | —
| |
| | Jalal ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|جلال الدولہ}}<br/>''Dignity of the State''
| |
| | [[Mohammad Ghaznavi|Muhammad]]
| |
| | 1041<br/>''2nd reign''
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| | second son of Mahmud
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| | Raised to the throne following the removal of Masud I.
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| |-
| |
| | 6
| |
| | Shihab ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|شھاب الدولہ}}<br/>''Star of the State''
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| | [[Maw'dud Ghaznavi|Mawdud]]
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| | 1041–1048
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| | son of Masud I
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| | Defeated Muhammad at the battle of Nangrahar and gained the throne.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=22-24}}
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| |-
| |
| | 7
| |
| | ?<br/>{{Nastaliq|?}}
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| | [[Mas'ud II of Ghazni|Masud II]]
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| | 1048
| |
| | son of Mawdud
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 8
| |
| | Baha ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|بھاء الدولہ }}<br/>''Splendor of the State''
| |
| | [[Ali of Ghazna|Ali]]
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| | 1048–1049
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| | son of Masud I
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 9
| |
| | Izz ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|عز الدولہ}}<br/>''Glory of the State''
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| | [[Abd al-Rashid of Ghazna|Abd al-Rashid]]
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| | 1049–1052
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| | fifth son of Mahmud
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 10
| |
| | Qiwam ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|قوام الدولہ}}<br/>''Support of the State''
| |
| | [[Toghrul of Ghazna|Toghrul]]
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| | 1052–1053
| |
| | Turkish mamluk general
| |
| | Usurped the Ghaznavid throne after massacring Abd al-Rashid and eleven other Ghaznavid princes.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=45}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 11
| |
| | Jamal ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|جمال الدولہ}}<br/>''Beauty of the state''
| |
| | [[Farrukh-Zad of Ghazna|Farrukh-Zad]]
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| | 1053–1059
| |
| | son of Masud I
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 12
| |
| | Zahir ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|ظھیر الدولہ}}<br/>''Help of the State''
| |
| | [[Ibrahim of Ghazna|Ibrahim]]
| |
| | 1059–1099
| |
| | son of Masud I
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 13
| |
| | Ala ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|علاء الدولہ}}<br/>''Blessing of the State''
| |
| | [[Mas'ud III of Ghazni|Mas'ūd III]]
| |
| | 1099–1115
| |
| | son of Ibrahim
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 14
| |
| | Kamal ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|کمال الدولہ}}<br/>''Perfection of the State''
| |
| | [[Shir-Zad of Ghazna|Shir-Zad]]
| |
| | 1115–1116
| |
| | son of Masud III
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| | Murdered by his younger brother Arslan ibn Mas'ud.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=90}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 15
| |
| | Sultan ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|سلطان الدولہ}}<br/>''Sultan of the state''
| |
| | [[Arslan ibn Mas'ud|Arslan-Shah]]
| |
| | 1116–1117
| |
| | son of Masud III
| |
| | Took the throne from his older brother Shirzad, but faced a rebellion from his other brother Bahram Shah, who was supported by the sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, [[Ahmad Sanjar]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=93-95}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 16
| |
| | Yamin ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|یمین الدولہ }}<br/>''Right-hand man of the state''
| |
| | [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Bahram Shah]]
| |
| | 1117–1157
| |
| | son of Masud III
| |
| | Under Bahram-Shah, the Ghaznavid empire became a [[Tributary state|tributary]] of the [[Great Seljuq Empire]]. Bahram was assisted by [[Ahmad Sanjar]], sultan of the Great Seljuq empire, in securing his throne.{{sfn|Bosworth|1996|p=297}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 17
| |
| | Muizz ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|معزالدولہ }}<br/>''Honor of the State''
| |
| | [[Khusrau Shah of Ghazna|Khusrau Shah]]
| |
| | 1157–1160
| |
| | son of Bahram-Shah
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| | 18
| |
| | Taj ad-Dawlah<br/>{{Nastaliq|تاج الدولہ}}<br/>''Crown of the state''
| |
| | [[Khusrau Malik]]
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| | 1160–1186
| |
| | son of Khusrau-Shah
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
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|
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| ==Family tree of the Ghaznavid sultans==
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| {{Family tree of the Ghaznavid sultans}}
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|
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| ==See also==
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| {{History of Afghanistan|File:Atkinson1839.jpg}}
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| {{History of Greater Iran}}
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| {{History of Pakistan}}
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| {{History of Turkmenistan}}
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| {{History of the Turks pre-14th century}}
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| *[[List of battles involving the Ghaznavid Empire]]
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| *[[History of Afghanistan]]
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| *[[History of Pakistan]]
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| *[[List of Sunni Muslim dynasties]]
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|
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| ==Notes==
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| {{notelist}}
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|
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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|
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| ==Sources==
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| *{{cite journal |title=The Institution of Persian Literature and the Genealogy of Bahar's "Stylistics" |first=Wali |last=Ahmadi |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |volume= 31| issue = 2 (Nov.) |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |year=2004 }}
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| *{{cite book |first1=Muzaffar |last1=Alam |first2=Françoise Delvoye |last2=Nalini |first3=Marc |last3=Gaborieau |title=The making of Indo-Persian Culture: Indian and French Studies |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |year=2000 }}
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| *{{cite journal |title=Truths and Lies: Irony and Intrigue in the Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī: The Uses of Guile: Literary and Historical Moments |first=Soheila |last=Amirsoleimani |journal=Iranian Studies |volume= 32| issue = 2, Spring |publisher= Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |year=1999 |doi=10.1080/00210869908701955 }}
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| *{{cite encyclopedia |title=Patrimonial state |first=Said Amir |last=Arjomand |editor-last1=Böwering |editor-first1=Gerhard |editor-last2=Crone |editor-first2=Patricia |editor-last3=Mirza |editor-first3=Mahan |year=2012 |encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |publisher=Princeton University Press }}
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| *{{cite book |title=India Before Europe |first1=Catherine B. |last1=Asher |first2=Cynthia |last2=Talbot |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006}}
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| *{{cite book |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |title=The Ghaznavids:994–1040 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1963 }}
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| *{{cite journal |title=The Development of Persian Culture under the Early Ghaznavids |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |journal=Iran |volume= 6 |year=1968 |pages=33–44 |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |doi=10.2307/4299599 |jstor=4299599 }}
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| *{{cite book |chapter=The Early Ghaznavids |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=4 |editor-first=C. E. |editor-last=Bosworth |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1975 }}
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| *{{cite book |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |title=The Later Ghaznavids |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1977 }}
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| *{{cite journal |last=Bosworth |first=C.E. |journal=Studia Iranica |title=Rulers of Makrān and Quṣdār in the Early Islamic Period |volume=23 |issue=2 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |pages=199–209 |doi=10.2143/SI.23.2.2014304 }}
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| *{{cite book |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |title=The New Islamic Dynasties |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1996 }}
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| *{{cite encyclopedia |first=C.E. |last=Bosworth |title=Ghaznavids |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghaznavids |year=2006 }}
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| *{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |year=2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP29 }}
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| *{{cite book|title=E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936|last1=Houtsma|first1=Martijn Theodoor|volume=2|year=1987|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-08265-6|page=151|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEl6N2tQeawC&pg=PA151 |access-date=24 September 2010 }}
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| *{{cite book |first=Homa |last=Katouzian |title=Iranian history and politics:The Dialectic of State and Society |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 }}
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| *{{cite book |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century |first=Hugh |last=Kennedy |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1986 }}
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| *{{cite book |title=Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources |editor-first1=Scott Cameron |editor-last1=Levi |editor-first2=Ron |editor-last2=Sela |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 }}
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| *{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The World of Islam |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=978-0-500-27624-2 |year=1992 |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofislam00bern/page/205 }}
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| *{{cite journal |title=The Past in Service of the Present: Two Views of History in Medieval Persia |first=J. S. |last=Meisami |journal=Poetics Today:Cultural Processes in Muslim and Arab Societies: Medieval and Early Modern Periods |volume= 14| issue = 2,(Summer) |year=1993 |publisher=Duke University Press }}
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| *{{cite book |last=Meisami |first=Julie Scott |title=Persian historiography to the end of the twelfth century |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1999 }}
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| *{{cite journal |title=Hail to Heydarbaba: A Comparative View of Popular Turkish & Classical Persian Poetical Languages |first1=Hamid |last1=Notghi |first2=Gholam-Reza |last2=Sabri-Tabrizi |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |volume= 21| issue = 2 |year=1994 |pages=240–251 |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |doi=10.1080/13530199408705603 }}
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| *{{cite journal |title=The Development of a Literary Canon in Medieval Persian Chronicles: The Triumph of Etiquette |first=E. A. |last=Poliakova |journal=Iranian Studies |volume= 17| issue = 2/3 (Spring – Summer) |year=1984 |pages=237–256 |publisher= Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |doi=10.1080/00210868408701630 }}
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| *{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ghaznavids |first=E.K. |last=Rowson |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature |volume=1 |editor-first1=Julie Scott |editor-last1=Meisami |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last2=Starkey |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 }}
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| *{{cite book |title=Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500BCE to 1740CE |first=Kaushik |last=Roy |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 }}
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| *{{cite book |title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia |first=Kaushik |last=Roy |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 }}
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| *{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |year=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (l)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183}}
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| *{{cite book |first=Jocelyn |last=Sharlet |title=Patronage and Poetry in the Islamic World: Social Mobility and Status in the Medieval Middle East and Central Asia |publisher=Tauris Academic Studies |year=2011 }}
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| *{{cite book |first1=Brian |last1=Spooner |first2=William L. |last2=Hanaway |title=Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2012 }}
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| *{{cite book |first=B. |last=Spuler |chapter=The Disintegration of the Caliphate in the East |title=Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA: The Central islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first3=Bernard |editor-last3=Lewis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1970 }}
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| * {{citation |last1=Yagnik |first1=Achyut |last2=Sheth |first2=Suchitra |title=The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmKIiAPgnF0C&pg=PA39 |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-400038-8 |page=39}}
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| *{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ghaznawids |first=B. |last=Spuler |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=II |editor-first1=B. |editor-last1=Lewis |editor-first2=C. |editor-last2=Pellat |editor-first3=J. |editor-last3=Schacht |publisher=Brill |year=1991 }}
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| *{{cite journal |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |journal=International Studies Quarterly |volume=41 (3):(September) |year= 1997 |issue=3 |pages=475–504 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |publisher=Wiley |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 }}
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| * {{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |title=Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2004 |isbn=1-84467-020-1 }}
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| *{{cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 (2):(December) |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=2006 |issn=1076-156X }}
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| *{{cite book |first=Andre |last=Wink |title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World |volume=2 |publisher=Brill |year=2002 }}
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| *{{cite journal |title=The Theme of Wine-Drinking and the Concept of the Beloved in Early Persian Poetry |first=E. |last=Yarshater |journal=Studia Islamica |volume=No. 13 |publisher=Brill |year=1960 }}
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| *{{cite encyclopedia |first=Ehsan |last=Yarshater |title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |chapter-url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-2 |chapter=Iran |year=2008 }}
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| *{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Meri |encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |title=Ghaznavids |first=Homayra |last=Ziad |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 }}
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|
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| ==Further reading==
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| * Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1963) ''The Ghaznavids: Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran 994–1040'' Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, {{OCLC|3601436}}
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| * Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1977) ''The Later Ghaznavids: Splendour and Decay, The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India 1040–1186'' Columbia University Press, New York, {{ISBN|0-231-04428-3}}
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| *{{citation|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20ghaznavids.pdf|last = Bosworth|first = Clifford Edmund|contribution = THE GHAZNAVIDS|year = 1998|title = History of Civilisations of Central Asia|editor1-last = Asimov|editor1-first = M.S.|editor2-last = Bosworth|editor2-first = C.E.|publisher = UNESCO Publishing|isbn = 978-92-3-103467-1 }}
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| * M. Ismail Marcinkowski (2003) ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey'' Pustaka Nasional, Singapore, {{ISBN|9971-77-488-7}}
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|
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0831222.html Mahmud of Ghazna] Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth Edition)
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| * [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050135/Mahmud Mahmud] Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Edition)
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| * [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036676/Ghaznavid-Dynasty Ghaznavid Dynasty] Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Edition)
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| * [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-14003/Central-Asian-arts Ghaznavids and Ghurids] Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Edition)
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| * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311042545/http://orbat.com/site/cimh/kings_master/kings/mahmud_ghaznavi/Mahmud%20Ghaznavi.html Mahmud Ghaznavi's 17 invasions of India]
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| * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 ''The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period''by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. ''The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period''] published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: – Online version posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in translation)
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| * [http://www.smh.com.au/news/web/afghan-secrets-revealed-on-google-earth/2008/07/18/1216163136557.html Afghan secrets revealed on Google Earth]
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| *{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Persia |volume=21 |pages=187–252 |first=Karl Hermann |last=Ethé}}
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| {{Central Asian history}}
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| {{Empires}}
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| {{Afghanistan topics}}
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| {{Iran topics}}
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| {{Iranian Intermezzo}}
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|
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| [[Category:Ghaznavid Empire|*]]
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| [[Category:Dynasties of Afghanistan]]
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| [[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Afghanistan]]
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| [[Category:Medieval Afghanistan]]
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| [[Category:History of Ghazni Province]]
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| [[Category:Ghilman]]
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| [[Category:Sunni dynasties]]
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| [[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
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| [[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Pakistan]]
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| [[Category:Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent]]
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| [[Category:11th century in India]]
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| [[Category:11th century in Iran]]
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| [[Category:Medieval Khorasan]]
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| [[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Iran]]
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