Islam in Kashmir: Difference between revisions

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'''Islam''' is the major religion which is practiced in [[Kashmir]], with 67.16% of the region's population identifying as Muslims, as of 2014.<ref name="Religious Demographics">{{Cite report|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/SVEEP/Jammu%20&%20Kashmir19092014.pdf|title=Comprehensive SVEEP Plan of J&K State 2014|publisher=ECI|access-date=2016-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901145610/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main1/SVEEP/Jammu%20%26%20Kashmir19092014.pdf|archive-date=2018-09-01|url-status=dead}}</ref> The religion - Islam, came to the region with the influx of Muslim Sufis preachers from Central Asia and Persia, beginning in the early 14th century.<ref name="Spread of Islam in Kashmir">{{cite book | author= Sufi, G.M.D.| title=Kashir : being a history of Kashmir : from the earliest times to our own| url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=wikipedia&q=isbn%3A9788183392389| access-date=13 November 2016 |year=2015| publisher=Gulshan Books Kashmir, Srinagar, 2015| oclc= 924660438| pages=75–95}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Yatoo |first1=Altaf Hussain |title=The Islamization of Kashmir: A Study of MuslimMissionaries |date=2012 |publisher=GULSHAN BOOKS |location=Kashmir, India |isbn=978-8183391467}}</ref>  
{{Short description|none}} <!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! -->
Kashmiri Muslims are natives to the [[Kashmir Valley]]. The majority of Kashmiri Muslims are Sunni.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgbnmgEACAAJ&pg=PR20|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781849046220|pages=7|quote=As in Pakistan, Sunni Muslims comprise the majority population of Kashmir, whereas they are a minority in Jammu, while almost all Muslims in Ladakh are Shias.}}</ref> They refer to themselves as "Koshur" in their mother language.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|url=http://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/37337|title=Census of India, 1941|volume=Volume XXII|pages=9|quote=The Muslims living in the southern part of the Kashmir Province are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are usually designated Kashmiri Muslims; those of the Muzaffarabad District are partly Kashmiri Muslims, partly Gujjar and the rest are of the same stock as the tribes of the neighboring Punjab and North \Vest Frontier Province districts.|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMM-xRVr5qgC&pg=PA223&dq=kashmiris+are+native+to+kashmir+valley#q=kashmiris%20are%20native%20to%20kashmir%20valley|title=Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2001|isbn=9788176482363|quote=The Kashmiri Pandits are the precursors of Kashmiri Muslims who now form a majority in the valley of Kashmir...Whereas Kashmiri Pandits are of the same ethnic stock as the Kashmiri Muslims, both sharing their habitat, language, dress, food and other habits, Kashmiri Pandits form a constituent part of the Hindu society of India on the religious plane.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhasin|first1=M.K.|last2=Nag|first2=Shampa|year=2002|title=A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-13-0-000-000-2002-Web/JHE-13-1-2-001-02-Abst-PDF/JHE-13-1-2-001-02/JHE-13-1-2-001-055-02-Tt.pdf|journal=Journal of Human Ecology|publisher=Kamla-Raj Enterprises|pages=15|access-date=1 January 2017|quote=Thus the two population groups, Kashmiri Pandits and Kashmiri Muslims though at the time constituted ethnically homogenous population, came to differ from each other in faith and customs.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhasin|first1=M.K.|last2=Nag|first2=Shampa|year=2002|title=A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-13-0-000-000-2002-Web/JHE-13-1-2-001-02-Abst-PDF/JHE-13-1-2-001-02/JHE-13-1-2-001-055-02-Tt.pdf|journal=Journal of Human Ecology|pages=16|access-date=1 January 2017|quote=The Sheikhs,but,dar,lone are  descendants of Hindus and the pure Kashmiri Muslims, professing Sunni faith, the major part of the population of Srinagar district and the Kashmir state.}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Ahmed |first=Ishtiaq |title=State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czSm7cmhgA0C&pg=PA139 |year=1998 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-85567-578-0 |page=139}}</ref>
{{Distinguish|Kashmiri Muslims}}
Sometime back majority of the [[Kashmiri Muslims]] were of the Sunni religious persuasion, but now with rapid business influx makes Kashmiri Shias account for about and rapidly increasing.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020|reason=According to source above Sunni muslims are majority but this source make a claim which is bias and contradictory}} <ref name="Facts and Figures">{{cite book | author=Snedden, C.| title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris| url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=wikipedia&q=isbn%3A9788183392389| access-date=13 November 2016 |year=2015| publisher=Oxford University Press, 2015|isbn=9781849043427| page=148}}</ref> Non-Kashmiri Muslims in Kashmir include semi-nomadic cowherds and shepherds, belonging to the [[Gurjar]] and [[Bakarwal]] communities.<ref name="Facts and Figures"/>
{{Use British English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{infobox religious group
| group            = Kashmiri Muslims
| image            = Kashmiri Imam.jpg
| population      = <!--Must cite a reliable published source with a reputation for fact-checking. No blogs, no ethnic/religious sites.-->
| langs            = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Urdu]], [[English language|English]]
| rels            = [[Islam]] <br /> ([[Sunni]] majority) <br /> ([[Shia]] minority)}}
 
'''Islam''' is the majority religion practised in [[Kashmir]], with 97.16% of the region's population identifying as Muslims as of 2014.<ref name="Religious Demographics">{{Cite report|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/SVEEP/Jammu%20&%20Kashmir19092014.pdf|title=Comprehensive SVEEP Plan of J&K State 2014|publisher=ECI|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901145610/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main1/SVEEP/Jammu%20%26%20Kashmir19092014.pdf|archive-date=1 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The religion came to the region with the arrival of [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani]], a Muslim Sufi preacher from Central Asia and Persia, beginning in the early 14th century.<ref name="Spread of Islam in Kashmir">{{cite book | author= Sufi, G.M.D.| title=Kashir : being a history of Kashmir : from the earliest times to our own| url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=Bharatpedia&q=isbn%3A9788183392389| access-date=13 November 2016 |year=2015| publisher=Gulshan Books Kashmir, Srinagar, 2015| oclc= 924660438| pages=75–95}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Yatoo |first1=Altaf Hussain |title=The Islamization of Kashmir: A Study of MuslimMissionaries |date=2012 |publisher=GULSHAN BOOKS |location=Kashmir, India |isbn=978-8183391467}}</ref> The majority of [[Kashmiri Muslims]] are Sunni Muslims.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgbnmgEACAAJ&pg=PR20|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781849046220|pages=7|quote=As in Pakistan, Sunni Muslims comprise the majority population of Kashmir, whereas they are a minority in Jammu, while almost all Muslims in Ladakh are Shias.}}</ref>
 
They refer to themselves as "Koshur" in their mother language.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|url=http://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/37337|title=Census of India, 1941|volume=22|pages=9|quote=The Muslims living in the southern part of the Kashmir Province are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are usually designated Kashmiri Muslims; those of the Muzaffarabad District are partly Kashmiri Muslims, partly Gujjar and the rest are of the same stock as the tribes of the neighboring Punjab and North \Vest Frontier Province districts.|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMM-xRVr5qgC&dq=kashmiris+are+native+to+kashmir+valley&pg=PA223|title=Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2001|isbn=9788176482363|quote=The Kashmiri Pandits are the precursors of Kashmiri Muslims who now form a majority in the valley of Kashmir...Whereas Kashmiri Pandits are of the same ethnic stock as the Kashmiri Muslims, both sharing their habitat, language, dress, food and other habits, Kashmiri Pandits form a constituent part of the Hindu society of India on the religious plane.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhasin|first1=M.K.|last2=Nag|first2=Shampa|year=2002|title=A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-13-0-000-000-2002-Web/JHE-13-1-2-001-02-Abst-PDF/JHE-13-1-2-001-02/JHE-13-1-2-001-055-02-Tt.pdf|journal=Journal of Human Ecology|publisher=Kamla-Raj Enterprises|pages=15|access-date=1 January 2017|quote=Thus the two population groups, Kashmiri Pandits and Kashmiri Muslims though at the time constituted ethnically homogenous population, came to differ from each other in faith and customs.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhasin|first1=M.K.|last2=Nag|first2=Shampa|year=2002|title=A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-13-0-000-000-2002-Web/JHE-13-1-2-001-02-Abst-PDF/JHE-13-1-2-001-02/JHE-13-1-2-001-055-02-Tt.pdf|journal=Journal of Human Ecology|pages=16|access-date=1 January 2017|quote=The Sheikhs, but, dar, lone are  descendants of Hindus and the pure Kashmiri Muslims, professing Sunni faith, the major part of the population of Srinagar district and the Kashmir state.}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Ahmed |first=Ishtiaq |title=State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czSm7cmhgA0C&pg=PA139 |year=1998 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-85567-578-0 |page=139}}</ref><ref name="Facts and Figures">{{cite book | author=Snedden, C.| title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris| url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=Bharatpedia&q=isbn%3A9788183392389| access-date=13 November 2016 |year=2015| publisher=Oxford University Press, 2015|isbn=9781849043427| page=148}}</ref> Non-Kashmiri Muslims in Kashmir include semi-nomadic cowherds and shepherds, belonging to the [[Gurjar]] and [[Bakarwal]] communities.<ref name="Facts and Figures" />


== Historical development ==
== Historical development ==


===Early period of Islamic contact===
===Early period of Islamic contact===
During the 8th century, the '''Kingdom of Kashmir''' was subjected to several attacks aimed at its conquest. Several attempts to conquer Kashmir were made by the Arabs who had established themselves in Sindh (711-13 C.E), under the leadership of Muhammad bin Qasim. But Muhammad bin Qasim was recalled by the Umayyad Caliph to Damascus, thus averting the possible invasion.<ref name="History-A">{{cite book|author=Hasan, M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUlwmXjE9DQC|title=Kashmir Under the Sultans|publisher=Aakar Books, 1959|year=1959|isbn=8187879491|pages=29–30|access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref><ref name=" History-B">{{cite book | author=Sen, S.N| title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA293&lpg=PA293&dq=Raja+Chandrapida+kashmir#q=Raja%20Chandrapida%20kashmir| access-date=14 November 2016 |year=1999| publisher=New Age International, 1999|isbn=8122411983| pages=293–294}}</ref> In the reign of [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Caliph Hisham]] (724-43 C.E), the Arabs again marched towards Kashmir under the leadership of ambitious and energetic leadership of the governor Junaid. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] (724–60 CE), the Raja (ruler) of Kashmir, defeated Junaid and overran his kingdom. However, this victory was not decisive as further attempts to invade were made by the Arabs, but Lalitaditya was able to stem the tide of these advances.<ref name="History-A"/> A last attempt at the invasion of the Kashmir Kingdom was made by Hisham ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi, the Governor of Sindh, appointed by [[Al-Mansur|Caliph Mansur]] (754-75 C.E). Though he reached as far as the southern slopes of the Himalayas, which were a part of the Kashmir Kingdom, he failed to enter and occupy the valley.<ref name="History-A"/>
During the 8th century, the [[Karkota dynasty|Kingdom of Kashmir]] was subjected to several attacks aimed at its conquest. Several attempts to conquer Kashmir were made by the Arabs who had established themselves in Sindh (711-13 C.E), under the leadership of [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim|Muhammad bin Qasim]]. But Muhammad bin Qasim was recalled by the Umayyad Caliph to Damascus, thus averting the possible invasion.<ref name="History-A">{{cite book|author=Hasan, M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUlwmXjE9DQC|title=Kashmir Under the Sultans|publisher=Aakar Books, 1959|year=1959|isbn=8187879491|pages=29–30|access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref><ref name=" History-B">{{cite book | author=Sen, S.N| title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&dq=Raja+Chandrapida+kashmir&pg=PA293| access-date=14 November 2016 |year=1999| publisher=New Age International, 1999|isbn=8122411983| pages=293–294}}</ref> In the reign of [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Caliph Hisham]] (724-43 C.E), the Arabs again marched towards Kashmir under the leadership of ambitious and energetic leadership of the governor Junaid. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] (724–60 CE), the Raja (ruler) of Kashmir, defeated Junaid and overran his kingdom. However, this victory was not decisive as further attempts to invade were made by the Arabs, but Lalitaditya was able to stem the tide of these advances.<ref name="History-A"/> A last attempt at the invasion of the Kashmir Kingdom was made by Hisham ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi, the Governor of Sindh, appointed by [[Al-Mansur|Caliph Mansur]] (754-75 C.E). Though he reached as far as the southern slopes of the Himalayas, which were a part of the Kashmir Kingdom, he failed to enter and occupy the valley.<ref name="History-A"/>


After the Arabs, it was the [[Ghaznavids]] who attempted to conquer Kashmir. [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], defeated Raja [[Jayapala|Jaipal]] (1002 C.E), the ruler of Waihand (near Peshawar, in modern-day Pakistan).<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-C">{{cite book | last=Jaques |first=T| title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&pg=PA1089&dq=waihand#q=waihand| access-date=14 November 2016 |year=2007| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007|isbn=978-0313335396| page=1089}}</ref>[[Anandapala|Anandpal]], the son and successor of Jaipal, also suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Mahmud in 1009 C.E., and died a few years later. Anandpal's son Trilochanpala, whose power of influence was now confined only to the [[Salt Range]], appealed to Samgramaraja (1003-28 C.E), the king of Kashmir, for help against Mahmud. A large army contingent was sent by Samgramaraja, who joined Trilochanpala's forces, however their combined forces were defeated by Mahmud in 1014 C.E. Mahmud advanced towards Kashmir and tried entering the kingdom via the Toshamaidan Pass. His progress was checked by the strong Loharkot Fort, which he besieged for a month. Owing to the heavy snowfall, which cut off Mahmud's communications, he was compelled to retreat.<ref name="Spread of Islam in Kashmir"/><ref name="History-A"/> However, the Sultan again set out to invade Kashmir in September–October, 1021 C.E, but was again compelled to retreat due to bad weather conditions.<ref name="History-A"/>
After the Arabs, it was the [[Ghaznavids]] who attempted to conquer Kashmir. [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], defeated Raja [[Jayapala|Jaipal]] (1002 C.E), the ruler of [[Hindu Shahi]] (near Peshawar, in modern-day Pakistan).<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-C">{{cite book | last=Jaques |first=T| title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&dq=waihand&pg=PA1089| access-date=14 November 2016 |year=2007| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007|isbn=978-0313335396| page=1089}}</ref> [[Anandapala|Anandpal]], the son and successor of Jaipal, also suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Mahmud in 1009 C.E., and died a few years later. Anandpal's son Trilochanpala, whose power of influence was now confined only to the [[Salt Range]], appealed to [[Samgrāmarāja]] (1003–28 C.E), the king of Kashmir, for help against Mahmud. A large army contingent was sent by Samgramaraja, who joined Trilochanpala's forces, however their combined forces were defeated by Mahmud in 1014 C.E. Mahmud advanced towards Kashmir and tried entering the kingdom via the Toshamaidan Pass. His progress was checked by the strong Loharkot Fort, which he besieged for a month. Owing to the heavy snowfall, which cut off Mahmud's communications, he was compelled to retreat.<ref name="Spread of Islam in Kashmir"/><ref name="History-A"/> However, the Sultan again set out to invade Kashmir in September–October 1021 C.E, but was again compelled to retreat due to bad weather conditions.<ref name="History-A"/>


===Establishment of Muslim rule and conversion to Islam===
===Establishment of Muslim rule and conversion to Islam===
After Sultan Mahmud's attempted conquests to invade Kashmir, Kashmir remained generally unaffected and unchanged by invasions that were aimed at the plains of India, up until 1320 C.E. The [[Lohara dynasty|Loharas]] (1003-1320 C.E.) ruled during this period, and was the last of the Hindu dynasties of Kashmir. In the spring of 1320, a Turkistani chieftain by the name of Zulqadar Khan Turk (Zulcha Khan), invaded Kashmir via the Jhelum Valley route. Suhadeva (1301–20 C.E), last ruler of the Loharas, tried to organize resistance, but failed due to his unpopularity among the masses. The reason for this unpopularity was financial exaction and general misrule that prevailed during the end period of the Lohara Dynasty.<ref name="History-A"/> Zulcha Khan's invasion created havoc and Suhadeva fled to [[Kistwar]]. [[Rinchan]]a, son of a Ladakhi chief, who was employed by Ramacandra (Prime Minister of Kashmir) to establish law and order, took advantage of the chaos. He got Ramacandra murdered, occupied the Kashmir throne by the end of the year 1320, and ruled until his death in 1323 C.E. In order to gain acceptance of Kashmiris, he married [[Kota Rani]], the daughter of Ramacandra, and made Rawancandra (Ramacandra's son) his commander-in-chief.<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-D">{{cite book | author=Kaw, M. K. | title=Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA178&dq=lohara+dynasty#q=lohara%20dynasty| access-date=14 November 2016 |year=2004| publisher=APH Publishing, 2004|isbn=8176485373| pages=178–179}}</ref> Rinchen was a pseudo- Buddhist and wanted to get initiated into Brahmanism to strengthen his political base in the Kashmir valley. Since Shaivism was the popular religion at the time in the valley, Rinchen approached Devaswami, the religious head of the Shaivas, for initiation into the Hindu religion. Devaswami, after holding a secret meeting on the subject with prominent Kashmiri Pandits of the time, refused to accept Rinchen into Hinduism, because of Rinchen's low birth.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoC6GWr47QC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=kota+Rani+suhadev#q=kota%20Rani%20suhadev|title=Rinchen wanted Hinduism first;Explore Kashmiri Pandits book|isbn=9780963479860}}</ref> Rinchan converted to Islam after coming into contact with Sayyid Sharfudin, a Sufi preacher commonly known as Bulbul Shah, who had come to Kashmir during the reign of Suhadeva. He changed his name to Sultan Sardarudin Shah after converting to Islam and thus became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir.<ref name="History-A"/> Following the conversion of Rinchan, his commander in chief also became Muslim. The royal patronage for Islam won it new converts and according to one source, many Kashmiris embraced the creed of Bulbul Shah.<ref name="Spread of Islam in Kashmir"/><ref name="History-A"/>
After Sultan Mahmud's attempted conquests, Kashmir remained generally unaffected by invasions that were aimed at the plains of India, up until 1320 C.E. The [[Lohara dynasty|Loharas]] (1003–1320 C.E.) ruled during this period, and was the last of the Hindu dynasties of Kashmir. In the spring of 1320, a Mongol chieftain by the name of Zulju, invaded Kashmir via the Jhelum Valley route. Suhadeva (1301–20 C.E), last ruler of the Loharas, tried to organise resistance, but failed due to his unpopularity among the masses. The reason for this unpopularity was financial exaction and general misrule that prevailed during the end period of the Lohara Dynasty.<ref name="History-A"/> Zulju's invasion created havoc and Suhadeva fled to [[Kistwar]]. [[Rinchan]]a, son of a Ladakhi chief, who was employed by Ramachandra (Prime Minister of Kashmir) to establish law and order, took advantage of the chaos. He got Ramachandra murdered, occupied the Kashmir throne by the end of the year 1320, and ruled until his death in 1323 C.E. In order to gain acceptance of Kashmiris, he married [[Kota Rani]], the daughter of Ramachandra, and made Rawanchandra (Ramachandra's son) his commander-in-chief.<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-D">{{cite book |author=Kaw, M. K. |title=Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&dq=lohara+dynasty&pg=PA178 |year=2004 |publisher=APH Publishing, 2004|isbn=8176485373 |pages=178–179}}</ref>


The period after Sultan Sardarudin's death was marked by chaos and power tussle. Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was made the ruler after an agreement among the nobles. However, he proved to be incompetent, and it was Kota Rani who was the virtual ruler. Soon after Udayanadeva's accession, a foreign chieftain attacked Kashmir, but the invaders were successfully repelled and defeated. However, the administration again fell into chaos. Udayanadeva had fled the country in sight of the attack, and lost his prestige in the eyes of the nobles. He died in the year 1338 C.E, and Kota Rani ascended the throne.<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-D"/> But [[Shah Mir]], a nobleman employed earlier by Suhadeva, who had also kept the custody of the son of Rinchana and Kota Rani, had his own designs for power. Having married off his Muslim daughters to powerful Hindus of the kingdom and having had sons in positions of official power, he was able to put great political pressure under the queen. A period of battle ensued between him and Kota Rani. Fearing his political plots, she employed Bhikshana as her minister  disappointing Shah Mir. According to [[Jonaraja]], in his [[Rajatarangini]], Shah Mir feigned being ill with a fatal disease which prompted a sympathy visit by Bhikshana and his associate, both of whom were immediately ambushed and killed during the visit. In 1339 C.E, Shah Mir killed Kota Rani along with her sons and usurped the throne.<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-D"/><ref name=" History-E">{{cite book | author=Sufi, G.M.D.| title=Islamic culture in Kashmir|year=1979| publisher=New Delhi : Light & Life Publishers, 1979|oclc= 5750806| pages=32–48}}</ref>
[[Rinchan]] converted to Islam after coming into contact with Sayyid Sharfudin, a Sufi preacher commonly known as [[Bulbul Shah]], who had come to Kashmir during the reign of Suhadeva.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/elections/lok-sabha-election-2024/origins-of-islam-in-kashmir-valleys-saga-of-conflict-in-search-of-identity/cid/2019237|title=Origins of Islam in Kashmir: Valley's saga of conflict in search of identity}}</ref> He changed his name to Sultan Sardarudin Shah after converting to Islam and thus became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir.<ref name="History-A"/> Following the conversion of Rinchan, his commander in chief also became Muslim. The royal patronage for Islam won it new converts and according to one source, many Kashmiris embraced the creed of Bulbul Shah.<ref name="Spread of Islam in Kashmir"/><ref name="History-A"/>


The [[Shah Mir Dynasty|Shahmiri Dynasty]] (1339- 1561 C.E), founded by Sultan Shah Mir, ruled Kashmir for the next 222 years. Various Sufi saints including Bulbul Shah, Shah e Hamdan, Nund Rishi was prolific to spread Islam in the valley through their moderate Sufi ideologies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kashmir’s Composite Culture: Sufism & Communal Harmony - Kashmiriyat|url=https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/kashmir’s-composite-culture-sufism-and-communal-harmony-kashmiriyat/|access-date=2020-11-03|website=www.efsas.org|language=en}}</ref>
The period after Sultan Sardarudin's death was marked by chaos and power tussle. Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was made the ruler after an agreement among the nobles. However, he proved to be incompetent, and it was Kota Rani who was the virtual ruler. Soon after Udayanadeva's accession, a foreign chieftain attacked Kashmir, but the invaders were successfully repelled and defeated. However, the administration again fell into chaos. Udayanadeva had fled the country in sight of the attack, and lost his prestige in the eyes of the nobles. He died in the year 1338 C.E, and Kota Rani ascended the throne.<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-D"/> But, [[Shah Mir]], a nobleman employed earlier by Suhadeva, had other ambitions. A period of battle ensued between him and Kota Rani, and in 1339 C.E, Shah Mir captured the throne.<ref name="History-A"/><ref name=" History-D"/><ref name=" History-E">{{cite book |author=Sufi, G.M.D. |title=Islamic culture in Kashmir |year=1979 |publisher=New Delhi : Light & Life Publishers, 1979|oclc= 5750806 |pages=32–48}}</ref>


==Reign of Sikander Shah==
The [[Shah Mir Dynasty|Shahmiri Dynasty]] (1339- 1561 C.E), founded by Sultan Shah Mir, ruled Kashmir for the next 222 years. Various Sufi saints including Bulbul Shah, Shah e Hamdan, Nund Rishi popularised Islam in the valley through their moderate Sufi ideologies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kashmir's Composite Culture: Sufism & Communal Harmony – Kashmiriyat|url=https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/kashmir’s-composite-culture-sufism-and-communal-harmony-kashmiriyat/|access-date=3 November 2020|website=www.efsas.org|language=en}}</ref>
Sikandar is hold to have harbored in the Islamisation of elite politics, which set the path for a largely irreversible change in post-Sikandar Kashmir.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/543660|title=Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia|date=2019-08-19|publisher=De Gruyter|year=|isbn=978-3-11-063168-5|location=|pages=|language=en|chapter=Buddhism and Islam in Kashmir as Represented by Rājataraṅgiṇī Authors|doi=10.1515/9783110631685-006|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110631685/10.1515/9783110631685-006.xml}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KashmiriBrahmins.pdf|title=The Brahmins of Kashmir|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|publication-date=September 1991|pages=}}</ref>


His reign terminated the long-standing syncretic and tolerant culture of Kashmir, and in its rigorous abidance by Sharia, severely oppressed the Kashmiri Hindu population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aggarwal|first=Neil|date=2008-07-01|title=Kashmiriyat as Empty Signifier|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13698010802145150|journal=Interventions|volume=10|issue=2|pages=222–235|doi=10.1080/13698010802145150|issn=1369-801X}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=AHMAD|first=AZIZ|author-link=Aziz Ahmad (writer)|date=1979|title=CONVERSIONS TO ISLAM IN THE VALLEY OF KASHMIR|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41927246|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|volume=23|issue=1/2|pages=3–18|issn=0008-9192|via=}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Hasan|first=Mohibbul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUlwmXjE9DQC|title=Kashmīr Under the Sultāns|date=2005|publisher=Aakar Books|year=|isbn=978-81-87879-49-7|location=|pages=59–95|language=en|author-link=Mohibbul Hasan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|title=Brahma's Curse : Facets of Political and Social Violence  in Premodern Kashmir|publisher=|year=2019|isbn=978-3-86977-199-1|series=Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 13|location=|pages=5|chapter=A Glimpse into the Happy Valley’s Unhappy Past: Violence and Brahmin Warfare in Pre-Mughal Kashmir|chapter-url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl/?gr_elib-335}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KashmiriBrahmins.pdf|title=The Brahmins of Kashmir|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|publication-date=September 1991|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Accardi|first=Dean|title=Embedded Mystics: Writing Lal Ded and Nund Rishi into the Kashmiri Landscape|date=2017|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/kashmir/embedded-mystics-writing-lal-ded-and-nund-rishi-into-the-kashmiri-landscape/735710A78E357C6E9FCC59A6AD96403F|work=Kashmir: History, Politics, Representation|pages=247–264|editor-last=Zutshi|editor-first=Chitralekha|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-18197-7|access-date=2021-02-03}}</ref> Music, dance, gambling, intoxicants etc. were prohibited and the office of ''Shaikhu'l-Islam'' was established to enforce these rules.<ref name=":2" /> Brahmans were forcibly converted, Hindu and Buddhist shrines of worship were destroyed, Sanskrit literature were purged, ''[[Jizya]]'' was imposed for those who objected to the abolition of [[Varna (Hinduism)|hereditary ''varnas'']], and caste marks were prohibited.<ref name=":62"/><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|url=https://www.academia.edu/42709412/Brahm%C4%81_s_Curse_Facets_of_Political_and_Social_Violence_in_Premodern_Kashmir|title=Brahma's Curse : Facets of Political and Social Violence in Premodern Kashmir|publisher=|year=2019|isbn=978-3-86977-199-1|series=Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 13|location=|pages=30–40|chapter=What Does it Mean to Smash an Idol?  Iconoclasm in Medieval Kashmir as Reflected by Contemporaneous Sanskrit Sources}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|url=https://www.academia.edu/42710523/Kingship_in_Ka%C5%9Bm%C4%ABr_AD_1148_1459_From_the_Pen_of_Jonar%C4%81ja_Court_Pa%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dit_to_Sul%E1%B9%AD%C4%81n_Zayn_al_%C4%80bid%C4%ABn_Critically_Edited_By_Walter_Slaje_With_an_Annotated_Translation_Indexes_and_Maps|title=Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD 1148‒1459) From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-‛Ābidīn|publisher=|year=2014|isbn=3869770880|series=Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 7|location=Germany|pages=}}</ref>
==Reign of Sikander Shah Miri==
[[File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Ruins of the [[Martand Sun Temple]], razed by Sikandar.<ref name=":1" /> (The extensive damage seen in the photo is also a product of several earthquakes;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bilham|first=Roger|last2=Bali|first2=Bikram Singh|last3=Bhat|first3=M. Ismail|last4=Hough|first4=Susan|date=2010-10-01|title=Historical earthquakes in Srinagar, Kashmir: Clues from the Shiva Temple at Pandrethan|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.orghttps//pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/626/chapter/3805836/Historical-earthquakes-in-Srinagar-Kashmir-Clues|language=en|doi=10.1130/2010.2471(10)}}</ref> photo taken by John Burke in 1868.)]]
[[Sikandar Shah Miri]] is held to have ushered in the Islamisation of elite politics, which set the path for a largely irreversible change in post-Sikandar Kashmir.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/543660|title=Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia|date=19 August 2019|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-063168-5|location=|pages=128–160|language=en|chapter=Buddhism and Islam in Kashmir as Represented by Rājataraṅgiṇī Authors|doi=10.1515/9783110631685-006|s2cid=204477165|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110631685/10.1515/9783110631685-006.xml}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KashmiriBrahmins.pdf|title=The Brahmins of Kashmir|publisher=|isbn=|location=|publication-date=September 1991|pages=}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2024 |reason="Barely even mentions Sikandar, much less make any of the claims in the preceding sentence."}}


=== Motivations and Analysis ===
His reign, lasting from 1389–1413 CE, terminated the long-standing syncretic and tolerant culture of Kashmir, and in its rigorous abidance by Sharia, severely oppressed the Kashmiri Hindu population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aggarwal|first=Neil|date=1 July 2008|title=Kashmiriyat as Empty Signifier|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13698010802145150|journal=Interventions|volume=10|issue=2|pages=222–235|doi=10.1080/13698010802145150|s2cid=143912163|issn=1369-801X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2024 |reason="Paper only states that the Kashmiri Hindus claim Sikander was oppressive, without accepting this claim at face value; also, paper problematises the claim about the existence of a 'long-standing syncretic and tolerant culture of Kashmir'"}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=AHMAD|first=AZIZ|title=Conversions to Islam in the Valley of Kashmir|author-link=Aziz Ahmad (writer)|date=1979|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41927246|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|volume=23|issue=1/2|pages=3–18|jstor=41927246|issn=0008-9192|via=}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Hasan|first=Mohibbul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUlwmXjE9DQC|title=Kashmīr Under the Sultāns|date=2005|publisher=Aakar Books|isbn=978-81-87879-49-7|location=|pages=59–95|language=en|author-link=Mohibbul Hasan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|title=Brahma's Curse : Facets of Political and Social Violence in Premodern Kashmir|publisher=|year=2019|isbn=978-3-86977-199-1|series=Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 13|location=|pages=5|chapter=A Glimpse into the Happy Valley’s Unhappy Past: Violence and Brahmin Warfare in Pre-Mughal Kashmir|chapter-url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl/?gr_elib-335}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KashmiriBrahmins.pdf|title=The Brahmins of Kashmir|publisher=|isbn=|location=|publication-date=September 1991|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Accardi|first=Dean|title=Embedded Mystics: Writing Lal Ded and Nund Rishi into the Kashmiri Landscape|date=2017|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/kashmir/embedded-mystics-writing-lal-ded-and-nund-rishi-into-the-kashmiri-landscape/735710A78E357C6E9FCC59A6AD96403F|work=Kashmir: History, Politics, Representation|pages=247–264|editor-last=Zutshi|editor-first=Chitralekha|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-18197-7|access-date=3 February 2021}}</ref> Music, dance, gambling, intoxicants etc were prohibited and the office of ''Shaikhu'l-Islam'' was established to enforce these rules.<ref name=":2" /> Brahmans were forcibly converted, Hindu and Buddhist shrines of worship were destroyed, Sanskrit literature were purged, ''[[Jizya]]'' was imposed for those who objected to the abolition of [[Varna (Hinduism)|hereditary ''varnas'']], and caste marks were prohibited.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":62"/><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|url=https://www.academia.edu/42709412|title=Brahma's Curse : Facets of Political and Social Violence in Premodern Kashmir|publisher=|year=2019|isbn=978-3-86977-199-1|series=Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 13|location=|pages=30–40|chapter=What Does it Mean to Smash an Idol? Iconoclasm in Medieval Kashmir as Reflected by Contemporaneous Sanskrit Sources}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Slaje|first=Walter|url=https://www.academia.edu/42710523|title=Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD 1148‒1459) From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-'Ābidīn|publisher=|year=2014|isbn=978-3869770888|series=Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 7|location=Germany|pages=}}</ref>
Upon a literary reading of Rajatarangini, Sikandar's zeal behind the Islamisation of society is attributable to a Sufi preacher [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani|Mir Muhammad Hamadani]] who arrived in the region from Huttalàn (present-day Tajikistan) and stayed for about 12 years during his term, advocating for the creation of a monolithic society based on Islam as the common denominator.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Ogura|first=Satoshi|date=2015|title=INCOMPATIBLE OUTSIDERS OR BELIEVERS OF A DARŚANA?: REPRESENTATIONS OF MUSLIMS BY THREE BRAHMANS OF ŠĀHMĪRID KAŠMĪR|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24754113|journal=Rivista degli studi orientali|volume=88|issue=1/4|pages=179–211|doi=10.2307/24754113|issn=0392-4866}}</ref> Sikandar's counsel, a neo-Brahman-convert, Suhabhatta (var. Saifuddin) is held to have played the guiding role in the execution of those exclusionary orthodox policies by "instigating" the Sultan.<ref name=":62"/><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":9" />{{Efn|Suhabhatta's daughter was also married off to Mir Hamadani.|name=|group=}} Baharistan-i-shahi as well as Tohfatu'l-Ahbab deemed Sikandar as the noblest ruler, who cleaned Kashmir of all heretics and infidels on Hamadani's influence.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last=Zutshi|first=Chitralekha|title=Kashmir's Contested Pasts : Narratives, Sacred Geographies, and the Historical Imagination|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199450671|location=|pages=|chapter=Garden of Solomon : Landscape and Sacred Pasts in Kashmir’s Sixteenth-Century Persian Narratives|chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199450671.001.0001/acprof-9780199450671-chapter-2}}</ref>
[[File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Ruins of the [[Martand Sun Temple]], razed by Sikandar.<ref name=":1" /> (The extensive damage seen in the photo is also a product of several earthquakes;<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bilham|first1=Roger|last2=Bali|first2=Bikram Singh|last3=Bhat|first3=M. Ismail|last4=Hough|first4=Susan|title=Ancient Earthquakes|date=1 October 2010|chapter=Historical earthquakes in Srinagar, Kashmir: Clues from the Shiva Temple at Pandrethan|chapter-url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.orghttps//pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/626/chapter/3805836/Historical-earthquakes-in-Srinagar-Kashmir-Clues|language=en|doi=10.1130/2010.2471(10)|isbn=9780813724713}}</ref> photo taken by John Burke in 1868.)]]


[[Chitralekha Zutshi]], [[Richard G. Salomon (academic)|Richard G. Salomon]] and others however reject that there were purely religious motives behind Sikandar's actions and calls for a nuanced contextual reading of Rajatarangini, in that it was commissioned by his successor, wishing to bring back the Brahminical elite into the royal fold and (simultaneously) strove to establish Sanskrit as an integral part of the vernacularizing world of the cosmopolitan Sultanate.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Zutshi|first=Chitralekha|title=This book claims to expose the myths behind Kashmir’s history. It exposes its own biases instead|url=https://scroll.in/article/855050/this-book-claims-to-expose-the-myths-behind-kashmirs-history-it-exposes-its-own-biases-instead|access-date=2021-02-01|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite thesis|last=Obrock|first=Luther James|title=Translation and History: The Development of a Kashmiri Textual Tradition from ca. 1000-1500|date=2015|degree=|publisher=UC Berkeley|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/68q7m3vv|doi=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Salomon|first=Richard|last2=Slaje|first2=Walter|date=2016|title=Review of Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD1148–1459). From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn. Critically Edited by Walter Slaje with an Annotated Translation, Indexes and Maps. [Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis 7], SlajeWalter|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26546259|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal|volume=59|issue=4|pages=393–401|doi=10.2307/26546259|issn=0019-7246}}</ref> Sikandar's policies were guided by realpolitik<ref name=":8" /> and, like with the previous Hindu rulers, essentially an attempt to secure political legitimacy by asserting state-power over Brahmans and gaining access to wealth controlled by Brahminical institutions.<ref name=":3" /> [[Walter Slaje]] disagrees, in part, given the differential rituals of destruction undertaken by Hindu and Muslim kings with the latter specifically rendering sites inoperable for long passage of time by massive pollution or outright conversion but he concludes that the fierce opposition of Hindus to Muslim rulers (including Sikandar) primarily stemmed from their aversion to the slow disintegration of [[Caste system in India|caste-society]] under Islamic influence.<ref name=":62"/><ref name=":1" />
=== Motivations and analysis ===
Upon a literary reading of [[Rajatarangini]], Sikandar's zeal behind the Islamisation of society is attributable to a Sufi preacher [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani|Mir Muhammad Hamadani]] (or Sayyid Hamadani) who arrived in the region from Huttalàn (present-day Tajikistan) and stayed for about 12 years during his term, advocating for the creation of a monolithic society based on Islam as the common denominator.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Ogura|first=Satoshi|date=2015|title=INCOMPATIBLE OUTSIDERS OR BELIEVERS OF A DARŚANA?: REPRESENTATIONS OF MUSLIMS BY THREE BRAHMANS OF ŠĀHMĪRID KAŠMĪR|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24754113|journal=Rivista degli studi orientali|volume=88|issue=1/4|pages=179–211|doi=|jstor=24754113|issn=0392-4866}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Sayyid Hamadani was one of exiles driven out by [[Amir Temur]]. He was accompanied by about 700 of his followers to Kashmir. Sikandar's counsel, a neo-Brahman-convert, Suhabhatta (var. Saifuddin) is held to have played the guiding role in the execution of those exclusionary orthodox policies by "instigating" the Sultan.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":62"/><ref name=":9" />{{Efn|Suhabhatta's daughter was also married off to Mir Hamadani.|name=|group=}} Baharistan-i-shahi as well as Tohfatu'l-Ahbab deemed Sikandar as the noblest ruler, who cleaned Kashmir of "infidels and heretics" on Hamadani's influence.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last=Zutshi|first=Chitralekha|title=Kashmir's Contested Pasts : Narratives, Sacred Geographies, and the Historical Imagination|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199450671|location=|pages=|chapter=Garden of Solomon : Landscape and Sacred Pasts in Kashmir’s Sixteenth-Century Persian Narratives|chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199450671.001.0001/acprof-9780199450671-chapter-2}}</ref>


Fringe revisionist scholars reject the narratives of persecution all-together, and allege the "Brahman" chroniclers of wanton bias as well as myth-making, stemming from their personal jealousy at losing socioeconomic dominance.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" />
[[Chitralekha Zutshi]], [[Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|Richard G. Salomon]] and others however reject that there were purely religious motives behind Sikandar's actions and calls for a nuanced contextual reading of Rajatarangini, in that it was commissioned by his successor, wishing to bring back the Brahminical elite into the royal fold and (simultaneously) strove to establish Sanskrit as an integral part of the vernacularising world of the cosmopolitan Sultanate.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Zutshi|first=Chitralekha|title=This book claims to expose the myths behind Kashmir's history. It exposes its own biases instead|url=https://scroll.in/article/855050/this-book-claims-to-expose-the-myths-behind-kashmirs-history-it-exposes-its-own-biases-instead|access-date=1 February 2021|website=Scroll.in|date=24 October 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite thesis|last=Obrock|first=Luther James|title=Translation and History: The Development of a Kashmiri Textual Tradition from ca. 1000–1500|date=2015|degree=|publisher=UC Berkeley|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/68q7m3vv|doi=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Salomon|first1=Richard|last2=Slaje|first2=Walter|date=2016|title=Review of Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD1148–1459). From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn. Critically Edited by Walter Slaje with an Annotated Translation, Indexes and Maps. [Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis 7], SlajeWalter|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26546259|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal|volume=59|issue=4|pages=393–401|doi=10.1163/15728536-05903009|jstor=26546259|issn=0019-7246|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Sikandar's policies were guided by realpolitik<ref name=":8" /> and, like with the previous Hindu rulers, essentially an attempt to secure political legitimacy by asserting state-power over Brahmans and gaining access to wealth controlled by Brahminical institutions.<ref name=":3" /> [[Walter Slaje]] disagrees, in part, given the differential rituals of destruction undertaken by Hindu and Muslim kings with the latter specifically rendering sites inoperable for long passage of time by massive pollution or outright conversion but he concludes that the fierce opposition of Hindus to Muslim rulers (including Sikandar) primarily stemmed from their aversion to the slow disintegration of [[Caste system in India|caste-society]] under Islamic influence.<ref name=":62"/><ref name=":1" />


==Notes==
==Notes==
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==Further reading==
==Further reading==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{citation |last1=Baloch |first1=N. A. |last2=Rafiq |first2=A. Q. |chapter=The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir |editor1=M. S. Asimov |editor2=C. E. Bosworth |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, Part 1 — The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century — The historical, social and economic setting |chapter-url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20regions%20of%20sind,%20baluchistan,%20multan%20and%20kashmir.pdf |date=1998 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |pages=297–322}}
* {{citation |last1=Baloch |first1=N. A. |last2=Rafiq |first2=A. Q. |chapter=The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir |editor1=M. S. Asimov |editor2=C. E. Bosworth |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, Part 1 — The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century — The historical, social and economic setting |chapter-url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20regions%20of%20sind,%20baluchistan,%20multan%20and%20kashmir.pdf |date=1998 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |pages=297–322}}
* {{citation |last=Bamzai |first=Prithivi Nath Kaul |author-link=Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai |title=Culture and Political History of Kashmir: Medieval Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4ZuAAAAMAAJ |year=1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications |isbn=978-81-85880-33-4 |ref={{sfnref |Bamzai, Culture and Political History of Kashmir |1994}}}}
* {{citation |last=Bamzai |first=Prithivi Nath Kaul |author-link=Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai |title=Culture and Political History of Kashmir: Medieval Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4ZuAAAAMAAJ |year=1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications |isbn=978-81-85880-33-4 |ref={{sfnref |Bamzai, Culture and Political History of Kashmir |1994}}}}
* {{citation |last=Chawla |first=Muhammad Iqbal |title=Role of the Majlis-i-Ahrar Islam in the Kashmir Movement of 1931 |journal=Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies |volume=3 |number=2 |year=2011 |pages=82–102 |url=http://www.pakistaniaat.org/~doltala/index.php/pak/article/view/124}}.
* {{citation |last=Chawla |first=Muhammad Iqbal |title=Role of the Majlis-i-Ahrar Islam in the Kashmir Movement of 1931 |journal=Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies |volume=3 |number=2 |year=2011 |pages=82–102 |url=http://www.pakistaniaat.org/~doltala/index.php/pak/article/view/124 |access-date=13 November 2016 |archive-date=14 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114005732/http://www.pakistaniaat.org/~doltala/index.php/pak/article/view/124 |url-status=dead }}.
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=Islam and Political Mobilization in Kashmir, 1931-34 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=54 |number=2 |date=1981 |pages=228–259 |doi=10.2307/2757363 |jstor=2757363}}
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=Islam and Political Mobilization in Kashmir, 1931–34 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=54 |number=2 |date=1981 |pages=228–259 |doi=10.2307/2757363 |jstor=2757363}}
* {{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal|title=Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA482 |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-59937-0 |pages=482–  |ref={{sfnref |Jalal, Self and Sovereignty |2002}}}}
* {{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal|title=Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA482 |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-59937-0 |pages=482–  |ref={{sfnref |Jalal, Self and Sovereignty |2002}}}}
* {{citation |title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir |first=Mridu |last=Rai | publisher=C. Hurst & Co |year=2004 |isbn=1850656614 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTHTI-Eus8kC |ref={{sfnref|Mridu Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004}}}}
* {{citation |title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir |first=Mridu |last=Rai | publisher=C. Hurst & Co |year=2004 |isbn=1850656614 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTHTI-Eus8kC |ref={{sfnref|Mridu Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004}}}}
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[[Category:Islam in Kashmir| ]]
[[Category:Islam in Kashmir| ]]
[[Category:History of Islam]]
[[Category:Kashmiri culture]]
[[Category:Kashmiri culture]]

Latest revision as of 10:12, 6 March 2026


Not to be confused with Kashmiri Muslims.

Kashmiri Muslims
Religions
Islam
(Sunni majority)
(Shia minority)
Languages
Kashmiri, Urdu, English

Islam is the majority religion practised in Kashmir, with 97.16% of the region's population identifying as Muslims as of 2014.[1] The religion came to the region with the arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, a Muslim Sufi preacher from Central Asia and Persia, beginning in the early 14th century.[2][3] The majority of Kashmiri Muslims are Sunni Muslims.[4]

They refer to themselves as "Koshur" in their mother language.[5][6][7][8][9][10] Non-Kashmiri Muslims in Kashmir include semi-nomadic cowherds and shepherds, belonging to the Gurjar and Bakarwal communities.[10]

Historical development[edit | edit source]

Early period of Islamic contact[edit | edit source]

During the 8th century, the Kingdom of Kashmir was subjected to several attacks aimed at its conquest. Several attempts to conquer Kashmir were made by the Arabs who had established themselves in Sindh (711-13 C.E), under the leadership of Muhammad bin Qasim. But Muhammad bin Qasim was recalled by the Umayyad Caliph to Damascus, thus averting the possible invasion.[11][12] In the reign of Caliph Hisham (724-43 C.E), the Arabs again marched towards Kashmir under the leadership of ambitious and energetic leadership of the governor Junaid. Lalitaditya Muktapida (724–60 CE), the Raja (ruler) of Kashmir, defeated Junaid and overran his kingdom. However, this victory was not decisive as further attempts to invade were made by the Arabs, but Lalitaditya was able to stem the tide of these advances.[11] A last attempt at the invasion of the Kashmir Kingdom was made by Hisham ibn 'Amr al-Taghlibi, the Governor of Sindh, appointed by Caliph Mansur (754-75 C.E). Though he reached as far as the southern slopes of the Himalayas, which were a part of the Kashmir Kingdom, he failed to enter and occupy the valley.[11]

After the Arabs, it was the Ghaznavids who attempted to conquer Kashmir. Mahmud of Ghazni, defeated Raja Jaipal (1002 C.E), the ruler of Hindu Shahi (near Peshawar, in modern-day Pakistan).[11][13] Anandpal, the son and successor of Jaipal, also suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Mahmud in 1009 C.E., and died a few years later. Anandpal's son Trilochanpala, whose power of influence was now confined only to the Salt Range, appealed to Samgrāmarāja (1003–28 C.E), the king of Kashmir, for help against Mahmud. A large army contingent was sent by Samgramaraja, who joined Trilochanpala's forces, however their combined forces were defeated by Mahmud in 1014 C.E. Mahmud advanced towards Kashmir and tried entering the kingdom via the Toshamaidan Pass. His progress was checked by the strong Loharkot Fort, which he besieged for a month. Owing to the heavy snowfall, which cut off Mahmud's communications, he was compelled to retreat.[2][11] However, the Sultan again set out to invade Kashmir in September–October 1021 C.E, but was again compelled to retreat due to bad weather conditions.[11]

Establishment of Muslim rule and conversion to Islam[edit | edit source]

After Sultan Mahmud's attempted conquests, Kashmir remained generally unaffected by invasions that were aimed at the plains of India, up until 1320 C.E. The Loharas (1003–1320 C.E.) ruled during this period, and was the last of the Hindu dynasties of Kashmir. In the spring of 1320, a Mongol chieftain by the name of Zulju, invaded Kashmir via the Jhelum Valley route. Suhadeva (1301–20 C.E), last ruler of the Loharas, tried to organise resistance, but failed due to his unpopularity among the masses. The reason for this unpopularity was financial exaction and general misrule that prevailed during the end period of the Lohara Dynasty.[11] Zulju's invasion created havoc and Suhadeva fled to Kistwar. Rinchana, son of a Ladakhi chief, who was employed by Ramachandra (Prime Minister of Kashmir) to establish law and order, took advantage of the chaos. He got Ramachandra murdered, occupied the Kashmir throne by the end of the year 1320, and ruled until his death in 1323 C.E. In order to gain acceptance of Kashmiris, he married Kota Rani, the daughter of Ramachandra, and made Rawanchandra (Ramachandra's son) his commander-in-chief.[11][14]

Rinchan converted to Islam after coming into contact with Sayyid Sharfudin, a Sufi preacher commonly known as Bulbul Shah, who had come to Kashmir during the reign of Suhadeva.[15] He changed his name to Sultan Sardarudin Shah after converting to Islam and thus became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir.[11] Following the conversion of Rinchan, his commander in chief also became Muslim. The royal patronage for Islam won it new converts and according to one source, many Kashmiris embraced the creed of Bulbul Shah.[2][11]

The period after Sultan Sardarudin's death was marked by chaos and power tussle. Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was made the ruler after an agreement among the nobles. However, he proved to be incompetent, and it was Kota Rani who was the virtual ruler. Soon after Udayanadeva's accession, a foreign chieftain attacked Kashmir, but the invaders were successfully repelled and defeated. However, the administration again fell into chaos. Udayanadeva had fled the country in sight of the attack, and lost his prestige in the eyes of the nobles. He died in the year 1338 C.E, and Kota Rani ascended the throne.[11][14] But, Shah Mir, a nobleman employed earlier by Suhadeva, had other ambitions. A period of battle ensued between him and Kota Rani, and in 1339 C.E, Shah Mir captured the throne.[11][14][16]

The Shahmiri Dynasty (1339- 1561 C.E), founded by Sultan Shah Mir, ruled Kashmir for the next 222 years. Various Sufi saints including Bulbul Shah, Shah e Hamdan, Nund Rishi popularised Islam in the valley through their moderate Sufi ideologies.[17]

Reign of Sikander Shah Miri[edit | edit source]

Sikandar Shah Miri is held to have ushered in the Islamisation of elite politics, which set the path for a largely irreversible change in post-Sikandar Kashmir.[18][19][failed verification]

His reign, lasting from 1389–1413 CE, terminated the long-standing syncretic and tolerant culture of Kashmir, and in its rigorous abidance by Sharia, severely oppressed the Kashmiri Hindu population.[20][failed verification][21][22][23][24][25] Music, dance, gambling, intoxicants etc were prohibited and the office of Shaikhu'l-Islam was established to enforce these rules.[22] Brahmans were forcibly converted, Hindu and Buddhist shrines of worship were destroyed, Sanskrit literature were purged, Jizya was imposed for those who objected to the abolition of hereditary varnas, and caste marks were prohibited.[22][21][18][26][27]

Ruins of the Martand Sun Temple, razed by Sikandar.[26] (The extensive damage seen in the photo is also a product of several earthquakes;[28] photo taken by John Burke in 1868.)

Motivations and analysis[edit | edit source]

Upon a literary reading of Rajatarangini, Sikandar's zeal behind the Islamisation of society is attributable to a Sufi preacher Mir Muhammad Hamadani (or Sayyid Hamadani) who arrived in the region from Huttalàn (present-day Tajikistan) and stayed for about 12 years during his term, advocating for the creation of a monolithic society based on Islam as the common denominator.[29][21][26] Sayyid Hamadani was one of exiles driven out by Amir Temur. He was accompanied by about 700 of his followers to Kashmir. Sikandar's counsel, a neo-Brahman-convert, Suhabhatta (var. Saifuddin) is held to have played the guiding role in the execution of those exclusionary orthodox policies by "instigating" the Sultan.[21][18][27][lower-alpha 1] Baharistan-i-shahi as well as Tohfatu'l-Ahbab deemed Sikandar as the noblest ruler, who cleaned Kashmir of "infidels and heretics" on Hamadani's influence.[27][30]

Chitralekha Zutshi, Richard G. Salomon and others however reject that there were purely religious motives behind Sikandar's actions and calls for a nuanced contextual reading of Rajatarangini, in that it was commissioned by his successor, wishing to bring back the Brahminical elite into the royal fold and (simultaneously) strove to establish Sanskrit as an integral part of the vernacularising world of the cosmopolitan Sultanate.[31][32][33] Sikandar's policies were guided by realpolitik[33] and, like with the previous Hindu rulers, essentially an attempt to secure political legitimacy by asserting state-power over Brahmans and gaining access to wealth controlled by Brahminical institutions.[31] Walter Slaje disagrees, in part, given the differential rituals of destruction undertaken by Hindu and Muslim kings with the latter specifically rendering sites inoperable for long passage of time by massive pollution or outright conversion but he concludes that the fierce opposition of Hindus to Muslim rulers (including Sikandar) primarily stemmed from their aversion to the slow disintegration of caste-society under Islamic influence.[18][26]

Notes[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Suhabhatta's daughter was also married off to Mir Hamadani.

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Comprehensive SVEEP Plan of J&K State 2014 (PDF) (Report). ECI. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Sufi, G.M.D. (2015). Kashir : being a history of Kashmir : from the earliest times to our own. Gulshan Books Kashmir, Srinagar, 2015. pp. 75–95. OCLC 924660438. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  3. ↑ Yatoo, Altaf Hussain (2012). The Islamization of Kashmir: A Study of MuslimMissionaries. Kashmir, India: GULSHAN BOOKS. ISBN 978-8183391467.
  4. ↑ Snedden, Christopher (2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 9781849046220. As in Pakistan, Sunni Muslims comprise the majority population of Kashmir, whereas they are a minority in Jammu, while almost all Muslims in Ladakh are Shias.
  5. ↑ Census of India, 1941. Vol. 22. p. 9. Retrieved 30 December 2016. The Muslims living in the southern part of the Kashmir Province are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are usually designated Kashmiri Muslims; those of the Muzaffarabad District are partly Kashmiri Muslims, partly Gujjar and the rest are of the same stock as the tribes of the neighboring Punjab and North \Vest Frontier Province districts.
  6. ↑ Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future. APH Publishing. 2001. ISBN 9788176482363. The Kashmiri Pandits are the precursors of Kashmiri Muslims who now form a majority in the valley of Kashmir...Whereas Kashmiri Pandits are of the same ethnic stock as the Kashmiri Muslims, both sharing their habitat, language, dress, food and other habits, Kashmiri Pandits form a constituent part of the Hindu society of India on the religious plane.
  7. ↑ Bhasin, M.K.; Nag, Shampa (2002). "A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Journal of Human Ecology. Kamla-Raj Enterprises: 15. Retrieved 1 January 2017. Thus the two population groups, Kashmiri Pandits and Kashmiri Muslims though at the time constituted ethnically homogenous population, came to differ from each other in faith and customs.
  8. ↑ Bhasin, M.K.; Nag, Shampa (2002). "A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Journal of Human Ecology: 16. Retrieved 1 January 2017. The Sheikhs, but, dar, lone are descendants of Hindus and the pure Kashmiri Muslims, professing Sunni faith, the major part of the population of Srinagar district and the Kashmir state.
  9. ↑ Ahmed, Ishtiaq (1998), State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia, A&C Black, p. 139, ISBN 978-1-85567-578-0
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Snedden, C. (2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Oxford University Press, 2015. p. 148. ISBN 9781849043427. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 Hasan, M. (1959). Kashmir Under the Sultans. Aakar Books, 1959. pp. 29–30. ISBN 8187879491. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  12. ↑ Sen, S.N (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International, 1999. pp. 293–294. ISBN 8122411983. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  13. ↑ Jaques, T (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. p. 1089. ISBN 978-0313335396. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Kaw, M. K. (2004). Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. APH Publishing, 2004. pp. 178–179. ISBN 8176485373.
  15. ↑ "Origins of Islam in Kashmir: Valley's saga of conflict in search of identity".
  16. ↑ Sufi, G.M.D. (1979). Islamic culture in Kashmir. New Delhi : Light & Life Publishers, 1979. pp. 32–48. OCLC 5750806.
  17. ↑ "Kashmir's Composite Culture: Sufism & Communal Harmony – Kashmiriyat". www.efsas.org. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Slaje, Walter (19 August 2019). "Buddhism and Islam in Kashmir as Represented by Rājataraṅgiṇī Authors". Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 128–160. doi:10.1515/9783110631685-006. ISBN 978-3-11-063168-5. S2CID 204477165.
  19. ↑ Witzel, Michael (September 1991). The Brahmins of Kashmir (PDF).
  20. ↑ Aggarwal, Neil (1 July 2008). "Kashmiriyat as Empty Signifier". Interventions. 10 (2): 222–235. doi:10.1080/13698010802145150. ISSN 1369-801X. S2CID 143912163.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 AHMAD, AZIZ (1979). "Conversions to Islam in the Valley of Kashmir". Central Asiatic Journal. 23 (1/2): 3–18. ISSN 0008-9192. JSTOR 41927246.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). Kashmīr Under the Sultāns. Aakar Books. pp. 59–95. ISBN 978-81-87879-49-7.
  23. ↑ Slaje, Walter (2019). "A Glimpse into the Happy Valley's Unhappy Past: Violence and Brahmin Warfare in Pre-Mughal Kashmir". Brahma's Curse : Facets of Political and Social Violence in Premodern Kashmir. Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 13. p. 5. ISBN 978-3-86977-199-1.
  24. ↑ Witzel, Michael (September 1991). The Brahmins of Kashmir (PDF).
  25. ↑ Accardi, Dean (2017), Zutshi, Chitralekha (ed.), "Embedded Mystics: Writing Lal Ded and Nund Rishi into the Kashmiri Landscape", Kashmir: History, Politics, Representation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–264, ISBN 978-1-107-18197-7, retrieved 3 February 2021{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Slaje, Walter (2019). "What Does it Mean to Smash an Idol? Iconoclasm in Medieval Kashmir as Reflected by Contemporaneous Sanskrit Sources". Brahma's Curse : Facets of Political and Social Violence in Premodern Kashmir. Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 13. pp. 30–40. ISBN 978-3-86977-199-1.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Slaje, Walter (2014). Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD 1148‒1459) From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-'Ābidīn. Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis - 7. Germany. ISBN 978-3869770888.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ↑ Bilham, Roger; Bali, Bikram Singh; Bhat, M. Ismail; Hough, Susan (1 October 2010). "Historical earthquakes in Srinagar, Kashmir: Clues from the Shiva Temple at Pandrethan". Ancient Earthquakes. doi:10.1130/2010.2471(10). ISBN 9780813724713.
  29. ↑ Ogura, Satoshi (2015). "INCOMPATIBLE OUTSIDERS OR BELIEVERS OF A DARŚANA?: REPRESENTATIONS OF MUSLIMS BY THREE BRAHMANS OF ŠĀHMĪRID KAŠMĪR". Rivista degli studi orientali. 88 (1/4): 179–211. ISSN 0392-4866. JSTOR 24754113.
  30. ↑ Zutshi, Chitralekha (2014). "Garden of Solomon : Landscape and Sacred Pasts in Kashmir's Sixteenth-Century Persian Narratives". Kashmir's Contested Pasts : Narratives, Sacred Geographies, and the Historical Imagination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199450671.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Zutshi, Chitralekha (24 October 2017). "This book claims to expose the myths behind Kashmir's history. It exposes its own biases instead". Scroll.in. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  32. ↑ Obrock, Luther James (2015). Translation and History: The Development of a Kashmiri Textual Tradition from ca. 1000–1500 (Thesis). UC Berkeley.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Salomon, Richard; Slaje, Walter (2016). "Review of Kingship in Kaśmīr (AD1148–1459). From the Pen of Jonarāja, Court Paṇḍit to Sulṭān Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn. Critically Edited by Walter Slaje with an Annotated Translation, Indexes and Maps. [Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis 7], SlajeWalter". Indo-Iranian Journal. 59 (4): 393–401. doi:10.1163/15728536-05903009. ISSN 0019-7246. JSTOR 26546259.

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